VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAUM

WORD NOTES

(MODULE 1-5)

III-SEMESTER

Mrs. Pooja D
Asst Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R)
)NH - 66, Kottara Chowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006
 A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MANGALORE
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession and

competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

M1- To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value Education and make the

students socially responsible.

M2- To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in both faculty and

students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge base.

M3- To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective industry-institute

partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.

M4- To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the engineering
professionals.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To produce competent and professional civil engineers with academic excellence and ethics to meet

societal challenges at global level.

 MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

M1: To impart students with strong theoretical and practical skills through the state-of-the-art concepts

and fundamentals of various civil engineering subjects.

M2: To prepare the students to be competent and skilled enough to take up the challenges in research to

meet the ever-changing needs of society and to continue learning.

M3: To promote active learning, critical thinking, industry - institute collaborative activities and

contribute to social development with ethical conduct.

M4: To nurture innovative ideas and develop entrepreneurial attitude among the engineering professionals.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Graduates will be able to:

PEO1: Apply concepts of interdisciplinary sciences and technology to solve any civil engineering problem.

PEO2: Execute civil engineering projects effectively by addressing the ever-changing needs of society and

aim for continuous improvement.

PEO3: Competent enough to pursue higher studies and also to monitor and manage the research project with

the effective utilization of resources to suit the needs and face the challenges involved to meet the global

demands.

A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MANGALORE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Program Outcomes (PO's)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and
an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design

system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information
to provide valid conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding
of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse

teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1: Should be able to understand the various domain concepts of civil engineering and execute the

projects effectively.
PSO2: Demonstrate competency in the technical community and arrive at sustainable solutions to the real
world problems.
PSO3: Take up challenging roles by focusing on a systematic approach
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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAUM

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(Subject Code: BCV303)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-1)
III-SEMESTER

Ms. Pooja D
Assistant Professor

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))

NH - 66, KottaraChowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006
 SYLLABUS

Introduction, the scope of earth science in Engineering.

Earth’s internal structure and composition,

Internal dynamics and Plate tectonics,
Earthquakes- types, causes,
Iso-seismic lines,
Seismic zonation,
Seismic proof structures.
Volcanic eruption -types, causes.
Landslides-causes types, preventive measures;
Tsunami – causes, consequences, mitigation.
Cyclones - causes and management.

INTRODUCTION

Geology is the science which deals with the study of the earth as a planet, it also includes the
study of various physical, dynamic and physio chemical processes operating on or within the
earth.
The scope of Engineering geology is best studies with reference to major activities of the
profession of a civil engineer in civil projects like construction, water resource development,
town and regional planning.

Application of Earth Science in Civil Engineering Practices

The engineering geologist has to observe and record geological information and then translate
this data into practical engineering design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering
projects. .

The geological aspects of the civil engineering site have to be studied in detail before
commencement of the project. The civil engineer and the engineering geologist have to work
together in the field in various stages. However, in some stages they work separately, in other
jointly. The responsibility and nature of work in which both engineering geologist and civil
engineer are involved are listed below:

Engineering Geology and Civil Engineering

1. Mapping: The engineering geologist has to prepare a geological map of the area based on aerial
photo and satellite imagery interpretation and field observation. Subsurface geological features are
also mapped.

2. Exploration: In this stage the engineering geologist explore the area based on exploration
techniques. The engineering geologist works from the planning stage. Supervise the exploration
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INTERNAL DYNAMICS/

INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Fig: Internal Structure of Earth

The Crust: - Is the topmost shell of the earth, which has a thickness of 30-40 km in the
continents and 5-6 km in oceans. There is a striking variation in the materials or rocks, as they
are called, composing the crust over the continents and ocean floors. the oceanic crust is made
up of heavier and darker rocks called basalts compared to light-coloured and light-density,
granitic rocks of continental crust. When considered as a part of the total structure of the earth,
crust makes only an insignificant part represented by a thin layer, similar to the skin of an apple.
as regards the chemical composition of the crust, analysis made by Clarke and Gold Schmith,
using rocks from different geographic regions of the crust have all shown that when expressed
in terms of oxides, the crust has silica as the most dominant component, its value lying
above 50% by volume in the oceanic crust and above 62% in the continental crust.
alumina is the next important oxide, varying between 13-16% followed by iron oxides
(8%), lime (6%), sodium (4%), magnesium (4%), potassium (2.5%) and titanium (2%).
the crust itself shows a complicated structure both in make-up and compositional
variations.

Mantle:-At the base of the crust materials of the earth become greatly different in many
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properties from those overlying them in the crust. These materials appear to form an early
homogeneous zone till a depth of 2900 km is reached. This zone of materials lying between
crust and a depth of 2900 km is known a MANTLE. It is made up of extremely basic
materials, called ultra basic rocks, which are believed to be very rich in iron and
Magnesium but quite poor in silica. Such rock names as a periodotites, dunite. this one is
characterized with a high density, increasing steadily with depth further; the mantle material is
believed to be highly plastic in nature. Many of the most important geological process such as
earthquakes and formation of mountains are believed to have their origin in this zone

The Core:-It is the third and the inner most structure shell of the earth, which is clearly marked
by the seismic evidence. It starts at a depth of 2900 km below the surface and extends right
up to the center of the earth at 6370 km. the material making the core is found to be from
seismic studies only strikingly different from that making the other 2 shells in one major aspect,
in elastic properties.
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Natural Disasters
A natural disaster is a major event caused by natural processes of the Earth; examples floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes.
A natural disaster causes loss of life or property damage, and leaves some economic damage
after it has been completed.

The Most Common Occurring Disasters of Nature:

1. Hurricane: Hurricanes, tropical cyclones, and typhoons are different names for the same
phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated
water that comes off of the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis Effect causes the storms
to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed
greater than 74 mph. Hurricane is used for these phenomena in the Atlantic and eastern
Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the Indian, and typhoon in the western Pacific.
2. Earthquake: An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust
that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a
seismograph. The magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported on the Richter scale,
with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing
serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli
scale. At the Earth’s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground.
3. Tsunami: A tsunami is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is
rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, volcanic eruptions
and other underwater explosions, landslides, large meteorite impacts comet impacts and
testing with nuclear weapons at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. A tsunami is
not the same thing as a tidal wave, which will generally have a far less damaging effect than a
Tsunami.
4. Flood: A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land, a deluge. It is
usually due to the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeding
the total capacity of the body, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the
normal perimeter of the body. It can also occur in rivers, when the strength of the river is so
high it flows right out of the river channel , usually at corners or meanders.
5. Drought: A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region suffers a severe
deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently
below average rainfall. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of
the affected region. Although droughts can persist for several years, even a short, intense
drought can cause significant damage and harm the local economy.
6. Avalanche: An avalanche is a geophysical hazard involving a slide of a large snow or rock
mass down a mountainside, caused when a buildup of material is released down a slope, it is
one of the major dangers faced in the mountains in winter. As avalanches move down the
slope they may entrain snow from the snowpack and grow in size. The snow may also mix
with the air and form a powder cloud. An avalanche with a powder cloud is known as a

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powder snow avalanche. The powder cloud is a turbulent suspension of snow particles that
flows as a gravity current
7. Landslide: A landslide is a disaster involving elements of the ground, including rocks, trees,
parts of houses, and anything else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be
caused by an earthquake, volcanic eruptions, or general instability in the surrounding land.
Mudslides or mudflows, are a special case of landslides, in which heavy rainfall causes loose
soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards.
8. Wildfire: Wildfires, or forest fires, are uncontrolled fires burning in wild land areas.
Common causes include lightning, human carelessness, arson, volcano eruption, and
pyroclastic cloud from active volcano. The can be a threat to those in rural areas and also to
wildlife. Wild fires can also produce ember attacks, where floating embers set fire to
buildings at a distance from the fire itself.
9. Volcanic eruption: A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases
lava and poisonous gasses in to the air. They range from daily small eruptions to extremely
infrequent super volcano eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic kilometres
of material.) Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high-temperature clouds of
ash and steam that can travel down mountainsides at speeds exceeding that of an airliner.

Mitigation for Natural Disasters

Mitigation is a actions taken to prevent or reduce the risk to life, property, social and economic
activities, and natural resources from natural hazards. Awareness, education, preparedness, and
prediction and warning systems can reduce the disruptive impacts of a natural disaster on
communities. Mitigation measures such as adoption of zoning, land-use practices, and building
codes are needed, however, to prevent or reduce actual damage from hazards. Avoiding
development in landslide- and flood-prone areas through planning and zoning ordinances, for
example, may save money in construction and reduce the loss of life and damage to property and
natural resources.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to take the following steps

1. Incorporate both structural and non structural mitigation measures in new development,

2. Examine ways to reduce the vulnerability of existing structures,

3. Take steps to reduce the vulnerability of natural resources, and undertake mitigation training
with support from state and federal governments

A program for enhancing the nation's hazard mitigation capabilities should include:

1. Protection of schools and hospitals: All new schools and hospitals should be located and
constructed to ensure that high-hazard areas are avoided and that special provisions are made
to reduce the potential for damage by natural hazards. In addition, existing school and hospital
buildings should be surveyed to determine their levels of resistance to relevant hazards.

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efforts should be made to strengthen facilities that would fail in a disaster. In some instances,
legislation may be required to ensure that mitigation actions are taken.

2. Adoption of non-structural: measures. Businesses and homes should incorporate non-

structural mitigation measures to minimize injuries and property damage from natural
disasters. Furniture and equipment, for example, can be easily secured to reduce injuries and
damage from earthquakes. Other nonstructural measures are management of vegetation to
reduce damage from wildfires and location of structures away from high-hazard areas

3. Incorporation of mitigation into new development:. Local jurisdictions should ensure that
new development is located, designed, and constructed to withstand natural hazards. They
should use information from hazard and risk assessments, land-use plans, and zoning
regulations to limit development of hazard-prone areas. Compatible uses of floodplains and
other hazardous areas should be incorporated into local planning and zoning so that losses are
reduced. Such areas could have a high value for recreation, fish and wildlife reserves, open
space, or other community use.

4. Protection of natural resources: Particularly valuable natural resources such as endangered

species of wildlife, fish, and plants should be identified in mitigation plans and protection
measures included in disaster response plans. Such natural resources are found not only in the
wild, but in zoos and parks as well.

5. Government leadership of mitigation implementation: Government at all levels should set

an example by requiring that new facilities that it funds, regulates, or leases be designed, built,
and located in accordance with modern building codes .

6. Mitigation trainin:. Training programs that focus on contemporary challenges associated

with implementing mitigation should be developed and offered. A national training program,
supported by the federal government and fully integrated with the preparedness training
proposed here, should be developed for this purpose. Its curriculum would include land-use
planning, zoning, building codes and regulations.

7. Hazard-specific research:. Recent disasters have demonstrated the benefits of mitigation

efforts while pointing out the need for research to improve mitigation practic

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PLATE TECTONICS

Tectonic Plate Theory

Plate tectonics is the movement of 7 major plates of earth crust. Movement of these plates is
due to the generation of convective current inside the earth. Generation of this convective
current is due to huge temperature differences between core and crust. Due to this
movement, displacement will take place in the rocks of earth crust, due to displacement work
has been done and work will be stored in the form of energy called as strain energy.
Due to this displacement, a slip will take place in the faults of rock. Length of faults may
vary from 1 m to many km. due to slip stored strained energy will be released which will
induce violent shaking of earth called earthquake.
99% of EQ’s taken place on the boundaries of plate (the countries like Japan, California and
san Francisco lie on the border of the plates) such EQ are called as interplate EQ, 1% of EQ
takes place within the plates called intreplate EQ’s

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Tectonic plates
1) North American Plate 2) South American Plate 3) Eurasian Plate 4) African Plate
1) Indo-Austrailian Plate 6) Pacific Plate 7) Antartic Plate

Elastic Rebound Theory: - After divesting EQ in San Francisco in 1906 a fault trace was
discovered that could be followed along the ground in more or less straight line for 270 miles.
it was found that the earth on 1 side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on thru
other side of the fault upto 21 feet and this fault drawn the attention of many scientists, but no
1 was able to explain what happening within the earth to cause EQ.
Prof. of geology H F Reid (1911) introduced the concept of possible mode of orgin of
tectonics EQ and is known as Elastic Rebound Theory. according to this theory materials of
the earth being elastic and can withstand a certain amount of stress without deforming
permanently, but if the stress is continued for long time or if the magnitude is increased, the
rocks will first take permanent deformation . A fault is a fracture in the materials of the earth
along which there has been displacement. when the rupture occurs, rock on either side of the
fault tends to return to their original shape because of their elasticity and elastic rebound
occurs. This rebound sets up seismic waves, thus the energy storied in the system through
decade is released instantaneously causing underground dislocation of rock and setting up
vibration.

ISO-Seismic Line

o Definition. An isoseismal (line) is a contour or line on a map connecting points of

equal intensity relating to a specific earthquake and confining the area within which
the intensity is the same
o An Is0-seismal (line) is a line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a
particular earth-quake.
o Whenever an earthquake takes place, the intensity which is maximum at the epi-
centre, decreases outwards
o The decrease in the earthquake is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
from the center of disturbence-
o In an earthquake hit area, places of same intensity can be marked.
o A line joining points of same intensity is called Iso-seismal line.

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o The area enclosed by the Iso-seismal line is circular if the forms of the
earthquake is a point and elliptical if it is an elongate zone or line.

o In seismology, an isoseismal map is used to show lines of equally felt seismic

intensity, generally measured on the Modified Mercalli scale.
o Such maps help to identify earthquake epicenters, particularly where no instrumental
records exist, such as for historical earthquakes.
o They also contain important information on ground conditions at particular locations,
the underlying geology, radiation pattern of the seismic waves, and the response of
different types of buildings. They form an important part of the macroseismic
approach, i.e. that part of seismology dealing with noninstrumental data. The shape
and size of the isoseismal regions can be used to help determine
the magnitude, focal depth, and focal mechanism of an earthquake

Seismic Zonation Map

o Seismic zonation is a process of estimation of the seismic hazard in terms of parameters of

ground motion for a certain area.
o Assessment results in seismic zonation map compilation, which reflects territorial
distribution of the seismic hazard

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EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake (or quakes) is shaking of the surface of earth, caused by sudden movement in
the Earth's crust. They can be extremely violent. they are the result of a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's crust. This creates seismic waves, which are waves of energy that travel
through the Earth. The study of earthquakes is called seismology.

Fig: Basic Terminologies in an Earthquake

Focus: The focus is also called the hypocenter of an earthquake. The vibrating waves travel
away from the focus of the earthquake in all directions.
Epicentre: Directly above the focus on the Earth's surface is the earthquake epicenter.
Earthquake waves start at the focus and travel outward in all directions. Earthquake waves do
not originate at the epicentre.
Focal depth : depth below the Earth's surface of the hypocentre of an earthquake.
Epicentral Distance : The distance between epicentre and point of interest.

Causes of an Earthquake
causes of earthquake can be classified into 2 categories,
1. Natural Earthquake
2. Man made Earthquake

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1. Natural Earthquake :- The occurrence of natural earthquakes is a complex process, they
are caused in many ways and are classified accordingly
a. collapse EQ :- EQ caused by gravitational energy due to land slips and slides, in mountain
and valley slopes, steeps and subsidence and collapse of roof of ground caves.
b. Volcanic EQ: - When a volcano become active with gas explosions, fissuring and up or
collapse of the volcanic tremors soon take the form of rapid seismic waves. Quakes usually
are of shallow origin and restricted to small areas but dangerous for the cities in the vicinity of
volcanoes.
c. Tectonic EQ: Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movements in the Earth's crust. The main
cause is that when tectonic plates , one rides over the other, causing orogeny collide
(mountain building)

Tectonic Plate Theory

Plate tectonics is the movement of 7 major plates of earth crust. Movement of these plates is
due to the generation of convective current inside the earth. Generation of this convective
current is due to huge temperature differences between core and crust. Due to this movement,
displacement will take place in the rocks of earth crust, due to displacement work has been
done and work will be stored in the form of energy called as strain energy.
Due to this displacement, a slip will take place in the faults of rock. Length of faults may vary
from 1 m to many km. due to slip stored strained energy will be released which will induce
violent shaking of earth called earthquake.
99% of EQ’s taken place on the boundaries of plate (the countries like Japan, California and
san Francisco lie on the border of the plates) such EQ are called as interplate EQ, 1% of EQ
takes place within the plates called intreplate EQ’s

Tectonic plates
2) North American Plate 2) South American Plate 3) Eurasian Plate 4) African Plate
2) Indo-Austrailian Plate 6) Pacific Plate 7) Antartic Plate

Elastic Rebound Theory: - After divesting EQ in San Francisco in 1906 a fault trace was
discovered that could be followed along the ground in more or less straight line for 270 miles.
it was found that the earth on 1 side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on thru
other side of the fault upto 21 feet and this fault drawn the attention of many scientists, but no
1 was able to explain what happening within the earth to cause EQ.
Prof. of geology H F Reid (1911) introduced the concept of possible mode of orgin of
tectonics EQ and is known as Elastic Rebound Theory. according to this theory materials of
the earth being elastic and can withstand a certain amount of stress without deforming
permanently, but if the stress is continued for long time or if the magnitude is increased, the
rocks will first take permanent deformation . A fault is a fracture in the materials of the earth
along which there has been displacement. when the rupture occurs, rock on either side of the
fault tends to return to their original shape because of their elasticity and elastic rebound
occurs. This rebound sets up seismic waves, thus the energy storied in the system through
decade is released instantaneously causing underground dislocation of rock and setting up
vibration.

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Continental Drift Theory:- Continental Drift was a revolutionary scientific theory
developed in the years 1908-1912 by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, climatologist,
and geophysicist, that put forth the hypothesis that the continents had all originally been a
part of one enormous landmass or supercontinent about 240 million years ago before breaking
apart and drifting to their current locations. Based on the work of previous scientists who had
theorized about horizontal movement of the continents over the earth’s surface during
different periods of geologic time, and based on his own observations drawing from different
fields of science, Wegener postulated that about 200 million years ago this supercontinent
that he called “Pangaea,” (which means “all lands” in Greek) began to break up.
Over millions of years the pieces separated, first into two smaller supercontinents during the
Jurassic period, called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, and then by the end of the Cretaceous
period, into the continents we know today.

Effects of an EQ
1. Direct effect
2. Indirect effect

1. Direct effect- Direct effect causes damages directly, including ground motion and
faulting.
i) Seismic waves, especially surface waves result in ground motion, such motion can damage
and sometimes completely destroy buildings
ii) EQ vibration may cause landslides and mud slides in the region consisting of hills and
steep slopes which can damage building and lead to loss of life
iii) Soil vibration can either shake a building off its foundation or cause its foundation
disintegration
iv) In areas with very wet ground infilled land, near the coast or in location that have high
water table, ground shaking may lead to a problem of liquefaction.
v) Strong surface waves make the ground heavy and damage the structure.

2. Indirect Eeffect :- indirect effect cause damages indirectly as a result of the EQ

i) Following violent movement in the sea floor causes series of waves with extremely long
periods which are called Tsunamis.
ii) Sieches, similar to small Tsunamis occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water in
reservoirs, lake and harbour shaken by EQ.
iii) EQ can damage or rupture dams causing floods, resulting in damage of structure and
considerable loss of life.
iv) EQ can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric wires.

Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on
seismographs.

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Types of Seismic Waves
1. Body Waves
2. Surface Waves

1. Body Waves:-Travelling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than
surface waves

a) P wave or primary wave:-The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This
is the fastest kind of seismic wave and consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the
earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the
air. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. P waves are also known as
compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do. Subjected to a P wave,
particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in, which is the direction that
the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction of wave propagation.
Velocity of this wave is 4.8 km/s.

b) S wave or secondary wave:-The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary
wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P
wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. S waves move
rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
travelling in (the direction of wave propagation). Velocity of this waves is 3 km/s

2. Surface Waves: Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency
than body waves though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost
entirely responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This
damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

a) Love wave; - The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H.
Love. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to
the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

b) Rayleigh wave: - The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for, Lord
Rayleigh. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an
ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to
the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

Magnitude of an EQ: - Magnitude of an earthquake is a value that tells a reader the amount
of seismic energy released by it. It is a single value and is not dependent upon distance from
the epicenter of the earthquake. It is calculated by measuring the amplitude of the seismic
waves (through a seismometer). The scale which is used to measure magnitude of an
earthquake is called Richter magnitude scale. This is a logarithmic scale and assigns values

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from 1-10 to the magnitude of any earthquake. So it is obvious that the devastation power of
an earthquake is directly proportional to the value assigned on the Richter scale. As it is
logarithmic, an earthquake of value 5.0 has shaking amplitude ten times greater than an
earthquake measuring 4.0 on the scale. Richter magnitude scale has today given way to
moment magnitude scale that yields similar but more accurate results than Richter scale.

Intensity of an EQ: - Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location

during an earthquake, and is assigned in Roman Capital Numerals. There are many intensity
scales. Two commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale and the
MSK Scale. Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XII (most
severe). The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking – perception by people
and animals, performance of buildings, and changes to natural surroundings. The table shows
the intensity scale.

Table: Modified Mercalli Scale Intensities

Intensity Shaking Description/ Damage
I Not felt Not felt except by a very few under especially favourable
conditions.
II Weak Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of
buildings.
III Weak Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper
floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations
similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.

IV Light Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night,
some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make
cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building.
Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.

V Moderate Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows

broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI Strong Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few
instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII Very Strong Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction;
slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable
damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some
chimneys broken.

VIII Severe Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable

damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse.
Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory
stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned.

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IX Violent Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-
designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in
substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations.
X Extreme Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and
frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.
XI Extreme Few, if any, structures remain standing, bridges destroyed,
underground pipelines completely out of service, earth slumps
and slips in soft ground, rails bend greatly.
XII Extreme Total damage, waves seen on ground, line of sight & level
distorted, Objects thrown upward in the air

Seismograph

A seismograph is a device for measuring the movement of the earth, and consists of a
ground- motion detection sensor, called a seismometer
A simple seismometer that is sensitive to up-down motions of the earth, the spring and weight
are suspended from a frame that moves along with the earthʼs surface. As the earth moves,
the relative motion between the weight and the earth provides a measure of the vertical
ground motion. If a recording system is installed, such as a rotating drum attached to the
frame, and a pen attached to the mass, this relative motion between the weight and earth can
be recorded to produce a history of ground motion, called a seismogram. Any movement of
the ground moves the frame. The mass tends not to move because of its inertia, and by
measuring the movement between the frame and the mass, the motion of the ground can be
determined.

Seismic Zones of India

The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of
damaging earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone
map is required to identify these regions. Based on the levels of intensities sustained during
damaging past earthquakes, the 1970 version of the zone map subdivided India into five

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zones - I, II, III, IV and V. The maximum Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity of seismic
shaking expected in these zones were V or less, VI, VII, VIII, and IX and higher,
respectively. Parts of Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh area
in the west were classified as zone V.
The seismic zone maps are revised from time to time as more understanding is gained on the
geology, the seismo-tectonics and the seismic activity in the country. The Indian Standards
provided the first seismic zone map in 1962, which was later revised in 1967 and again in
1970. The map has been revised again in 2002, and it now has only four seismic zones - II,
III, IV and V. The areas falling in seismic zone I in the 1970 version of the map are merged
with those of seismic zone II. Also, the seismic zone map in the peninsular region has been
modified. Madras now comes in seismic zone III as against in zone II in the 1970 version of
the map. This 2002 seismic zone map is not the final word on the seismic hazard of the
country, and hence there can be no sense of complacency in this regard.

Tsunami
in Japanese ” Tsu” means Harbour and “nami” means wave, also known as a seismic sea
wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of
water, generally in an ocean.
A tsunami is a series of fast moving waves in the ocean caused by volcanic eruptions or
powerful earthquakes. A tsunami has a very long wavelength; it can be hundreds of
kilometers long. Usually, a tsunami starts suddenly. The waves travel at a great speed across
an ocean with little energy loss. They can remove sand from beaches, destroy trees, toss and
drag vehicles, houses and even destroy whole towns. Tsunamis can even be by caused
meteorite strikes, though it is very rare. Tsunamis are often called tidal waves because they
usually rise and fall more slowly than ordinary ocean surface waves.
A tsunami may travel hundreds of kilometers across the deep ocean, reaching speeds of about
725 to 800 km/hr. height of waves may vary from few centimeter to meters.

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Tsunamis can cause very destructive effects, These effect are :
1. The effects of a tsunami on a coastline can range from unnoticeable to devastating
2. Tsunami flooding cause damage for several weeks.
3. The effects of a tsunami is destruction and damage, death, injury, millions of dollars in
financial loss, and long lasting psychological problems for the inhabitants of the region.
4. A tsunami's tidal waves batter the shoreline and can destroy anything in their path. This
includes boats, buildings, houses, hotels, cars, trees, telephone lines - and just about
anything else in their way.
5. The buildings infrastructure in these poorer nations are not well built and cannot withstand
the impact of the tsunami.
6. Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the tsunami hit
areas
7. Tsunami causes loss of life’s and property.

Reservoir Induced Seismicity

The load on the rocks below the valley suface is increased due to weight of the water in the
reservoir. Pressure of the water within the rock area is also increased, which lubricant the
existing faults making it easier for them to slip. For deep reservoirs, this can lead to the
rupture of faults in the rock and triggering EQ as large as magnitude 6. This EQ are related to
filling and emptying of the reservoir and hence called Reservoir Induced Seismicity.

Konya dam is 103 m high gravity dam made of concrete, as the reservoir was being filled no
of EQ were felt in the area at first they were small, them hey increased in size and in
December 10th 1967, an Eq of magnitude 6.5 occurred. This EQ severely damaged the dam
with cracks appearing on its upstream and downstream faces and also 200 peoples were died.

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Land Slides
A landslide, sometimes known as landslip, slope failure or slump, is an uncontrollable
downhill flow of rock, earth, debris or the combination of the three. Landslides stem from the
failure of materials making up the hill slopes and are beefed up by the force of gravity. When
the ground becomes saturated, it can become unstable, losing its equilibrium in the long run.
That’s when a landslide breaks loose. When people are living down these hills or mountains,
it’s usually just a matter of time before disaster happens.
Parts of Typical Slide

Fig: A Typical Slide Section

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Crown:- The upper portion still in place from which solid rock and soil materials are torn
away from the rest of the slope.
Scarp:-The steep wall of the undisturbed material below crown around the periphery of the
slide material
Head: - The upper part of the slide material
Slip plane:-The shear surface, the surface of movement downhill of the slide material
Flanks: - Sides of a slide, left flank and Right Flank
Transverse ridges: - Terrace or step like pressure or compression ridges
TOE: - The lower portion in which the rock or soil material is heaped up
Length: - Horizontal distance from crown to toe.
Width: - Horizontal distance form flank to flank
Height: - Vertical distance, crown to toe
Depth: - Thickness of the slide mass between crown and foot.
Foot : the line of intersection of the lower part of the slip plane and the original ground
surface.

Causes of Land Slides

a) Natural causes

1. Climate: Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general
reduction in precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of
soil mass, reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant
upsurge in precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of
ground water. When sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can occur.
If there is absence of mechanical root support, the soils start to run off

2. Earthquakes: Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the
globe. Any moment tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When
earthquakes strike areas with steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading to
landslides. In addition, ashen debris flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause mass
soil movement.

3. Weathering: Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak,
landslide-susceptive materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of water,
air, plants and bacteria. When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing landslides.

4. Erosion: Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents,
ice and waves wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.

5. Volcanoes: Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet

condition, the soil will start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Strato volcano is a
typical example of volcano responsible for most landslides across the globe.

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6. Forest fires: Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to
landslides.

Human Cause
1. Mining : Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides.
Vibrations emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to
landslides. The weakening of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.
2. Clear cutting : Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees
from the area. This technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root
structure of the area.

Types of Land Slides

1. Falls : Falls are sudden movements of loads of soil, debris, and rock that break away from
slopes and cliffs. Falls landslides occur as a result of mechanical weathering, earthquakes,
and force of gravity.
2. Slides : This is a kind of mass movement whereby the sliding material breakaways from
underlying stable material. The kinds of slides experienced during this type of landslide
include rotational and transitional. Rotational slides are sometimes known as slumps since
they move with rotation.
Transitional slides consist of a planer or 2 dimensional surface of rupture. They involve
landslide mass movement following a roughly planar surface with reduced rotation or
backward slanting. Slides occur when the toe of the slope is undercut. They move
moderately, and the consistency of material is maintained.
3. Topples: Topple landslides occur when the topple fails. Topple failure encompasses the
forward spinning and movement of huge masses of rock, debris, and earth from a slope.
This type of slope failure takes place around an axis near or at the bottom of the block of
rock. A topple landslide mostly lead to formation of a debris cone below the slope. This pile
of debris is known as a Talus cone.
4. Spreads : They are commonly known as lateral spreads and takes place on gentle terrains
via lateral extension followed by tensile fractures.
5. Flows : This type of landslide is categorized into five; earth flows, debris avalanche, debris
flow, mudflows, and creep, which include seasonal, continuous and progressive. Flows are
further subcategorized depending upon the geological material, for example, earth, debris,
and bed rock.

Effects of Land Slide

1. Lead to Economic Decline: Landslides have been verified to result in destruction of

property. If the landslide is significant, it could drain the economy of the region or
country. After a landslide, the area affected normally undergoes rehabilitation.
2. Decimation of Infrastructure: The force flow of mud, debris, and rocks as a result of a
landslide can cause serious damage to property. Infrastructure such as roads, railways,

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leisure destinations, buildings and communication systems can be decimated by a single
landslide
3. Loss of Life: Communities living at the foot of hills and mountains are at a greater risk
of death by landslides. A substantial landslide carries along huge rocks, heavy debris and
heavy soil with it. This kind of landslide has the capacity to kills lots of people on
impact.
4. Affects Beauty of Landscapes: The erosion left behind by landslides leaves behind
rugged landscapes that are unsightly. The pile of soil, rock and debris downhill can cover
land utilized by the community for agricultural or social purposes.
5. Impacts River Eco Systems: The soil, debris, and rock sliding downhill can find way
into rivers and block their natural flow. Many river habitats like fish can die due to
interference of natural flow of water. Communities depending on the river water for
household activities and irrigation will suffer if flow of water is blocked.

Preventative Measures Of Land Slides

Landslide hazards are a function of location, type of human activity, use, and frequency of
landslide events. The effects of landslides on people and structures can be reduced by total
avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by restricting, prohibiting, or imposing conditions on
hazard-zone activity. Local governments can reduce landslide effects through land-use policies
and regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure to hazards by educating themselves on
the past hazard history of a site and by making inquiries to planning and engineering
departments of local governments. They can also obtain the professional services of an
engineering geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or a civil engineer, who can properly evaluate
the hazard potential of a site, built or unbuilt.

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding construction on steep slopes and
existing landslides, or by stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water is
prevented from rising in the landslide mass by (1) covering the landslide with an impermeable
membrane, (2) directing surface water away from the landslide, (3) draining ground water
away from the landslide, and (4) minimizing surface irrigation. Slope stability is also increased
when a retaining structure and/or the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the
landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the slope.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
• Cyclones are centred on areas of low atmospheric pressure, usually over warm
ocean waters near the equator.
• The warm moist air over the ocean rises from the surface in the upward
direction, resulting in the formation of the low-pressure zone over the surface.
• Air from the surrounding region, with higher pressure, pushes into the low-
pressure area.
• The cool air becomes warm and moist and rises again, thus the cycle continues.
• As the warm air rises, the moisture in the air cools thus leading to the formation
of cloud.
• The whole system grows gradually and becomes fast with time.

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 As a result of this, an eye is created in the centre, as shown inEngineering
• Geology
the figure, which is the low-pressure
Prepared
centre into which the high-pressure air flows from above, thus creating by Pooja
a cyclone.
CYCLONE D
• A volcano is an opening or rupture in the earth’s surface that allows magma (hotliquid and semi-
liquid rock), volcanic ash and gases to escape.
• They are generally found where tectonic plates come together or separate butthey can also occur in
the middle of plates due to volcanic hotspots.
• A volcanic eruption is when lava and gas are released from a volcano—sometimes explosively.

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain Earth Internal Dynamics
2. Explain Landslide and its effects
3. Write a short notes on plate tectonics
4. Explain Cyclone
5. Briefly explain location of epi-centre

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELGAUM

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(Subject Code: BCV303)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-2)
III-SEMESTER

Ms. Pooja D
Assistant Professor

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))
NH - 66, KottaraChowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006

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MODULE- 2
INTRODUCTION AND MINEROLOGY

Minerals -Industrial, rock forming and ore minerals. Physical properties, composition and uses
Rocks as a construction materials- physical properties, texture, composition, applications for
aggregate, decorative (facing/polishing), railway ballast, rocks for masonry work,
monumental/architecture, rocks as aquifers, water bearing properties igneous, sedimentary
MINERALOGY

Minerals - have been defined as naturally occurring substances, mostly in organic, that are
characterized by a definite chemical composition and a definite atomic structure. Since Rock
make up the earth is simply natural aggregates of minerals, a study of Minerals are of
fundamental importance understands the elements of science of geology. The branch of
geology dealing with the study of minerals is designated as Mineralogy.

Each mineral is generally characterized with a set of qualities some of which are always
distinctive and differentiate it from other minerals. Some of these qualities or properties may
be studied from the body of the minerals, its shape, color, shine, hardness etc. these are termed
physical properties. Some other qualities like the behavior towards light require externally thin
sheet or section of the mineral and are best studied with the help of a microscope. These are
termed optical or microscopic properties. A third group of properties involving.

These are the physical properties most useful for mineral identification:

Habit
A mineral may sometimes show a definite and characteristic arrangement in its outer
appearance or physical shape. This shape is expressed by the term Habit and is typical in the
case of many minerals. A few common habits with examples are given below.

Fibrous habit – when the mineral is made up of fibers, generally separable, e.g. in Asbestos.

Columnar habit:- When the mineral is composed of thin or thick columns, sometimes
flattened, e.g. in Hornblende.

Bladed habit:- The minerals appears as if composed of thin, blade like structure, e.g. in
Kyanite.

Lamellar habit: - The plates or leaves are separable, e.g. Vermiculite.

Granular habit: - The mineral shows numerous grains packed together, e.g. in Chromite.

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Acicular habit:- When a mineral surface is covered by large, conspicuous, overlapping
prominences, e.g. in Malachite. D

Mammillary habit :- when a mineral surface is covered by large, conspicuous overlapping

prominences, e.g. in malachite.

Reniform habit:- The rounded prominences exhibit a resemblance to a kidney shape, e.g. in
Hematite.

Foliated habit: -When the mineral consists of thin and separable leaves, e.g. in Mica.

Radiating habit:-When the fibers or needles are arranged around a central point, e.g. in Iron
Pyrites.

Tabular habit: -The mineral is flat and elongated e.g. in Calcite, Orthoclase.

Globular habit: - or botryoidally, when the minerals is in the form of bulbous overlapping
projections, e.g. in hematite.

Fig; Common Structure of Minerals

Colour
Minerals show great variety of colors. The color of a substance is its appearance in light and
depends upon the composition and structure of the substance is its appearance in light and
depends upon the composition and structure of the substance. In minerals, colors may be
either of inherent of an exotic nature, the former is related to the chemical composition and
is more diagnostic where as exotic colors are due to small traces of impurities and may vary
 Engineering Geology
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within wide limits. Metallic minerals commonly show greater consistency Pooja
color than the
non-metallic minerals D
Some minerals show peculiar phenomena connected with color. of these, the following are
interesting and important.

Play of Colors:- It is the development of a series of prismatic colours shown by some

minerals on turning about in light. The colors change in rapid succession on rotation,
example: Diamond.

Change of colours:- it is similar to play of colours except that rate of change of colours on
rotation is rather slow, each colour continues over a larger space in the mineral, e.g. labradorite.

Iridescence: - some minerals show rainbow colours either in their interior or on their surface.
This are termed as Iridescence.

Tarnish: - sometimes the surface colour is different, rather dull, than the colour of the mineral
as seen on f freshly fractured surface, e.g. chalcopyrite, an ore of copper.

Streak
The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder. This becomes important in the sense that for
some minerals, the color is entirely different from that of their powder. This has been found true
in certain or minerals, while most of the other minerals exhibit a white streak and, streak does
not help in distinguishing those minerals. The important minerals offering characteristic color-
streak combinations are given in table.
Some minerals with their characteristic color-streak combinations

Mineral Name Original Color Streak Color

Pyrite Brass-Yellow Greenish Black

Chromite Greenish-Black Greenish Brown
Hematie Black Cherry red

The streak of mineral can be readily observed by scratching it on a streak plate, which is made up
of unglazed porcelain or roughened glass. While determining streak for a mineral, care should be
taken to scratch it from its obscure part, and to give only small scratch, producing a small
quantity of its powder.

Luster
The shining surface of a mineral is called as luster. The different types of luster and their

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Sl.No.. Type Of Luster Description Example
1 Vitereous Luster A mineral having a glassy shine Quartz and Calcite
2 Pearly Luster A mineral having a pearly shine Muscovite Mica
3 Metallic Luster A mineral having a metallic shine Magnetite
4 Silky Luster A mineral having a silky shine Asbestos
5 Resinous Luster A mineral having a greasy, oil shine Talc
6 Adamantine Luster A mineral having a diamond like shine Diamond

Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity of a mineral may be defined as its capability to pass light through it .Hence, if an
object can be seen fully and easily through a mineral, it may be called as diaphaneity. Depending
upon the extent to which light can pass through a mineral, they may be classified as follows.

Type of
Example
Transparenc Description
Mineral which allows the light
to pass fully, and objects on
Transparent Quart, Calcite
Other sides are seen clearly
Through the mineral.
A mineral which allows
Translucent only some diffused light
Jasper
to pass through edges.
A mineral which does not
pass any light and hence
Opaque Orthoclase, Hornblende
through which nothing can
be seen.

Fracture
The fracture of a mineral may be defined as the appearance of its broken surface, when the
mineral is hammered and broken. It is a characteristics feature of certain mineral which help us
their identification. The different types of fracture seen in various minerals are:

Type of Fracture Description Example

Even Fracture When the broken surfaces of a mineral are smooth Chert
When the mineral breaks with very rough and
Uneven Fracture Chromite
coarse surface
When a mineral breaks with curved surfaces.
Infact, there will be concentric grooves and ridges
Conchoidal Fracture Quartzite
resembling with the concentric lines of growth on a
shell (Conch)

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When a mineral breaks with irregular surfaces
Hackly Fracture Copper
having sharp edges
Earthy Fracture When a broken surface is soft and almost smooth Chalk

Hardness is another property of a mineral, which can be used as a handy tool in the field, to
differentiate between the different minerals or to recognize particular minerals.
hardness of the mineral may be defined as the resistance, which the mineral offer to scratch.

This property of a mineral is generally determined by scratching a given mineral with a mineral of
known hardness, so as to obtain the comparative figure for the hardness of the given mineral. Thus
for example, if a given mineral gets scratched by a mineral or metal of hardness say 6, but does not
gets cratched by that of hardness 5, then evidently we can conclude that the hardness of a given
mineral lies between 5 and 6. Moreover, the intensity of scratch procured, will help us to judge
whether the hardness determined is nearer to 5 or to 6. The hardness of mineral is generally
expressed on mohs scale of hardness, which incorporate ten minerals assigned with standard
hardness.
Table : Showing Hardness Number of Minerals

Mineral Hardness
Talc 1 can be scratch even by finger nail
Gypsum 2 can be scratch even by finger nail
Calcite 3 can be scratch even by finger nail
Fluorite 4 can be scratch by pen or knife
Apatite 5 can be scratch by pen or knife
Orthoclase 6 can be scratch by pen or knife
Quartz 7 cannot be scratch by pen or knife
Topaz 8 cannot be scratch by pen or knife
Corundum 9 cannot be scratch by pen or knife
Diamond 10 it can be scratch by another diamond

Miscellaneous
Besides the above properties, minerals may show some specific and rare qualities that often
become helpful in their identification. some of these special properties are explained below:

Magnetism: -Some minerals have natural magnetism in them to an Appreciable Extent. Example
is magnetite.

Electricity:- In some minerals heating may develop an electric charge. These are called pyro
electric minerals. Examples quartz.

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Fluorescence: - A few minerals have the property of glowing or Prepared
emitting lightbywhen
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exposed radiation. This property Is called Fluorescence and mineral. Fluorite shows this Property.

Fusibility: - Minerals behave differently on heating to elevated temperature. Some Melt easily at
lower temperatures where as other require very high Temperature.

Classifications of minerals
1. Silicate minerals (Rock forming minerals)
i. Quartz minerals
ii. Feldspar mineral
iii. Mica mineral
iv. Amphibole mineral
v. Garnet mineral

2. Non-Silicate minerals (Rock forming minerals)

i. Carbonate group
Ex. Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite

3. Non-Silicate minerals (Ore forming minerals)

i. Sulphide group. Ex. Galena, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite
ii. Oxide group. Ex. Hematite, Magnetite, Bauxite, Corundum
iii. Sulphate group. Ex. Gypsum, Barytes

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Name Feldspar Group

Quartz Group
Physical
Properties Orthoclase Microclase Plagioclase

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Form Massive / granular Tabular Tabular / massive Tabular / massive

Colour Variable Pink White / greenish White / grayish

Streak Colourless Colourless Colourless Colourless

Luster Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous

Cleavage Absent Perfect Perfect Perfect

Fracture Conchoidal to uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 7 (high) 6 6 - 6.5 6

Translucent Translucent to Translucent to

Diaphenity Transparent to opaqaue
to opaque opaque opaque

Sp Gravity 2.7 (low to medium) 2.6 2.6 2.6

Composition SiO2, Silicon oxide KAlSi3O8 KAlSi3O8 NaCaAlSio2

Ig, sed. and Met. Rocks, Acid igneous rock, granite and pegmatite,
Occurrence
RFM RFM
Glass making, abrasive cloth,
flux, electronic industry,
Sanitary ware, Earthenware, porcelain items, glazed
Uses radio circuits, refractories,
tiles, flux enamel, binders
agates are used as ornaments
ceramics and papers

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Name Mica Group Amphibole Group

Garnet group

Physical
Properties Biotite Muscovite Hornblende Asbestos Garnet

Form Flaky Flaky Crystal tabular Fibrous/massive Crystal

Colour Black Colourless Green / brown Greenish/white Red, Brown

Streak White White White White Colourless

Luster Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous Greasy/vitreous Vitreous

Cleavage Perfect Perfect Perfect None Imperfect/none

Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 2-3 2-3 5.5-6 3 6- 7.5

Translucent- Translucent
Diaphaneity Translucent Transparent Opaque
opaque -opaque

Sp Gravity 2.5 2.5 3.0 2-3 3.5

KMgFeAlSi- Ca,Na,Mg,Fe,Al,S Mg,Fe,Ca,Al,Si

Composition KAlSi-OH MgSi – OH
OH i– OH -O

Ig, Met rocks, Ig, Met rocks, Intrusive, Met. Ultra basic Ig,
Occurrence Met. rock
RFM RFM RFM rocks

Electrical Refractory, heat

Electrcal Gem
Insulator, and fire resistant,
Uses Insulator, furnace stones,
furnace cement, acid
window. abrasives
window, resistant

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Name
D
Carbonates Sulphates
Physical
Properties Calcite Dolomite Magnesite Gypsum Baryte

`Form Crystal / rhomb Crystal/massive Massive Crystal/fibrous Crystal/tabular

Colour Colourless / white Black white White/yellowish White/grey

Streak White White White White White

Luster Vitreous Vitreous Dull Vitreous Vitreous/perly

Cleavage Perfect Perfect None Perfect Perfect

Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 3 3-4 3-4 1.5 3-3.5

Diaphaneity Transparent Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque

Sp Gravity 3 3 3 2.3 4.5

Composition CaCO3 Ca,Mg(CO3)2 MgCO3 CaSO4 – 2H2O BaSO4

Hydro thermal/ Hydro

Hydro thermal/ Oxidation of Hydro thermal/
Occurrence weathering, thermal/
weathering, sulphides weathering,
RFM weathering

Optics, building
building Refractory, Cement, Metullary, x-ray
Uses material (reacts
material, cement building material Metullargy exam,
with dil. acid)

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Name Sulphide group

Pyrite
Physical Gelena Chalcopyrite
(fools gold)
Properties

Form Crystal/granular Crystal/granular Massive/granular

Colour Lead grey Brass yellow Yellow/dark yellow

Streak Black Black Black

Luster Metallic Metallic Metallic

Cleavage Perfect Indistinct Imperfect

Fracture Uneven Uneven uneven

Hardness 2-3 6 3

Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque opaque

Sp Gravity 7.5 5 4.3

Composition PbS FeS2 CuFeS2

Weathering / Weathering / hydro

Occurrence Hydro thermal
hydro thermal thermal

Ore of Copper
Uses Ore of lead Ore of iron
and Iron

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Name Oxide group

Physical Hematite Magnetite Bauxite Corundum

Properties

Form Massive/granular Massive/granular Massive/cryptocry Crystal/tabular

Colour Black Black White/yellowish Grey/blue/black

Streak Cherry red Black White None

Luster Sub - metallic Sub - metallic Dull Vitreous

Cleavage None None None Indistinct

Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 5.5 - 6 5.5 - 6 3.5 9

Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque

Sp Gravity 5 5 3 4

Composition Fe2O3 Fe3O4 Al2O3 – H2O Al2O3

Weathering hydro Magmatic, hydro Hydro thermal/ Pegmatite, Met.

Occurrence
thermal thermal weathering rocks

Aluminum ore,
refractory, paper
Uses Iron ore, dye Iron ore Gem/ abrasive
making, dying,
ceramics

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DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY

Name
Kaoline
Olivine Serpentine Talc
Physical (china clay)
Properties

Form Granular/massive Massive/fibrous Massive Earthy/granular

Colour Olive green/ black Green/yellow Pale green/white White/yellowish

Streak colourless White White White

Luster Vitreous Greasy Perly/vitreous Dull

Cleavage Imperfect None None None

Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 6-7 3 1 1

Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque

Sp Gravity 3-4 2-3 2-3 2.5

Composition MgFeSi – O MgSi – OH MgSi – OH Al,Si-OH

Basic Ig. rocks, Ultra basic Ig, Ultra basic Weathered product
Occurrence
RFM rocks Ig, rocks of Ig, Met rock

Fillers, paper,
Refractory, spark Decorative, Ceramic, paper
cosmetics,
Uses plug insulator, furnace industry, pottery,
furnace lining,
ornamental repair bricks, pesticide
toilet powder

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Name
Limonite Pyrolsite Chromite
Physical
Properties

Granular/
Form Earthy/massive Granular
massive

Colour Brown/yellowish Black Black

Streak Reddish Black Brown

Luster Dull Sub metallic Sub metallic

Cleavage None none none

Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven

Hardness 4 5-6 5.5

Diaphaneity Opaque opaque opaque

Sp Gravity 3 5 4.5

Composition Fe2O3- H2O MnO2 FeCr2O3

Hydro thermal/ Weathering /

Occurrence Hydro thermal
weathering hydro thermal

Ore of Ore of
Iron ore, dye,
Uses manganese, Chromium,
filler
battery cells refractory

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Water Bearing Formations
"Aquifers": A geologic formation or structure that transmits water in sufficient quantity to supply
the needs for a water development, such as a well. The term "water-bearing" is sometimes used
synonymously with "aquifer" when a stratum furnishes water for a specific use. Aquifers are
usually saturated sands, gravel, fractured rock, or cavernous and vesicular rock.

Aquifers: - An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material, which not only stores water but
yield it in sufficient quantity. Thus on aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to its high
permeability. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers

Types of Aquifers

Aquifers vary in depth, lateral extent and thickness, but in general all aquifers fall into two
categories.
1). Unconfined Aquifers
2). Confined Aquifers

1). UNCONFINED AQUIFERS: - Unconfined aquifers also called non-artesian aquifers, are the
top most water bearing strata having no confined impermeable over burden lying over them. the
ordinary gravity wells of 2-5 meters diameter, which are excavated through such top most aquifers
are known as unconfined wells. the water level in these wells will stand equal to level of water
table as shown in fig. such wells are , there also known as water table wells or gravity wells.

2). CONFINED AQUIFERS (Artesian well): - When an aquifer is encased on its upper and
under surface by impervious rock formation and is also broadly inclined so as to exposed the

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aquifer somewhere to the catchment’s area at a higher level for the creation of sufficient D
hydraulic
head, it is called a confined aquifer or an Artesian aquifer. A well excavated through such an
aquifer yields water that often flows out automatically, under the hydrostatic pressure, and even
rises or gushes out of surface for a reasonable height. However, the ground profile is high, the
water may remain well below the ground level. Where water is gushing out automatically is known
as flowing wells.

PERCHED AQUIFERS: -Perched aquifer is a special case, which is sometimes found to occur
within an unconfined aquifer. If within the zone of saturation, an impervious deposit below a
pervious deposit is found to support a body of saturated material, then this body of saturated
material that is a kind of an aquifer is known as the perched aquifer. The top surface of the water
held in the perched aquifer is known as the perched water table.

Porosity: - the porosity of the rocks, which is the major geological criteria for occurrence of
ground water, is a quantities measurement of voids present in the rock. It is generally defined as the
percentage of the voids present in a given volume of aggregate.

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porosity (n) = Total volume of voids in the aggregate (Vv) X 100 D
Total volume of the aggregate (V)

Porosity depends upon the shape, packing and degree of sorting of the component grains in a given
material uniform and well-sorted grains given rise to higher porosity, whereas heterogeneous
grains with irregular arrangement decrease the porosity.

Porosity of Few Rocks

Granite 1.5%

Slate, Shale 4%

Limestone 5-10%

Sand and Gravel 20-30%

only gravel 25%

only sand 35%

only Clay & Soil 45%

Permeability: - The ground water is stored in the pores of a rock, and will available in the
underground rocks, only if they are sufficiently porous. The permeability is defined as the ability of
rock or unconsolidated formation to transmit or pass water through itself.

T = Ky

where:

T = water transmissibility

y = aquifer thickness

K = hydraulic conductivity

The volume of water that a permeable unit will adsorb or expel from the storage per unit surface
area unit change in head. (Storage Coefficient, S)

Specific Storage (Ss) :-Amount of water per unit volume of a saturated formation that is stored or
expelled from storage due to compressibility of the aquifer skeleton and pore water per unit change
in head.

Springs

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A spring is a place where water naturally flows out of the ground.Prepared
This comesby Pooja
from the German
word 'springer,' which means 'to leap from the ground.' D
A spring is formed when the pressure in an aquifer causes some of the water to flow out at the
surface. This usually happens at low elevations, along hillsides or at the bottom of slopes. Some
springs are just tiny trickles of water seeping from the ground, while others are large enough that
they create rivers or lakes.

Classification of Springs: - Springs are classified based on their flow

1. Gravity Spring: - these form from the pull of gravity. The water gets pulled down through the
ground until it reaches a layer it can't penetrate. Because it has nowhere else to go, it starts
flowing horizontally until it reaches an opening and water comes out as a spring. These are
usually found along hillsides and cliffs.

2. Artesian Springs: - These come from pressure in confined aquifers forcing the water to the
surface. The pressure inside the confined aquifer is less than the pressure outside the aquifer, so
the water moves in that direction. Any cracks or holes in the land will easily let the water
escape.

3. Seepage Spring: - This is groundwater seeping out at the surface. Seepage springs slowly let
water out through loose soil or rock and are often found in land depressions or low in valleys.

4. Tubular Spring: - These springs occur in underground cave systems, which resemble
underground highways. These tubes, or channels, are made of limestone, and as water moves
through this type of rock, it dissolves some of it away. Tubular springs are some of the largest
springs on Earth.

5. Fissure Springs :-Fissures are just large cracks, so you can probably figure out that fissure
springs occur along large cracks in the ground, like fault lines. Fissure springs are often used as
a source of drinking water, and sometimes scientists go looking for fissure springs when they
want to find a fault on Earth.

Artesian Wells

well from which water flows under natural pressure without pumping. As early as 12th century,
artesian wells were discovered by the French. When they were dug, water rose to the surface under
pressure and even gushed into the air. Similar wells found elsewhere were named Artesian wells.

Artificial Recharging of Groundwater

Although most recharge is supplied directly by rain fill, this intense demand for water in some
areas has led to artificial recharge of the ground. One example is the practice of water spreading in
dry parts of the American West. A common way to spread water for recharge is to build a low dam
across a stream valley. This holds water bank that would otherwise flow away and allows it to seep

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 Engineering Geology
downward and recharge aquifers beneath the stream be. The waterPrepared by underground
thereby, stored Pooja is
withdrawn through wells as needed. D
In some regions an aquifers may be recharged with used water. This practice has increased as air-
conditioning, which requires a large volume of water, has become commonplace in hot, dry
regions. Some cities have laws requiring that water used for air conditioning be returned to the
ground, where it successfully builds up the water table. This illustrates the basic principles of
groundwater conservation. Where groundwater with drawl exceeds the rate of recharge, the
lowering of the water table can lead to subsidence of the ground.

Recharge and Discharge Areas

Water enters the groundwater system as precipitation falling on recharges areas, which are areas
where water is added to the saturated zone.
It means through the system to discharge areas, which are areas where subsurface water is
discharged to streams or to a bodies of surface water. The aerial extent of recharge areas is
invariably larger than that of discharge area. In humid regions, recharge areas encompass nearly all
areas except stream and their adjacent floodplains. In more arid regions, recharge occurs mainly in
mountains and in the alluvial fans.
From the figure streams that flow from mountains having substantial rainfall into much drier
regions in which the water table lies deep beneath the surface. Water from these rivers leaks
downwards and recharges the groundwater below.

Sea Water Intrusion

Seawater intrusion is the movement of seawater into fresh water aquifers due to natural processes
or human activities. Seawater intrusion is caused by decreases in groundwater levels or by rises in
seawater levels. When you pump out fresh water rapidly, you lower the height of the freshwater in
the aquifer forming a cone of depression. The salt water rises 40 feet for every 1 foot of freshwater
depression and forms a cone of ascension. Intrusion can affect the quality of water not only at the
pumping well sites, but also at other well sites, and undeveloped portions of the aquifer.

Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic
connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a higher mineral content
than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland
beneath the freshwater.[1] Certain human activities, especially groundwater pumping from coastal
freshwater wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas. Water extraction drops
the level of fresh groundwater, reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further
inland.

Areas at highest risk of saltwater intrusion include locations:

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1. With the neat sketch, Explain internal structure and composition of the earth D
2. What are minerals? Describe the different properties of minerals.
3. Explain importance and applications of geology in the field of civil engineering.
4. Distinguish between rock forming minerals and ore forming minerals.
5. Write a note on Moh’s hardscale.
6. Write a note on cleavage and fracture properties of minerals.
7. Write the chemical composition , cleavages and uses of the following minerals
i. Calcite

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY D
BELGAUM

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(Subject Code: BCV303)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-3)
III-SEMESTER

Ms. Pooja D
Assistant Professor

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))
NH - 66, KottaraChowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006

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SYLLABUS D
Surface investigation for Civil Engineering projects
Weathering, type, causes, soil insitu, drifted soil, soil profile, soil mineralogy ,
structure, types of soil,
Black cotton soil v/s Lateritic soil; effects of weathering on monumental rocks,
River morphology and basin investigation for engineering Projects like earthen dam,
gravity dam, arch dam, features of
river erosion, deposition and their influences on river valley projects,
morphometric analysis of river
basin, selection of site for artificial recharge,, interlinking of river basins, coastal
process and landforms, sedimentation /siltation, erosion

ROCK AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

Rock is a solid cumulative of minerals located in the earth’s lithosphere. They have been used by
mankind through history as a basic construction material. There are huge variation within each
type of rocks, depending on their engineering properties rocks have been used in various
construction works. Rocks are using for making bricks, fire places and kitchen counter of our
homes, dams, buildings, railway ballast, pavement material, road metal, concrete aggregates etc.
Rocks are extremely important in terms of their stability and strength as a geological material on
which construction foundation are made.

Rocks are used as Construction Materials in Following:

Concrete Aggregate: Aggregates are used in concrete for very specific purposes. The use of coarse
and fine aggregates in concrete provides significant economic benefits for the final cost of concrete
in place. Aggregates typically make up about 60 to 75 percent of the volume of a concrete mixture,
and as they are the least expensive of the materials used in concrete, the economic impact is
measurable. Rocks in Concrete aggregate Concrete is made by mixing fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, cement and water. The raw material for making cement is also obtained by rocks.

Railway Ballast : used in railway ballast to a) To provide firm and level bed for the sleepers to rest
on b) To allow for maintaining correct track level without disturbing the rail road bed c) To drain
off the water quickly and to keep the sleepers in dry conditions d) To discourage the growth of
vegetation e) To protect the surface of formation and to form an elastic bed f) To hold the sleepers
in position during the passage of trains g) To transmit and distribute the loads from the sleepers to
the formation h) To provide lateral stability to the track as a whole
The stone to be used as railway ballast should be hard, tough nonporous and should not decompose
when exposed to air and light. Igneous rocks like quartzite and granite forms the excellent ballast
materials. Railway Ballast is the foundation of railway track and provide just below the sleepers.
The loads from the wheels of trains ultimately come on the ballast through rails and sleepers.

Roofing and Flooring: Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock that forms from the metamorphism of
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 Engineering Geology
Prepared
shale it is popular for a wide variety of uses such as roofing, flooring. Slate isby Pooja
useful for roofing,
pool tables and floor tile. Flooring and Roofing Shale, Marble, mudstone, slate and well D packed
sandstone are all examples of impermeable rocks which are extensively used for flooring and
roofing material. Stone are available in plenty across the entire stretch of the country. Many of
these are suitable for providing floors in residential construction. Stones suited for the purpose
should be strong and able to resist abrasion and impact besides giving a pleasing appearance. Some
of the stones which is used for floor construction are given below. (a) Kota stone (b) Granite (c)
Sand stone

Foundation: Rock foundations are always prefered because rocks offer a number of advantages
compare with soil in terms of stability and durability. Even the weakest rock is better in strength
and reliability compared to good soils. Rocks such as limestone, granite, sandstone, shale and hard
solid chalk have a high bearing capacity which are extensively used for foundation

Engineering Properties of Rock

Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured
stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and
difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are
used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face
works.

Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
block. Indian standard code recommends a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
building block. Due to non-uniformity of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to
find the permissible stress in a stone. Hence even laterite can be used safely for a single storey
building, because in such structures expected load can hardly give a stress of 0.15 N/mm2.
However in stone masonry buildings care should be taken to check the stresses when the beams
(Concentrated Loads) are placed on laterite wall.

Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement

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Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. by with
Hence stones Pooja
good
weather resistance should be used for face works. D

Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test Stones
with toughness index more than 20 are preferred for road works. Toughness indexes 13 to 19
are considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.

WEATHERING
It is a process that causes the breakdown of rocks, either to form new minerals that are stable on
the surface of the earth, or to break the rock down into smaller particles. Weathering is the result
of the interactions of air, water, and temperature on exposed rock surfaces and prepares the rock
for erosion.

Erosion is the movement of the particles by ice, wind, or water. The particles are then
transported by that agent until they are deposited to form sedimentary deposits, which can be
later eroded again or transformed into sedimentary rocks. Weathering is generally along, slow
process that is continuously active at the earth's surface.

There are two kinds of weathering:

1. mechanical
2. chemical.

Mechanical weathering: It is the process by which rocks are broken down into smaller pieces by
external conditions.

Processes of Mechanical Weathering

A single block is broken gradually into numerous small irregular fragments and then into
smaller fragments. further it is classified into block disintegration and granular disintegration.

Block disintegration:-This is because of regular arrangement of atoms in a rock, due to this

individual blocks are obtain.
Granular Disintegration: -This is because of irregular arrangement of atoms in a rock, due to this
small grains are obtain.

Thermal or Heat Effect:- The effect of change of temperature on rocks is of considerable

importance in arid and semi-arid regions where difference between day time and night time
temperature is very high. expansion on heating followed by contraction on cooling, repeated
expansion and of the same rock body gradually breaks into smaller pieces due to stress developing
by this process.

Frost Action: It results due to freezing of water which are trapped in the cracks of the rocks
widen sand deepens the cracks, breaking of f pieces and slabs.

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D
Plant and Animal activities:- Plant roots can extend into fractures and grow, causing
expansion of the fracture and eventually can break rock. Animals burrowing or moving through
cracks can break rock. Plants can penetrate into the ground just a few meters where as micro
organisms can penetrate to a depth of 10-25 mts.

Weathering Rinds- a rock may show an outer weathered zone and an inner unweathered
zone in the initial stages of weathering. The outer zone is known as a weathering rind

Exfoliation –Concentrated shells of weathering may form on the outside of a rock and may
become separated from the rock. these thin shells of weathered rocks are separated by stresses
that result from changes in volume of the minerals that occur as a result of the formation of new
minerals.

Spheroidal Weathering -If joints and fractures in rock beneath the surface form a 3-
dimensional network, the rock will be broken into cube like pieces separated by the fracture.
Water can penetrate more easily along this fracture and each of the cube- like pieces will begin to
weather inward. The rate of weathering will be greatest along the corners of each cube, followed
by the edges, and finally the faces of the cubes. As a result the cube will weather into a spherical
shape with unweathered rock in the center and weathered rock towards outside. such progress of
weathering is referred as Spheroidal Weathering.

Chemical weathering: it is a process where chemical alteration or decomposition of rock sand

minerals takes due to rain water and other atmospheric agents. chemical weathering weakens the
bonds in rock and makes them more vulnerable to decomposition and erosion.

Process of Chemical Weathering

The chemical weathering of rocks involves reactions that are interrelated that may occur
simultaneously, and that utilize water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic acids. These
processes include hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation, solution, hydration, and chemical changes
induced by the growth of plants.

Hydrolysis:-Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction between a mineral and water. It involves a reaction

between the H+ or OH" ions in the water and relatively active metallic ions such as sodium,
calcium, potassium and magnesium. Hydrolysis is particularly important in causing the
decomposition of silicate minerals. Although it may occur in the presence of pure water, in nature
hydrolysis nearly always involves carbon dioxide. To illustrate, small quantities of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere or soil are dissolved in water to form carbonic acid.

The potassium ions released from the feldspar may be carried away in solution, utilized by plants,
or become incorporated into clay minerals. A small part of the silica is removed in solution,

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 Engineering Geology
although the greater part remains in the clay-rich weathering residue.Prepared by Pooja
Carbonation:- As implied by the term, carbonation involves the chemical addition ofDcarbon
dioxide to earth materials. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (and in the air trapped within soils)
is readily absorbed to water to form carbonic acid. Although relatively weak, carbonic acid
nevertheless has a pervasive cumulative effect in the chemical weathering of a variety of different
kinds of rocks. It is involved in the dissolution of common silicate minerals and is particularly
effective in dissolving limestones and dolostones. The reaction for limestone is indicated below
H20 + C02= H2C03
Water carbon dioxide carbonic acid
H2C03 + CaC03 > Ca(HCCy2)
carbonic acid calcite soluble calcium (in limestone) bicarbonate
In order for carbonation to occur, water must be readily available. For this reason carbonation is
most vigorous in most climates.
In the weathering of silicate minerals, carbonation and hydrolysis work together as the earth's
most important processes for achieving decomposition of rocks. The hydrolysis component
provides clay minerals and takes silica into solution, while simultaneously carbonation removes
metallic elements as ions in solution.

Oxidation:-Oxidation, the addition of oxygen to a compound, is one of the main kinds of

changes produced in rocks by chemical weathering. Oxygen has a strong affinity for iron, which
may be present in such silicate minerals as hornblende, and olivine, as well as sulphides such as
pyrite (FeS).

The oxidation of the iron (essentially what we call rusting) takes place chiefly in the presence of
atmospheric moisture and results in the range of red and brown colourations we see in soils, and
weathered rocks. In the oxidation process, oxygen gas dissolved in water reacts with iron to from
hematite (Fe203) or limonite (Fe203 H2O). The process is illustrated by the illustrated by the
following formula,
4Fe + 302 + nH2O -> 2(Fe203) nH20
iron oxygen water "limonite" iron hydroxide or "rust"
(n means a variable amount)

Hydration:- Hydration is a process whereby water is absorbed by a mineral and incorporated into
the weathering product. For example the mineral anhydrite (CaS0 4) may take in water to become
alabaster gypsum (CaS04 nH2O), or hematite (Fe2 03) may be converted to limonite (Fe203 nH20).
Hydration is an important process in the development of clay and accounts for the presence of
water within many clay minerals. Another aspect of hydration is that the hydrated mineral,
because of the water it has taken up, larger than the parent mineral. The increase in volume causes
growing hydrated crystals to exert pressure on the walls of the spaces they occupy, and such
pressure may contribute to rock disintegration.

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SOIL Prepared by Pooja
Soil is an important natural resource, they represent the interface between the lithosphereD
and the
biosphere. As soil provides nutrients to plants, soils consists of weathered rock plus organic
material that comes from decaying plants and animals.
Engineers define soil as any unconsolidated material that may be excavated without blasting. Soil
contains mostly quartz and clay particles of varying sizes. The quartz sand grains help keep the soil
porous, and the clay particles hold water and nutrients for plant growth.
Sand – composed of sand grains mostly without clay
Loam – Mixture of sand and clay
Clay– The finest material, mostly kaoline without sand

Importances of soils are:

1) Natural resource(for agriculture, for construction material)
2) Soil erosion
3) As a sediment source(via erosion)
4) As a water filter(for water infiltrating the ground)
5) As a contaminant sink
6) As a bearing material (for building on)

Soil Profile: When a soil develops on a rock, a soil profile develops as shown below. These
different layers are not the same as beds formed by sedimentation, instead each of the horizons
forms and grows in place by weathering and the addition of organic material from decaying
plants and plant roots. Vertical sequence of A, B, C and D horizon is the soil profile which is as
follows.
Selection of Site for Dams and Reservoirs
A dam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley.
The principle uses are to provide stream regulation and storage for communities or industrial
water supply, power, irrigation, flood control. A dam that serves more than 1 such purpose is
known as multipurpose dam.

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Prepared
Fig- Schematic Cross Section of Dam by Pooja
Structure of Dam: Generally Dam consists of following parts D
Heel : It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the upstream side.
Toe : It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the downstream side.
Abutments : These are the sides of the valley on which the dam structure rests.
Free board: It is the difference in level between the top of the dam wall and the highest storage
level.
Galleries : These are small rooms left within the dam for checking operations
Diversion tunnels : These are the tunnels which are constructed beforehand for diverting the
river water. This helps in keeping the river bed dry at the dam site and facilitates dam
construction.
Spill way : It is the arrangement made in a dam near the top to let off excess water of the
reservoir to the downstream side.
Sluice way : It is an opening in the dam near the ground level. It is useful in clearing the silt of
the reservoir.
Cut-off wall : It is an underground well-like structure of concrete in the heel portion. It is
useful in preventing leakage under the foundation and thereby avoiding undercutting of the
heel as well as the uplift pressure (or upward thrust) on the dam, which are harmful to dam
stability.

1. Gravity Dam
2. Buttress Dam
3. Arch Dam
4. Earth dam

1. Gravity Dam :- A gravity dam is a solid masonry or concrete structure generally of a

Triangular in cross section. solid gravity dam drive their stability from weight of the
materials comprising the structure. Axis may be straight line it is designed that it can with
hold a percolated volume of water by its weight. All the applied forces on such a dam is
due to water and weight of the dam itself are assumed to be directly transmitted to the
foundation rock.

Fig: A Typical Cross Section of Gravity Dam

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1. Buttress Dam: - A buttress dam or hollow dam is a D
dam with a solid, water-tight
upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of
buttresses or supports. The dam wall may be flat or curved. Most buttress dams are made
of reinforced concrete and are heavy, pushing the dam into the ground. Water pushes
against the dam, but the buttresses are inflexible and prevent the dam from falling over.

Fig: Buttress Dam Cross Section and Plan

2. Arch Dam: - An arch dam is an impermeable concrete shell shaped an arch in plan when
curved in vertical section it forms a dome shape. Many gravity dams are arched in plan. But
he characteristic of an arch dam is that it’s cross section. Arch dam are thin, they require the
least volume of construction materials of all designs yet their shape makes them strongest of
all.

.
Fig: Arch Dam
3. Earth dam: - These consists essentially core of impermeable material, such as clay or
concreted, supported by permeable boulders of earth and rockfill, when a clay are used it is
normally flanked by filters of permeable material such as sand to protect the core from
erosion by the seepage of reservoir water through dam. Embankment dams, by virtue of the
slopes required for their stability. Earth fill and rock fill dam are terms used to described
suitable sedimentary materials such a clay, sand and rock blocks that can be placed to
forming safe embankment.

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Fig: Earth Dam

Geological Considerations in the Selection of Dam Site

The important geological environment requirements that should be considered in the
selection of a dam site are as followed
1. Narrow River Valley.
2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth.
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation.
4. Proper geological structures.

1. Narrow River Valley

i) If the proposed site contains a narrow river valley, only a small dam is required, which means
the cost of the dam construction is also will be less. On the other hand if the valley is wider,
construction cost will be very high and maintenance of the dam will also be high. Yet if the
valley is narrow, following considerations should be taken in to account.
ii) Deceptive narrowing of a valley due to the occurrence of thick superficial deposits such as
residual soil and talus in recently glaciated regions, moraine, boulder clay, sand, gravel and
river alluvium.
iii) Narrow valley due to deceptive rock outcrops which are the result of land slip, rock creep
and rock fracturing
iv) The occurrence of buried river channels crossing the site, either below the bed or adjacent to
it

2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth

i) If the dam rest on very strong and stable rocks, the stability and safety of the dam will be
very high. This also reduces the cost of the dam. On the other hand the dam cost will be high
and the work of excavation will be overburden. This also requires heavy concrete refilling.

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ii) In the case of deposition along the river valley depends on the stage of river. by Pooja
If the river is in
young stage, the erosion might have exposed the strong bed rocks that may occur at the surfaceD
this would be competent for the dam construction.
iii) The hilly terrain which occurs in these stages may not provide a suitable topography for the
occurrence of a large reservoir basin and the flow of water itself may not be high in such
developing rivers for obvious reasons. In older stage, the deposition will be resulting in
overburden. This means that suitable bedrock may lie at a considerable depth and hence proves
uneconomical.
iv) The general occurrence of material like clay, silt, sand and gravel along the river bed,
naturally makes it difficult to assess the thickness of loose overburden by mere surficial studies.
Therefore, to know the bedrock profile in the river valley along the axis of the proposed dam,
geophysical investigations such as “electrical resistivity studies” or seismic refraction studies”
are carried out carefully.
v) In certain places particularly in glaciated regions, the occurrence of buried river valleys, a
buried river valley may occur in the river bed that is generally deep, and is composed of loose
drift which is a highly porous and permeable material. This poses problems of weakness and
leakage which are dangerous for the success of the dam.

Competent Rocks for Safe Dam: The suitability of the site for the dam construction can be
estimated by the following factors:
1. The existing rock type at the dam.
2. The extent of weathering it has undergone.
3. The occurrence of intrusions.
4. The extent of fracturing.
5. The occurrence of geological structures.
6. The mode and number of rock types.

Suitability of igneous rocks

These are the most desirable rocks at the dam site. Because these are strong and durable due to
their dense character, interlocking texture, hard silicate mineral composition, occurrence of
negligible porosity and permeability, absence of any inherent weak planes, resistance to
weathering and their tendency to occur over wide areas. Yet it should be checked that the
selected rocks are not affected by weathering or fracturing or dykes or any geological structures
like shearing, faulting and jointing. Thus, all plutonic rocks like granites, syenites, diorites and
gabbors are very competent and desirable rocks for the foundation at the dam site. Yet another
consideration should be taken in to account, i.e. volcanic rocks, which are generally vesicular or
amygdaloidal, are not desirable since they will be permeable and contribute to porosity and
hollowness, in turn contributing to weakness of rocks. The case of massive basalts, which are
very fine grained, are one of the toughest rocks in the nature. Yet they can be adversely effected
when they are vesicular and permeable.

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Suitability of sedimentary rocks: D
In the case of sedimentary rocks following factors affect the construction of dam.
1. The bedding and its orientation.
2. Thickness of beds.
3. Nature and extent of compaction and cementation.
4. Grain size.
5. Leaching of soluble matter.
6. Porosity and permeability.
7. Associated geological structures and
8. Composition of constituents.

Sedimentary rocks those are undesirable:

1. Shales are the most undesirable at the dam site, as they form slippery bases.
2. Laterites and conglomerates are undesirable, because of their porosity and permeability.
3. Lime stones are competent if they are massive, i.e, unaffected by the solution phenomenon,
but are liable to become dangerously porous for the same reason at any time in future.
4. Alternating soft and hard rocks for small thickness are undesirable.

Suitability of Metamorphic rocks:

Among the metamorphic rocks,
1. “Gneisses” are most competent rocks like granites, unless they possess a very high degree of
foliation and are richly accompanied by mica-like minerals.
2. “Schists” are undesirable because
a. Their constituent minerals are soft and possess a very well developed cleavage.
b. The schistose structure results because of the foliation of minerals present in the rock.
3. Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant to weathering. They are neither porous nor
permeable.
4. Marbles, like quartzites, are compact, bear a granulose structure, are not porous, not
permeable and reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical composition and mineral
composition they are unsuitable at dam sites.
5. Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage (due to the presence of minute flakes of mica). Hence this
rock is soft and weak, and undesirable at the dam site.
6. Khondalites, which are feldspar-rich, are to some extent heterogeneous in terms of their
mineral compostion. They often contain soft graphite, hard granet, etc. in addition to other
minerals. They are highly weathered and hence unsuitable at dam site.

TUNNELS

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Tunnels are the underground passages or routes through hills, mountains bycrust
or earth Pooja
used for
D the
different purposes. These passages are made by excavating rocks below the surface or through
hills, mountains.

Tunnels are basically made to serve some specific purposes. For instance:
1. Transportation tunnels: tunnels made across hills or high lands to lay roads or railway tracks
for regular traffic and transportation purpose.
2. Traffic tunnels: Tunnels laid to reduce the distance between places of interest across natural
obstacles like hills, to save time and provide convenience are called traffic tunnels. These have
the advantage of leaving the ground surface undisturbed so that it can be used as desired.
3. Diversion tunnels: The tunnels layed for diverting normal flow of river water to keep the dam
site dry are called diversion tunnels.
4. Pressure tunnels: these are also called as hydropower tunnels. These are used to allow water
to pass through them under force, used for power generation.
5. Discharge tunnels: These are meant for conveying water from one point to another under
gravity force, like across hill.
6. Public utility tunnels: These are the tunnels layed for public supplies like drinking water
supply, cables laying, sewage discharge or oil supply etc.

Geological Considerations of tunnel sites

1) Lining of tunnels:
i) When tunnels are made through weak or loose or unconsolidated formations, they are
provided with suitable lining for safety and stability. Lining refers to the support porvided to
tunnel. Lining may be in the form of steel structures or concrete.
ii) The main purposes of lining are to resist the pressures from the surroundings and to protect
the shape of tunnel. It takes care of the weaknesses of the ground. It also helps in checking
leakage of ground water into tunnel.
iii) The thickness of concrete lining dependes on the extent of protection required, and the
degree of weakness of the ground. Lining is provided to support weak parts of the tunnel.
Lining is also provided in such places where the seepage of water into the tunnel occurs and
creating problems. In the case of very weak rocks with unfavorable geological structures, lining
may be necessary through out the length of the tunnel. The zones of faulting or shearing also
need suitable lining to impart strength to them.

2) Overbreak
During tunneling the excavations normally involve the removal of extra rocks or matter around
the tunnel. The quantity of rock broken and removed, in excess of what is required by the
perimeter of the proposed tunnel, is known as overbreak.

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Factors governing the amout of overbreak:

1) The nature of the rocks.
2) The orientation and spacing of joints or weak zones in them.
3) In the case of sedimentary rocks, the orientation of the bedding planes
4) Thickness of the beds with respec to the alignment of the tunnel.

Geological factors influencing the overbreak:

1.) Massive and soft rocks of a homogenous nature cause less overbreak than harder rocks with
well developed joints or weak zones.
2.) In sedimentary rocks, thin formations and those with alternating hard and soft strata produce
more overbreak. This is because, during excavation, softer rocks yield more than the hard rocks.
3.) In metamorphic rocks, foliated and soft formations like slats and schists produce more
overbreak if the tunnel lies parallel to them and less overbreak if they are mutually across.
4.) Tunnels that pass through a single thick homogenous formation without structural defects
produce little overbreak, whereas tunnels which pass through a variety of rocks with structural
defects like fault zones or which are less thickness of strata or alignment cutting across different
strata along the dip direction, produces more overbreak.

Site Selection for Bridge

A bridge is a structure built to across physical obstacles without closing the way underneath
such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.

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Fig: Cross Section of Bridge

Parts of Bridges
Bed:-Surface of firm ledge or bed rock providing a stable foundation for bridge piers.
Abutment: -The end supports of a bridge to withstand thrust
Wing wall: - A masonry or concrete wall that guides a river into a bridge.
Pier:- A rectangular, oval or circular masonry or RCC column that supports the super structures
of a bridge erected from a firm bearing bed for stability.

Components of Bridge

1. Sub Structure:- constructions on the banks, piers, wing walls and foundations.
2. Super Structure: - comprises of construction that res on the piers and the abutments including
girders and beams.

Bridge Types: -It is classified into

I). Stationary bridges: - these are common bridges constructed across valley and depression
built of masonry or concrete accommodating roads or railways. masonry is used for arch bridges,
reinforced of prestressed concrete used for medium to long bridges.
II). Movable bridges: - These are adopted across water ways that accommodate shipping.
These are consists of one or two movable steel sections or spans-single or double bascules.
These are lifted up at either end to allow ships to pass through and then lowered back to position
providing normal road or railway

The important bridge problems that lead to the failure are

1. Erosion of the piers and wing walls
2. Deep scouring and collapse of bridges
3. Wash out due to flood currents
4. Settlement of piers
5. Earthquake effects

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An ideal site for the construction of a bridge is the one across a valley cut in sound rock and
where the stream flow is free from scour, provoking currents due to bends and other causes.
A high stable bank, narrow stretches of water accommodating a bridge of minimum length
with little or no effect.

The important geological aspects and conditions are:-

1. Bed rock at round surface i.e. sound hard rock profile of the bed and banks of valleys, canals
and depressions.

2. The piers and abutments of bridges should be constructed on hard intact rocks only and not on
over burden such as fill, rock debris, sand etc.

3. Rock formation should be intact, strong and tough without defects and weak planes.
4. Intact intrusive igneous rocks like granite, compact basalt, Sedimentary like hard Sand stone
free from excessive joints and metamorphic like massive gneiss, quartzite provide excellent
foundation abutment and bearing materials.
5. Bedded and Jointed formations especially those dipping into the river at lesser angle than the
slope of the natural banks always dangerous as they tend to slide at any movement it is shown
in figure.

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6. Faulting brings rocks of diverse character strength together along the fault line. Any further
displacement at the fault contact may adversely affect the piers like displacement, tilting.
Therefore it is very essential to treat the fault one well and substructure suitability designed.
7. soluble formation like lime stone, gypsum rocks are enlarged with elongated joints
solution channels networks of excessive cracks create serious problems like understanding
of banks.

A- Horizon: Top soil, organic layer

B- Horizon: Rich in mineral matter, zone of
Accumulation of clays. Colloids, iron and
Aluminum oxides. The horizon A and B is
Combined is called Solum which is a true
Soil zone.
C- Weathered material
D- Horizon: Solid rock (fresh parent rock)

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soils are basically divided into two main groups:
1. Residual and
2. Transported soils

1. Residual Soils:- A soil that is formed by weathering of the parent rock and still Occupies the
position of the formed, which it has been formed, is called a residual soil.
The important types of residual soils are:
1. Red Soils
2. Black Soils
3. Lateritic Soils

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1. Red Soil: - These are residual soils derived mainly D
from the disintegration and
decomposition of ancient granites and geneisses and contain coarse grains of quartz and
mica and fines mainly kaolinite. Red Soils are generally heavily stained red with iron oxides
grading into brown, yellow gray and even black. These are fairly rich in potash, porous and
contain no salts and free carbonate and moderately fertile. Red Soils occur extensively in
peninsular India covering the states of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Parts of Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2. Black Soil:- These are residual soils mainly from the alteration of basalts. Black soils are
typically highly clay. Black soils are fine grained, porous, sticky and swell when wet and
contracts on drying with the development of a network of deep cracks. These highly fertile
and excellent for cotton cultivation, hence called black cotton soil locally. In India black
soils are derived from the alteration of Deccan Basalts and occur over a very wide area of
over 200,000 sq miles in western and central parts covering the states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, parts of M.P , Orissa, A.P and Karnataka.

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3. Laterites: - Laterites are residual soils formed in tropical regions. Laterites are very soft
D
when freshly cut but become hard after long exposure. Hardness is due to cementing
action of iron oxide and aluminium oxide that are most resistant to leaching. Valuable
metals like aluminum, copper, silver, gold, nickel and iron are concentrated in literates.
These soils are also called lateritic soils.

2. Transported Soil:- Any soil that has been transported from place of origin by wind, water &
glaciers and redeposit in another place. This type formation is known as transported soil.

Formational Processes:- The origin of transported soils involve three important process, they
are Erosion, Transportation and Deposition.

Erosion: Erosion is a process where natural forces like water, wind, ice, and gravity wear away
rocks and soil. It is a geological process, and part of the rock cycle. Erosion occurs at the
Earth's surface, and has no effect on the Earth's mantle and core.
Transportation:- The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places by agents of
transportation, such as water, ice, wind and gravity.
Deposition: - Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added
to a landform or land mass. Wind, ice, water & gravity transport previously weathered surface
material which at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid is deposited building up layers
of sediment.

Soils are further classified according to the transporting agency and method of deposition,
Alluvial deposits:-Soils deposited from suspension in running water
Lacustrine soil: -Soils deposited from suspension in quiet fresh water
lakes
Marine soil;- soil deposited from suspension in sea water
Aeolian soil: -Soils transported by wind
Glacial soils: -Soils transported by thick mass ice

Drainage System

In geomorphology, drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by
the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by the
topography of the land, whether a particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and
the gradient of the land. Geomorphologists and hydrologists often view streams as being part
of drainage basins. A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a stream receives
runoff, through flow, and groundwater flow.
According to the configuration of the channels, drainage systems can fall into one of several
categories known as drainage patterns. Drainage patterns depend on the topography and
geology of the land.

1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern :- Dendritic drainage systems are the most common form of
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drainage system. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams (analogous D
to
the twigs of a tree), which are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river (the
branches and the trunk of the tree, respectively). They develop where the river channel
follows the slope of the terrain. Dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the
rock types must be impervious and non-porous.

2. Parallel Drainage Pattern : A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep
slopes with some relief. Because of the steep slopes, the streams are swift and straight, with
very few tributaries, and all flow in the same direction. This system forms on uniformly
sloping surfaces. A parallel pattern also develops in regions of parallel, elongate landforms
like outcropping resistant rock bands. Tributary streams tend to stretch out in a parallel-like
fashion following the slope of the surface. A parallel pattern sometimes indicates the
presence of a major fault that cuts across an area of steeply folded bedrock.

3. Trellis drainage pattern: The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a
common garden trellis used to grow vines. As the river flows along a strike valley, smaller
tributaries feed into it from the steep slopes on the sides of mountains. These tributaries enter
the main river at approximately 90 degree angle, causing a trellis-like appearance of the
drainage system. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains.

4. Rectangular drainage pattern: Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of

approximately uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of joining at
approximately right angles. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the bulk rock
so erosion tends to preferentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the
joints. The result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly of straight line
segments with right angle bends and tributaries join larger streams at right angles.

5. Radial drainage pattern : In a radial drainage system, the streams radiate outwards from a
central high point. Volcanoes usually display excellent radial drainage. Other geological
features on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and laccoliths. On these
features the drainage may exhibit a combination of radial patterns.

6. Annular drainage pattern : In an annular drainage pattern streams follow a roughly circular
or concentric path along a belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a ring like pattern. It is best
displayed by streams draining a maturely dissected structural dome or basin where erosion
has exposed rimming sedimentary strata of greatly varying degrees of hardness.

Site Selection for Artificial Recharging of Groundwater

Although most recharge is supplied directly by rain fill, this intense demand for water in some
areas has led to artificial recharge of the ground. One example is the practice of water spreading
in dry parts of the American West. A common way to spread water for recharge is to build a low
dam across a stream valley. This holds water bank that would otherwise flow away and allows it
to seep downward and recharge aquifers beneath the stream be. The water thereby, stored
underground is withdrawn through wells as needed.

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In some regions an aquifers may be recharged with used water. This practice has increased
D as
air-conditioning, which requires a large volume of water, has become commonplace in hot, dry
regions. Some cities have laws requiring that water used for air conditioning be returned to the
ground, where it successfully builds up the water table. This illustrates the basic principles of
groundwater conservation. Where groundwater with drawl exceeds the rate of recharge, the
lowering of the water table can lead to subsidence of the ground.

Recharge and Discharge Areas

Water enters the groundwater system as precipitation falling on recharges areas, which are areas
where water is added to the saturated zone.
It means through the system to discharge areas, which are areas where subsurface water is
discharged to streams or to a bodies of surface water. The aerial extent of recharge areas is
invariably larger than that of discharge area. In humid regions, recharge areas encompass nearly
all areas except stream and their adjacent floodplains. In more arid regions, recharge occurs
mainly in mountains and in the alluvial fans.
From the figure streams that flow from mountains having substantial rainfall into much drier
regions in which the water table lies deep beneath the surface. Water from these rivers leaks
downwards and recharges the groundwater below.

Interlinking of river basins

It is the water transfer from the water surplus rivers to water deficit rivers or regions. It will
increase water supply, irrigation potential, mitigate floods, and droughts and reduce regional
imbalance in the availability of water.

River Interlinking Projects - Need

 Reducing Regional Imbalance: India is dependent on erratic and regionally

imbalanced monsoon rains. River interconnection will reduce the amount of
excess rain and river water that flows into the sea. 
 Irrigation for Agriculture: Interlinking can provide a solution to India's rain-fed
irrigation problems by transferring surplus water to deficit regions. 
 Reducing Water Stress: To some extent, this can help to mitigate the effects of
drought and flooding. 
 Other advantages include hydropower generation, year-round navigation, job creation,
and environmental benefits as dried-up forests and lands are replenished.

River Interlinking Projects - Significance

 The interlinking river is a method of transferring excess water from high-rainfall areas
to drought-prone areas. It can thus control both floods and droughts.
 This will also aid in the resolution of the country's water crisis in many areas.
 The project will also aid in the generation of hydropower. This project calls for the
construction of numerous dams and reservoirs. If the entire project is completed, it
will generate approximately 34000 MW of electricity.
 The project will aid in the enhancement of dry weather flow. That is, during a dry
season, excess water stored in reservoirs can be released. This will allow for the least
amount of water flow in the rivers. 

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This will greatly aid in pollution control, navigation, forests, fisheries, by Pooja
wildlife protection, and
so on. D
 Indian agriculture is primarily dependent on the monsoon. When the monsoons behave
unexpectedly, this causes problems in agricultural output. When irrigation facilities improve, this
problem will be solved. The project will provide irrigation services in water-stressed areas.
 The project will also benefit the economy by improving the inland waterways transportation
system. Furthermore, rural areas will have an alternate source of income in the form of fish
farming, among other things. 
 The project will also strengthen the country's defense and security by providing additional
waterline defense. 

COASTAL PROCESS AND LANDFORM

The landforms that develop and persist along the coast are the result of a combination of processes acting
upon the sediments and rocks present in the coastal zone. The most prominent of these processes involves
waves and the currents that they generate, along with tides.

The earth's surface isn't even all the way around. Some areas are flat, while others are mountainous.
Landforms come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The varied physical features present on the Earth’s surface
like mountains, plains, valleys, plateaus etc. are called landforms.
The different types of landforms are :

1. Mountains
2. Plateaus
3. Valleys
4. Plains
Sedimentation /siltation, erosion
The total sediment is volume of sediment particles in motion per unit time. This includes the sediment
transported by bed load motion and by suspensions as well as the wash load. Siltation is the
accumulation of silt (fine particles of sand, mud, and other materi- als) in the reservoir.

QUESTION BANK
1. What are the geological aspects to be considered in site selection of dam?
2. What are the geological aspects to be considered in site selection of tunnel?
3. What are the geological aspects to be considered in site Selection of Bridge?
4. Explain weathering and its Classification
5. List and explain types of soil

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELGAUM

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
(Subject Code: BCV303)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-4)
III-SEMESTER

Ms. Pooja D
Assistant Professor

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))
NH - 66, KottaraChowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006

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SYLLABUS D
Subsurface investigation for deep foundation

Borehole data Dip and strike, and outcrop problems numerical problem geometrical/
simple trigonometry based, Electrical Resistivity meter, depth of water table, seismic
studies, faults, folds, unconformity, joints types, recognitionand their significance in Civil
engineering projects like tunnel project, dam project, , Ground improvements like rock
bolting, rockjointing, grouting
DEFORMATION OF ROCKS

Rocks may deform in variety of ways in responses to stresses, largely imposed by plate tectonic
processes. The record of rock deformation, in the form of macroscopic features such as folds and
faults, provides valuable information on the tectonic history of an area. Whether rocks respond to
these differential stresses by folding or faulting is determined by the pressure, temperature,
composition of the rock and the rate at which the stresses are applied. We will examine the major
types of folds and faults, as well as the relationship of these features to the tectonic settings in
which they occur.

BEDDING
Most sedimentary rocks are deposited under conditions, which favors development of distinct
layers from bottom to top. These layers are often easily distinguished on the basis of variation in
color, composition and grain size. A sit is sedimentary rocks are the most wide spread on the
surface of the earth, forming more than 75 percent of all the rocks exposed. This layered
character called stratification or bedding.

Fig: Inclined Layers and Horizontal Layers

Dip
The dip is both the direction of maximum slope down an inclined surface and the angle between

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OR D
Dip is the direction in which the steepest angle is formed between the plane of the rock bed and
the horizontal surface. The dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature
relative to a horizontal plane, and is given by the number (0°-90°) as well as a letter (N,S,E,W)
with rough direction in which the bed is dipping downwards

Strike
Strike is the direction of the line that is formed by the intersection of the plane of the rock bed
with a horizontal surface or the strike is the direction of intersection of an inclined surface with
any horizontal plane

Fig: showing dip and strike

Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a vertical plane that is not perpendicular to the
strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if strike is known.
Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to
strike.

JOINTS OR FRACTURE

Fractures are surfaces along which rocks or minerals have broken, thus generating two free surfaces
where none existed before; Joints are natural divisional planes or fractures dissecting rock masses
in patterns along which there has been no parallel movement of blocks of rocks. The joints are
rupture deformation, but differ from fault in not accompanied by dislocation of blocks of rocks.
However, there may be slight displacement at right angles producing an open fracture. tensional
forces due to drying, shrinkage or contraction or compressive forces due to earth movement
produce joints in rocks.

The spacing of joints may vary largely from centimeters to meters. Joints rarely occur lonely and
they usually exist in groups running parallel to each other.

A set of parallel joints of common origin is called a joint set. A few joint sets may often intersect
forming characteristic patterns. They may intersect perpendicularly or obliquely creating joint

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systems. Presence of joint systems or joint sets gives a fragmental bywhen
appearance Pooja
they are
closely spaced and a blocky appearance when widely spaced D

Fig: An example of vertical joint

Classification of joints

Joints are classified based on

a) Forces causing the joints called genetic joints

b) The position of the joint relative to the dip and strike of the rock bed called geometric joints.

Joints of the former type are said to be of genetic type and the latter of geometric type

a) Genetic Types of Joints: - These joints are of two types, namely tension joints and shear joints.
Tension joints are large as well as wide. These joints are formed by tensile forces which are
induced due to change in volume of rocks due to drying shrinkage in the process of cooling or
dehydration and stretching of the fold limbs of a strata. The tension joints appear rough, irregular
with jagged surfaces. Rocks easily yield to tensile forces and the rock joints are mostly tension
joints.

Tension joints
I) Tension Joints in Igneous Rocks: As magma undergoes cooling and solidifies or as lava
gradually cools and becomes rigid, cracks or ruptures occur forming tension joints. These joints
may be mural joints or sheet joints or columnar joints.

i) Mural Joints: These joints are common in granites and related plutonic rocks and some
hypabyssal rocks. These joints appear in a three dimensional network, the joint sets being
mutually perpendicular to each other. The joints break the rock into separate somewhat cubical
blocks. Such block separation permits easy quarrying of the rock. The joints may be attacked by
weathering agents due to whose actions the separated cubical blocks may get rounded.

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ii) Sheet Joints: These joints also are seen in granites and other plutonic rocks. In this case there is
one set of prominent joints parallel to the ground surface whose spacings generally increase
with depth and a second set running at right angles. The joints in this case separate the rock
body into sheet like blocks

iii) Columnar Joints: These joints are seen in basalts and some other volcanic igneous rocks.
They consist of vertical and horizontal joints separating the rock body into a number of vertical
polygonal (quite often hexagonal prismatic columns). When the horizontal lavas cool weak planes
are developed by radial contraction causing these joints

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II) Tension Joints in Sedimentary Rocks: When many layers of sediments Prepared by Poojaduring
are deposited,
their consolidation under high pressure ruptures occur breaking them into smaller volumes.DThese
joints appear at right angles to each other in more or less regular intervals. These are common in
massive and also the bedded sedimentary rocks. The most common tension joints of sedimentary
rocks are called master joints.

I) Master Joints: These joints are mostly seen in sandstones and limestone’s. These joints consist
of three sets of mutually perpendicular joints. One set of joints is parallel to the bedding planes.
The other two sets are perpendicular to the bedding planes and occur in staggered pattern. These
joints continue for long distance maintaining regularity in spacing and width and are therefore
named as master joints

II) Shear Joints: These are joints associated with deformed rocks especially folded rocks. These
joints occur as intersecting or crisscrossing sets at a high angle. These joints are referred to as
conjugate joint system. These joints are produced by the action of shear stresses occurring in
folding and faulting stages. They are narrowly spaced intersection joints.

a) Geometric Types of Joints: In this case the joints are classified based on their attitude relative
to the dip and strike of the rock strata. In this case the joints are classified into dip joints, strike
joints and oblique joints. Dip joints run in the direction of the dip of the strata. (Ex: Extension
joints)

i) Extension and Release Joints: These joints are seen in folded rock strata. These joints are
formed in the crestal region of the fold and they extend parallel or at right angles to the axial
plane or in both these directions. The joints running parallel are called release joints (they run
along the strike of the folds) and the joints running at right angles to these are called extension
joints.

Fig: Extension and Release Joints

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Importance of joints: joints are important not only in understanding the local and Dregional
geology and geomorphology, but also are important in
1) Development of natural resources
2) The safe design of structures, and environmental protection
3) Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a
strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop
4) The natural circulation (geo hydrology) of fluids,
Ex. ground water and pollutants within aquifers, petroleum in reservoirs, and hydrothermal
circulation at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe
development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources
5) Joints influence quarrying and blasting pattern
6) Joints planes provide potential depositional channels of mineralizing solutions
7) Joints render rocks weak and unstable
8) Joints are helpful in exploration of water and locating well sites

FAULTS
Fault is a fracture or fracture zone in rock along which there has been displacement of 2 sides
relatively to one another parallel to fracture.
A fault is a rupture deformation produced either by tensional or compressive force.

Parts of Fault:-

Fig: Parts of Fault

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Fault plane:-The planar fracture surface along which the break and dislocation of rock beds
taken place.
In elevation and plan, ie the vertical and horizontal sections the fault plane appears as a line along
which the dislocated beds remain almost in contact with each other.
The fault plane may be simple, clean cut smooth or slicken sided open fracture or a an irregular
zone of a number or smaller intersection fracture making a small angle with the main fault called
a shear zone often filled with crushed rock and flour.
The lower wall of an inclined fault plane is called the footwall and the upper wall the
hanging wall.
Throw:-The vertical component of fault movement
The side of fault plane or trace, which appears to have moved down, ie the fault block above an
inclined fault plane is called down, throw side.
The side that appears to have moved up relative to the down throw side is called the upthrow side.
The amount of throw varies from a few centimeters to thousand of meters.
Heave: - The horizontal component of the fault movement, the shift in measured at right angles
to the strike movement.
Hade: - The angle between the inclined fault plane and the vertical. Hade is the compliment of
the dip of the in degrees Hade is measured from the vertical and its fault plane expressed
Slip: - The displacement of the formerly adjacent points. The slip may be:-
a).Translational:-the direct down dip or upside movement of rocks blocks on the fault plane in
the direction of its true dip called dip-slip or sideward movement called strike slip or a
combination of these called oblique-slip
b).Rotational: -the fault blocks rotated relative to each other.

Classification and Types of Faults

Faults are classified and described on the basis of
(a).The direction of slip of beds, ie the apparent displacement of fault blocks relative to each
other and the causative forces called the genetic types.
(b).The attitude of fault plane relative to the attitude of rocks beds called the geometric
types.
1. Genetic types
The various types of faults the normal, reverse and lateral faults are the basic types.
Normal Fault:-A normal fault is a high angle dip-slip fault in which the fault

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Steeply with hade 100-200 or less. the vertical component of thePreparedmovement byie Pooja
the throw is
D but
generally large. The fault traces of normal faults commonly run straight or slightly sinuous,
may be very irregular due to slumping of the sides later. Normal faults may small, local or regional
features and area also called gravity faults.

Reversal Faults:- Where the crust is being compressed, reverse faulting occurs, in which the
hanging-wall block moves up and over the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently inclined plane
is referred to as thrust faulting.

Reverse faults are produced by severe compressive forces and the fault planes commonly area
gently dipping with large hade over450. when the heave or the horizontal of the movement is
large, often many kilometers in case of larger faults. The up throw side is actually thrust over the
down throw side due to great tangential forces. as such a reversal fault is also called thrust fault.
when topography is high the fault trace of a reverse fault will be very irregular. Reverse fault may
be small, local or regional.

Lateral Fault:- A fault is a strike slip fault, ie. In which the dislocation is essentially horizontal
in the direction of the strike of the fault plane without any dip-slip component Lateral faults are
also called transverse, transcurrent or wrench faults. The fault plane is vertical of near vertical.
Different types of lateral faults are:-
a.) Left-Lateral Fault- in which the left block appears to have moved towards the obsever

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b.) Right-Lateral or Dextral: - in which the right side block appears to have moved towards the
observer.

c.) Diagonal-Slip Fault:- this is an oblique-slip fault in which the dislocation is diagonal ie. At
an angle to the direction of true-dip and strike of the fault plane, up or down both dip-slip and
strike-slip components.

d.) Hinge-Fault:-A fault with an angular or rotational displacement in which the wall rocks of
one side have rotated along an axis normal to the fault plane with respect to the rocks of the
other wall.

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Geometric Types
In regions of inclined and folded beds faults are described according to the trend of the fault trace
relative to the attitude of rock bodies.
Dip Fault: - In which the fault plane trends in the direction of the dip of strata, i.e the fault strikes
parallel to the dip of the strata.
Strike Fault: - In which the fault trace trends in the direction of the strike of the strata i.e the
fault strikes parallel to the strike of the beds.
Oblique Fault:- when the fault trace trends at an angle to the dip and strike directions of the
strata i.e. The fault strikes diagonally across the beds, hence it is also called as diagonal fault.

Importance of Fault
1) Fault movement triggers earthquake and landslides.
2) Fault zones are most undesirable features in dam and reservoir sites.
3) Faults provide passages for percolation of water and mineralizing solutions
4) Fault zones form sites of mineralization
5) Fault are responsible for lakes, swamp sand spring heads
6) Fault zones often form potential oil traps
7) Faults from a major defect in rock and there a potential hazards in engineering and mining
works.

FOLDS
Fold occurs when rock deforms in such a way that it bends instead of breaking. The rocks, like

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any other material, deform to the action of external efforts. We do not grasp this by Pooja but
deformation,
we know when a rock is deformed. Folds come from pressure on the rocks that occur over D very
long periods of time and vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds

Fig: folds

Axial line or Axis:-The median line about which folding has taken place. The axis may be
horizontal, inclined or vertical
Axial plane:-An imaginary plane that divides a fold into two more or less symmetrical halves.
The axial plane may be vertical inclined or horizontal.
Limbs: - The two sides of a folds the left limb and right limb.
Crest: - Highest position of fold, it is always curving or angular.
Crest line: - The two sides of crest point are referred as crest line; If the fold axis is inclined then
it referred as Plunge of fold.

Classification of Folds
It is classified and described according to the attitude of the limbs, axis, axial plane and the nature
of beds. The important types are:-
Anticline: - is a fold that arches up as both sides of the rock are pushed inward. You can
remember that the anticline creates this type of fold because the arch looks like an 'A' (for
anticline)
Syncline: - is a fold that sinks down as both sides of the rock are pushed inward. You can
remember that a syncline creates this type of fold because the fold 'sinks' downward, which
sounds like 'syncline.
Domes: - which are like anticlines but instead of an arch, the fold is in a dome shape, like an
inverted bowl.

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Basins:-which are like synclines but again, instead of a sinking arch, the fold is by Pooja
in the shape of a
bowl sinking down into the ground.
D
Isoclinal Folds:- are similar to symmetrical folds, but these folds both have the same angle and
are parallel to each other. 'Iso' means 'the same' (symmetrical), and 'cline' means 'angle,' so this
name literally means 'same angle.' So, isoclinal folds are both symmetrical and aligned in a
parallel fashion.
Overturned Folds:- occur when the folding is so intense that the fold appears to have turned over
on itself.
Chevron Fold: - If the crest point is a cute then it is referred as Chevron fold. This is due to very
much of magnitude of force is acted on either side.

Syncline Domes
Anticline

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Chevron Isoclinal Folds Basins

Fig: Different types of folds

Effects of erosion on Folded Strata

Fig : Deposition of sediments

Normally anticlines form ridges and synclines rough. but on erosion anticlines are eroded down
along with crest, which will be in strata of tension and form long channels called anticline valley or
Inliers.
In case of synclines the limbs are easily eroded and the trough region being compressed tightly
standing ridges resisting erosion called synclinal hills or outlier.

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Folded strata is greatly strained broken and incompetent, therefore form weak and unsafe zones
construction areas especially excavation for tunneling, hillside cutting, dam and bridge sites.

Anticline and other upfolds form potential oil traps while synclines and other down fold form
potential aquifer for ground water. in some instances down folds like synclines when filled with
groundwater artesian conditions under going pressure affecting the stability of the ground above
and therefore the stability of structure constructed in such ground.

Unconformities
When stratified rock formations are deposited regularly and continuously one above the other
without any disturbance or break in the succession presenting a series of parallel beds, the sequence
is called conformable beds or series and the structure is called conformity.

An unconformity is a buried erosion or non-depositional surface separating two rock masses or

strata of different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous. In general, the
older layer was exposed to erosion for an interval of time before deposition of the younger, but the
term is used to describe any break in the sedimentary geologic record.

Unconformity indicates discontinuity, disruption or breaks the deposition and therefore a time gap.
The relief of the erosion surface between the older and the new or younger series may be smooth or
irregular.

Fig: Unconformity
Types of Unconformities
Parallel unconformity or Disconformity: - An erosion surface with an uneven relief between two
parallel series.

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Angular Unconformity:- An unconformity in which a younger parallel series deposited on an

erosion surface of a lower deformed (tilted, folded and or faulted) older series with an angular
discordance.

Non-Conformity:- An unconformity between two series of rock of different origins like an upper
younger stratified formation and an older non-stratified or massive igneous or metamorphic rock.

Importance of Unconformity
1. Unconformity represents a gap or break in the succession of rock strata and a time gap

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2. Unconformity is the basic criterion for the division of geologic time into era, periods D
etc.
3. Presence of residual soil in between 2 series
4. Rock formations of different origin like volcanic or sedimentary rock resting upon the
eroded surface of a igneous or metamorphic rock formation
5. Contrast in the trends dip, strike and folding, faulting fossils etc of the two adjacent
or successive series
6. Termination of dikes and other intrusive igneous bodies and faults in lower series at
the junction of 2 series
Selection of Site for Dams and Reservoirs
A dam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley.
The principle uses are to provide stream regulation and storage for communities or industrial
water supply, power, irrigation, flood control. A dam that serves more than 1 such purpose is
known as multipurpose dam.

Fig- Schematic Cross Section of Dam

Structure of Dam: Generally Dam consists of following parts
Heel : It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the upstream side.
Toe : It is the part where the dam comes in contact with the ground on the downstream side.
Abutments : These are the sides of the valley on which the dam structure rests.
Free board: It is the difference in level between the top of the dam wall and the highest storage
level.
Galleries : These are small rooms left within the dam for checking operations
Diversion tunnels : These are the tunnels which are constructed beforehand for diverting the
river water. This helps in keeping the river bed dry at the dam site and facilitates dam
construction.
Spill way : It is the arrangement made in a dam near the top to let off excess water of the
reservoir to the downstream side.
Sluice way : It is an opening in the dam near the ground level. It is useful in clearing the silt of
the reservoir.

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Cut-off wall : It is an underground well-like structure of concrete in the by
heelPooja
portion. It is
useful in preventing leakage under the foundation and thereby avoiding undercutting D of the
heel as well as the uplift pressure (or upward thrust) on the dam, which are harmful to dam
stability.

1. Gravity Dam
2. Buttress Dam
3. Arch Dam
4. Earth dam

1. Gravity Dam :- A gravity dam is a solid masonry or concrete structure generally of a

Triangular in cross section. solid gravity dam drive their stability from weight of the
materials comprising the structure. Axis may be straight line it is designed that it can with
hold a percolated volume of water by its weight. All the applied forces on such a dam is
due to water and weight of the dam itself are assumed to be directly transmitted to the
foundation rock.

Fig: A Typical Cross Section of Gravity Dam

1. Buttress Dam: - A buttress dam or hollow dam is a dam with a solid, water-tight
upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of
buttresses or supports. The dam wall may be flat or curved. Most buttress dams are made
of reinforced concrete and are heavy, pushing the dam into the ground. Water pushes
against the dam, but the buttresses are inflexible and prevent the dam from falling over.

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Fig: Buttress Dam Cross Section and Plan

2. Arch Dam: - An arch dam is an impermeable concrete shell shaped an arch in plan when
curved in vertical section it forms a dome shape. Many gravity dams are arched in plan. But
he characteristic of an arch dam is that it’s cross section. Arch dam are thin, they require the
least volume of construction materials of all designs yet their shape makes them strongest of
all.

.
Fig: Arch Dam

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3. Earth dam: - These consists essentially core of impermeable material, such as clay D
or
concreted, supported by permeable boulders of earth and rockfill, when a clay are used it is
normally flanked by filters of permeable material such as sand to protect the core from
erosion by the seepage of reservoir water through dam. Embankment dams, by virtue of the
slopes required for their stability. Earth fill and rock fill dam are terms used to described
suitable sedimentary materials such a clay, sand and rock blocks that can be placed to
forming safe embankment.

Fig: Earth Dam

Geological Considerations in the Selection of Dam Site

The important geological environment requirements that should be considered in the
selection of a dam site are as followed
1. Narrow River Valley.
2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth.
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundation.
4. Proper geological structures.

1. Narrow River Valley

i) If the proposed site contains a narrow river valley, only a small dam is required, which
means the cost of the dam construction is also will be less. On the other hand if the valley is
wider, construction cost will be very high and maintenance of the dam will also be high. Yet
if the valley is narrow, following considerations should be taken in to account.
ii) Deceptive narrowing of a valley due to the occurrence of thick superficial deposits such as
residual soil and talus in recently glaciated regions, moraine, boulder clay, sand, gravel and
river alluvium.
iii) Narrow valley due to deceptive rock outcrops which are the result of land slip, rock creep
and rock fracturing
iv) The occurrence of buried river channels crossing the site, either below the bed or adjacent
to it
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2. Occurrence of the bedrock at a shallow depth D
i) If the dam rest on very strong and stable rocks, the stability and safety of the dam will be
very high. This also reduces the cost of the dam. On the other hand the dam cost will be high
and the work of excavation will be overburden. This also requires heavy concrete refilling.
ii) In the case of deposition along the river valley depends on the stage of river. If the river is
in young stage, the erosion might have exposed the strong bed rocks that may occur at the
surface this would be competent for the dam construction.
iii) The hilly terrain which occurs in these stages may not provide a suitable topography for
the occurrence of a large reservoir basin and the flow of water itself may not be high in such
developing rivers for obvious reasons. In older stage, the deposition will be resulting in
overburden. This means that suitable bedrock may lie at a considerable depth and hence
proves uneconomical.
iv) The general occurrence of material like clay, silt, sand and gravel along the river bed,
naturally makes it difficult to assess the thickness of loose overburden by mere surficial
studies. Therefore, to know the bedrock profile in the river valley along the axis of the
proposed dam, geophysical investigations such as “electrical resistivity studies” or seismic
refraction studies” are carried out carefully.
v) In certain places particularly in glaciated regions, the occurrence of buried river valleys, a
buried river valley may occur in the river bed that is generally deep, and is composed of loose
drift which is a highly porous and permeable material. This poses problems of weakness and
leakage which are dangerous for the success of the dam.

Competent Rocks for Safe Dam: The suitability of the site for the dam construction can be
estimated by the following factors:
1. The existing rock type at the dam.
2. The extent of weathering it has undergone.
3. The occurrence of intrusions.
4. The extent of fracturing.
5. The occurrence of geological structures.
6. The mode and number of rock types.

Suitability of igneous rocks

These are the most desirable rocks at the dam site. Because these are strong and durable due
to their dense character, interlocking texture, hard silicate mineral composition, occurrence of
negligible porosity and permeability, absence of any inherent weak planes, resistance to
weathering and their tendency to occur over wide areas. Yet it should be checked that the
selected rocks are not affected by weathering or fracturing or dykes or any geological
structures like shearing, faulting and jointing. Thus, all plutonic rocks like granites, syenites,
diorites and gabbors are very competent and desirable rocks for the foundation at the dam
site. Yet another consideration should be taken in to account, i.e. volcanic rocks, which are
generally vesicular or amygdaloidal, are not desirable since they will be permeable and
contribute to porosity and hollowness, in turn contributing to weakness of rocks. The case of

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massive basalts, which are very fine grained, are one of the toughest rocks in the nature. YetD
they can be adversely effected when they are vesicular and permeable.

Suitability of sedimentary rocks:

In the case of sedimentary rocks following factors affect the construction of dam.
1. The bedding and its orientation.
2. Thickness of beds.
3. Nature and extent of compaction and cementation.
4. Grain size.
5. Leaching of soluble matter.
6. Porosity and permeability.
7. Associated geological structures and
8. Composition of constituents.

Sedimentary rocks those are undesirable:

1. Shales are the most undesirable at the dam site, as they form slippery bases.
2. Laterites and conglomerates are undesirable, because of their porosity and permeability.
3. Lime stones are competent if they are massive, i.e, unaffected by the solution
phenomenon, but are liable to become dangerously porous for the same reason at any
time in future.
4. Alternating soft and hard rocks for small thickness are undesirable.

Suitability of Metamorphic rocks:

Among the metamorphic rocks,
1. “Gneisses” are most competent rocks like granites, unless they possess a very high degree
of foliation and are richly accompanied by mica-like minerals.
2. “Schists” are undesirable because
a. Their constituent minerals are soft and possess a very well developed cleavage.
b. The schistose structure results because of the foliation of minerals present in the rock.
3. Quartzites are very hard and highly resistant to weathering. They are neither porous nor
permeable.
4. Marbles, like quartzites, are compact, bear a granulose structure, are not porous, not
permeable and reasonably strong too. But by virtue of their chemical composition and
mineral composition they are unsuitable at dam sites.
5. Slates bear a typical slaty cleavage (due to the presence of minute flakes of mica). Hence
this rock is soft and weak, and undesirable at the dam site.
6. Khondalites, which are feldspar-rich, are to some extent heterogeneous in terms of their
mineral compostion. They often contain soft graphite, hard granet, etc. in addition to other
minerals. They are highly weathered and hence unsuitable at dam site.

TUNNELS

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Tunnels are the underground passages or routes through hills, mountains or earth crust used for
different purposes. These passages are made by excavating rocks below the surface or through
the hills, mountains.

Tunnels are basically made to serve some specific purposes. For instance:
1. Transportation tunnels: tunnels made across hills or high lands to lay roads or railway
tracks for regular traffic and transportation purpose.
2. Traffic tunnels: Tunnels laid to reduce the distance between places of interest across natural
obstacles like hills, to save time and provide convenience are called traffic tunnels. These have
the advantage of leaving the ground surface undisturbed so that it can be used as desired.
3. Diversion tunnels: The tunnels layed for diverting normal flow of river water to keep the
dam site dry are called diversion tunnels.
4. Pressure tunnels: these are also called as hydropower tunnels. These are used to allow
water to pass through them under force, used for power generation.
5. Discharge tunnels: These are meant for conveying water from one point to another under
gravity force, like across hill.
6. Public utility tunnels: These are the tunnels layed for public supplies like drinking water
supply, cables laying, sewage discharge or oil supply etc.

Geological Considerations of tunnel sites

1) Lining of tunnels:
i) When tunnels are made through weak or loose or unconsolidated formations, they are
provided with suitable lining for safety and stability. Lining refers to the support porvided to
tunnel. Lining may be in the form of steel structures or concrete.
ii) The main purposes of lining are to resist the pressures from the surroundings and to protect
the shape of tunnel. It takes care of the weaknesses of the ground. It also helps in checking
leakage of ground water into tunnel.
iii) The thickness of concrete lining dependes on the extent of protection required, and the
degree of weakness of the ground. Lining is provided to support weak parts of the tunnel.
Lining is also provided in such places where the seepage of water into the tunnel occurs and
creating problems. In the case of very weak rocks with unfavorable geological structures,
lining may be necessary through out the length of the tunnel. The zones of faulting or
shearing also need suitable lining to impart strength to them.

2) Overbreak
During tunneling the excavations normally involve the removal of extra rocks or matter
around the tunnel. The quantity of rock broken and removed, in excess of what is required by
the perimeter of the proposed tunnel, is known as overbreak.

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Factors governing the amout of overbreak:

1) The nature of the rocks.
2) The orientation and spacing of joints or weak zones in them.
3) In the case of sedimentary rocks, the orientation of the bedding planes
4) Thickness of the beds with respec to the alignment of the tunnel.

Geological factors influencing the overbreak:

1.) Massive and soft rocks of a homogenous nature cause less overbreak than harder rocks
with well developed joints or weak zones.
2.) In sedimentary rocks, thin formations and those with alternating hard and soft strata
produce more overbreak. This is because, during excavation, softer rocks yield more than the
hard rocks. 3.) In metamorphic rocks, foliated and soft formations like slats and schists
produce more overbreak if the tunnel lies parallel to them and less overbreak if they are
mutually across.
4.) Tunnels that pass through a single thick homogenous formation without structural defects
produce little overbreak, whereas tunnels which pass through a variety of rocks with
structural defects like fault zones or which are less thickness of strata or alignment cutting
across different strata along the dip direction, produces more overbreak.

Site Selection for Bridge

A bridge is a structure built to across physical obstacles without closing the way underneath
such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the
obstacle.

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Fig: Cross Section of Bridge

Parts of Bridges
Bed:-Surface of firm ledge or bed rock providing a stable foundation for bridge piers.
Abutment: -The end supports of a bridge to withstand thrust
Wing wall: - A masonry or concrete wall that guides a river into a bridge.
Pier:- A rectangular, oval or circular masonry or RCC column that supports the super
structures of a bridge erected from a firm bearing bed for stability.

Components of Bridge

1. Sub Structure:- constructions on the banks, piers, wing walls and foundations.
2. Super Structure: - comprises of construction that res on the piers and the abutments
including girders and beams.

Bridge Types: -It is classified into

I). Stationary bridges: - these are common bridges constructed across valley and depression
built of masonry or concrete accommodating roads or railways. masonry is used for arch
bridges, reinforced of prestressed concrete used for medium to long bridges.
II). Movable bridges: - These are adopted across water ways that accommodate shipping.
These are consists of one or two movable steel sections or spans-single or double bascules.
These are lifted up at either end to allow ships to pass through and then lowered back to
position providing normal road or railway

The important bridge problems that lead to the failure are

1. Erosion of the piers and wing walls
2. Deep scouring and collapse of bridges
3. Wash out due to flood currents
4. Settlement of piers
5. Earthquake effects
Geology of Bridge Sites
An ideal site for the construction of a bridge is the one across a valley cut in sound rock

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and where the stream flow is free from scour, provoking currents due to bends and other D
causes. A high stable bank, narrow stretches of water accommodating a bridge of
minimum length with little or no effect.

The important geological aspects and conditions are:-

1. Bed rock at round surface i.e. sound hard rock profile of the bed and banks of valleys, canals
and depressions.

2. The piers and abutments of bridges should be constructed on hard intact rocks only and not
on over burden such as fill, rock debris, sand etc.

3. Rock formation should be intact, strong and tough without defects and weak planes.
4. Intact intrusive igneous rocks like granite, compact basalt, Sedimentary like hard Sand stone
free from excessive joints and metamorphic like massive gneiss, quartzite provide excellent
foundation abutment and bearing materials.
5. Bedded and Jointed formations especially those dipping into the river at lesser angle than the
slope of the natural banks always dangerous as they tend to slide at any movement it is
shown in figure.

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6. Faulting brings rocks of diverse character strength together along the fault line. Any
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further displacement at the fault contact may adversely affect the piers like displacement,
tilting. Therefore it is very essential to treat the fault one well and substructure suitability
designed.
7. soluble formation like lime stone, gypsum rocks are enlarged with elongated joints
solution channels networks of excessive cracks create serious problems like
understanding of banks.

Ground improvements like rock bolting, rock jointing, grouting

Rock bolting is the systematic reinforcment and/or anchorage of rock slopes by the insertion
and grouting of steel bars into holes predrilled into the more or less fractured rock mass,
improving its stability. The deformed steel bars are typically 25 to 50 mm in diameter and up
to 12 to 15 m in length. Long bolts are typically formed by joining shorter threaded bars
using special couplers, to facilitate handling. For convenience of installation, strand anchors
(see fact-sheet 6.8) are normally used where longer bolts are required. Bolts are installed
across the discontinuities or the potential failure surfaces at a dip angle flatter than the normal
and typically work mainly in tension and only subordinately in shear and bending.
Typically, drillholes in rock are self supporting. However, critical drilling conditions with
potential loss of borehole stability may be encountered when drilling through higly fractured
or milonitic zones, especially if water is also encountered in the drillhole. In this case, it
may be simpler to grout and redrill the hole, rather than using a casing.

In relation to the degree of relaxation or loosening of the fractured rock to be reinforced

and/or to be tied to the more competent rock below the bolts can be un-tensioned or
tensioned. Relaxation and or loosening of the rock mass is a process that takes place as a
results of unloading and weathering; once relaxation or loosening has been allowed to take
place there is a loss of interlock between the blocks of rock and a significant decrease in the
shear strength along the discontinuities and in the rock mass as a whole. Once relaxation or
loosening has taken place, it is not possible to reverse the process. For this reason:

 where the degree of relaxation or loosening is relatively modest, it is possible to use

passive (untensioned) rock bolting acting as pre-reinforcement (Moore and Imrie,
1982; Spang and Egger, 1990); the deformations necessary to activate the bolts are
sufficiently small not to result in a significant reduction of the shear strength
characteristics of the discontinuities and of the rock mass as a whole;

 where significant relaxation and loosening have already taken place, it may be
necessary to install tensioned bolts in order to prevent further displacements and loss
of interlock.

The advantages of using un-tensioned bolts are the lower costs and quicker installation
compared with tensioned bolts.

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From a conceptual point of view, un-tensioned (passive) rock bolts work in the same way as
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nails of soil nailing structures.

They are grouted for their full length in a single operation both below and above the potential
failure surface. In slope applications, where the drillhole dips into the ground, there is no need
for anchoring the distal end of the bolt. Even though in many situation a head plate is not
strictly required, a end plate is normally fitted to the bolt at the surface and this may be usefull
to anchor netting and or other facings that may be required.

From a conceptual point of view, tensioned (active) rock bolts work like anchors in tieback
retaining structures. They are characterized by a anchor head, a free-stressing length and a
bond length, located beneath the discontinuity or the potential failure surface.

Tensioned (active) bolts must satisfy three basic requirements:

1. There must be a suitable method of anchoring the distal end of the bolt in the drill
hole;

2. A known tension must be applied to the bolt without creep and loss of load over time;

3. The complete bolt assembly must be protected from corrosion for the design life of the
project.

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain folds and its classification
2. Explain faults and its types
3. With a neat sketch explain Dip and strike
4. Explain ground Improvements
5. Define conformities and its types

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY
BELGAUM

EARTH RESOURCE ENGINEERING

(Subject Code: 21CV34)

LECTURE NOTES

(MODULE-5)
III-SEMESTER

Ms. Pooja D
Assistant Professor

AJIET
A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Education Trust. (R))

NH - 66, KottaraChowki, Kodical Cross - 575 006

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TOPOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL MAP
Maps are representation of three dimensional views on two dimensions. Thus the relief ofthe
ground such as depressions and elevations are shown by:
1. Shading: Different colours to indicate different altitude with reference tomean sea
level.
2. Hachuring: Only one colour is employed and lines are drawn in the direction ofthe
slope of the ground.
3. Contour: Lines joining all points of equal elevation with some constantintervals.
7.1 Topographic maps
A map of a small area drawn on a large scale depicting detailed surface features both natural
and manmade. Relief in this map is shown by contours. A topographic map indicates the
ground features like hills, valleys, river courses, roads, railway lines, forests, villages, town,
lakes etc.
The topographical maps of India are prepared on 1 : 10,00,000, 1 : 250,000, 1:
1,25,000, 1 : 50,000 and 1: 25,000 scale providing a latitudinal and longitudinal coverage of
4° x 4°, 1° x 1°, 30' x 30', 15' x 15' and 7' 30"x 7' 30", respectively.
Reading of Topographical Maps: The study of topographical maps is simple. It requires the
reader to get acquainted with the legend, conventional sign and the colours shown on the
sheets.
Map Scale:
Maps are made to scale. In each case, the scale represents the ratio of a distance on the map to
the actual distance on the ground.

𝑀𝐴𝑃 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 2𝑐𝑚 2 𝑐𝑚 1

𝐺𝑅0𝑈𝑁𝐷 𝐷𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝐶𝐸 = 1 𝑘𝑚 100 000
= 𝑐𝑚 = 50
000
Scale 1:50 000
Medium-scale maps (e.g. 1:50 000) cover smaller areas in greater detail, whereas small- scale
maps (e.g. 1:250 000) cover large areas in less detail. A 1:250 000 scale national topographic
system (NTS) map covers the same area as sixteen 1:50 000 scale NTS maps.

Map Grid:
A grid is a regular pattern of parallel lines intersecting at right angles and forming squares; it is
used to identify precise positions. To help to locate any position accurately on the surface of
the Earth (or map sheet), topographic maps have two kinds of referencing systems:

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• Universal transverse Mercator (UTM) projection (easting/northing) D
• Geographic: degrees and minutes (longitude/latitude)
The projection used for topographic maps is UTM. The UTM grid is a square grid system of
lines depicted on maps and based on the transverse Mercator projection. It can be used to
accurately locate the position of features on the map by distance or direction.

Contours:
Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above mean sea level. A
map showing the landform of an area by contours is called a contour map. The method of
showing relief features through contour is very useful and versatile. The contour lines on a
map provide a useful insight into the topography of an area.

Contours are drawn at different vertical intervals (VI), like 20, 50, 100 metres above the mean
sea level. It is known as contour interval. It is usually constant on a given map. It is generally
expressed in metres. While the vertical interval between the two successive contour lines
remains constant, the horizontal distance varies from place to place depending upon the
nature of slope. The horizontal distance, also known as the horizontal equivalent (HE), is large
when the slope is gentler and decreases with increasing slope gradient.

The following steps may be followed to draw cross-sections of various relief features from
their contours:
1. Draw a straight line cutting across the contours on the map and mark it as AB.
2. Take a strip of white paper or graph and place its edge along the AB line.
3. Mark the position and value of every contour that cuts the line AB.
4. Choose a suitable vertical scale, e.g. ½ cm =100 metres, to draw horizontal lines parallel
to each other and equal to the length of AB. The number of such lines should be equal or
more than the total contour lines.
5. Mark the appropriate values corresponding to the contour values along the vertical of the
cross-section. The numbering may be started with the lowest value represented by the
contours.
6. Now place the edge of the marked paper along the horizontal line at the bottom line of the
cross-section in such a way that AB of the paper corresponds to the AB of the map and mark
the contour points.
7. Draw perpendiculars from AB line, intersecting contour lines, to the corresponding line at
the cross-section base.
8. Smoothly join all the points marked on different lines at the cross section base.

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Stream Ordering D
Streams may be categorized according to their position--order or magnitude--within a
drainage network. Stream order can be used to describe a stream and to conveniently divide a
stream network into component parts that may be quantified and compared. For instance,
streams that do not possess a tributary are designated as ‘1st order' or ‘magnitude1' streams.
The number and length of 1st order streams in a basin can be measured and compared to those
in a separate basin. Such procedures lend themselves to statistical treatment and are therefore
extremely useful for comparing different drainage basins.

Two principal stream order schemes are in use today. The Strahler Order system designates 1st
order streams as those that lack a tributary. Second order streams are formed at the junction of
1st order streams (Figure 8). Third order streams are formed at the junction of 2nd order
streams, fourth at the junction of 3rd order streams, and so forth. Note that stream order only
increases when two streams of the same order join. Therefore, where a 2nd order stream joins
a 3rd stream there is no change in stream order; the 3rd order streamremains 3rd order.

The Shreve Magnitude system designates streams that lack a tributary as magnitude 1. Where
streams join, their magnitudes are added together. Therefore unlike the Strahler system,
magnitudes increase at all junctions in the Shreve system. For instance, where a magnitude 2
stream joins a magnitude 3 stream, the magnitudes are added to form a magnitude 5 stream.
Note that in such a case there is no magnitude 4 stream. A convenientcomponent of the
Shreve system is that a stream's magnitude corresponds to the number of magnitude 1 or 1st
order streams contributing to the channel.

Figure 8: Stream order. Orders increase in the Strahler stream order system where two streams
of equal order meet. In the Shreve magnitude system, magnitudes increase through addition at
all stream junctions. Using the Shreve system, the number of magnitude 1 streams in a basin is
equal to the basin's magnitude.

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The number of 1st order streams in a basin of a given size is dependent upon a variety of D
climatic, geologic, and hydrologic factors. For instance, holding all other variables constant
we would expect that a drainage basin in an arid climate would have more 1st order streams
than a watershed in a more humid climate. Similarly, increasing relief is associated with
increasing stream densities. Although the number of streams in a given order is a crude
measure of drainage density, we define drainage density (D) much more explicitly as,

where Li denotes stream lengths and Ab is drainage basin area

Measuring stream lengths is accomplished using a map wheel or digitizing table. During this
exercise, we will measure the length of all streams in each order. Drainage density will be
calculated by summing the lengths of all orders and dividing by basin area. Prior to
measuring the stream lengths you should pause and predict which stream order will have the
greatest length. Why is this relationship important?

Not only are the numbers and lengths of particular stream orders important, but their ratiosare
quite instructive as well. Consider a dendritic drainage pattern versus trellis. In an ideal
dendritic drainage pattern, the number of 1st order tributaries would be exactly twice the
number of 2nd order streams. Thus, the number of 1st order streams will be exactly twice that
of 2nd order streams. In a trellis network, long main stem streams are fed by many loworder
streams. As a result, 1st order streams typically outnumber 2nd order streams by 3 to 5 times.
The relationship between the number of streams in successive stream orders is called the
bifurcation ratio (Rb). The ratio can be mathematically defined as follows,

where So is the number of streams in any given order and So-1 is the number of streams in
the next lowest order.

For Figure 8a, note that the bifurcation ratio between the 1st and 2nd order streams can be
computed as follows,

The utility of the bifurcation ratio lies in its ability to succinctly express the organization of a
drainage basin and allow statistical tests. As a mental exercise, you might consider two
streams with similar areas, relief, and so forth. Their drainage patterns differ with one

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possessing a 1st/2nd bifurcation ratio of 2.4 and a 2nd/3rd ratio of 2.2. The other stream D
possesses values of 4.7 and 4.1. Using logic, can you accurately predict which watershed has
the flashiest hydrograph at its mouth? The solution is, perhaps, more complex than it appears.

Identification of cultural features from topographical sheets:

Settlements, buildings, roads and railways are important cultural features shown on
topographical sheets through conventional signs, symbols and colours. The location and
pattern of distribution of different features help in understanding the area shown on the map.

Distribution of Settlements:
It can be seen in the map through its site, location pattern, alignment and density. The nature
and causes of various settlement patterns may be clearly understood by comparing the
settlement map with the contour map.

Four types of rural settlements may be identified on the map

(a) Compact (b) Scattered (c) Linear (d)
CircularSimilarly, urban centres may also be distinguished as
(a) Cross-road town (b) Nodal point (c) Market centre (d) Hill station
(e) Coastal resort centre (f) Port (g) Religious centre (h) Capital
town(i)Manufacturing centre with suburban villages or satellite towns
Various factors determine the site of settlements like
(a) Source of water (b) Provision of food (c) Nature of relief (d) Nature and character
of occupation (e) Defence

Site of settlements should be closely examined with reference to the contour and drainage
map. Density of settlement is directly related to food supply. Sometimes, village settlements
form alignments, i.e. they are spread along a river valley, road, embankment, coastline – these
are called linear settlements. In the case of an urban settlement, a cross-road town assumes a
fan-shaped pattern, the houses being arranged along the roadside and
the crossing being at the heart of the town and the main market place. In a nodal town, the
roads radiate in all directions.

Transport and Communication Pattern:

Relief, population, size and resource development pattern of an area directly influence the
means of transport and communication and their density. These are depicted through
conventional signs and symbols. Means of transport and communication provide useful
information about the area shown on the map.

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Interpretation of topographical maps: D
Knowledge of map language and sense of direction are essential in reading and interpreting
topo-sheets. All topo-sheets contain a table showing conventional signs and symbols used in
the map. Conventional signs and symbols are internationally accepted; so, anyone can read
any map anywhere in the world without knowing the language of that particular country.
A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following heads:
(a) Marginal information
(b) Relief and Drainage
(c) Land Use
(d) Means of Transport and Communication
(e) Human settlement

Marginal information: It includes the topographical sheet number, its location, grid
references, its extent in degrees and minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc.
Find out from the index number of the topographical sheet, the location of the area in India.
This would give an idea of the general characteristics of the major and minor physiographic
divisions of the area. Note the scale of the map and the contour interval, which will give the
extent and general landform of the area.

Relief of the Area: The general topography of the area is studied to identify the plains,
plateaus, hills or mountains along with peaks, ridges, spur and the general direction of the
slope. These features are studied under the following heads:
 Hill: With concave, convex, steep or gentle slope and shape.
 Plateau: Whether it is broad, narrow, flat, undulating or dissected.
 Plain: Its types, i.e. alluvial, glacial, karst, coastal, marshy, etc.
 Mountain: General elevation, peak, passes, etc.

Drainage of the Area: The important rivers and their tributaries and the type and extent of
valleys formed by them, the types of drainage pattern, i.e. dendritic, radial, ring, trellis,
internal, etc.

Land Use: It includes the use of land under different categories like:
 Natural vegetation and forest (which part of the area is forested, whether it is dense
forest or thin, and the categories of forest found there like Reserved, Protected,
Classified / Unclassified).
 Agricultural, orchard, wasteland, industrial, etc.
 Facilities and Services such as schools, colleges, hospitals, parks, airports, electric
substations, etc.
Transport and Communication: The means of transportation include national or state
highways, district roads, cart tracks, camel tracks, footpaths, railways, waterways, major
communication lines, post offices, etc.

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Settlement: Settlements are studied under the following heads:
 Rural Settlements: The types and patterns of rural settlements, i.e. compact, semi-
compact, dispersed, linear, etc.
 Urban Settlements: Type of urban settlements and their functions, i.e. capital cities,
administrative towns, religious towns, port towns, hill stations, etc.

Occupation: The general occupation of the people of the area may be identified with the help
of land use and the type of settlement. For example, in rural areas the main occupation of
majority of the people is agriculture; in tribal regions, lumbering and primitive agriculture
dominates and in coastal areas, fishing is practised. Similarly, in cities and towns, services and
business appear to be the major occupations of the people.

Lineament mapping:
A lineament is an interpreted line (“one dimensional”) drawn in relation to linear to semi-
linear terrain forms, e.g. valleys and slopes and reflect subsurface phenomenon. It can be
derived from remotely sensed data, geological and geophysical maps. Lineaments can be
natural features such as fault, joint, line weakness, cliffs, terraces, and linear valleys or
artificial features such as road, tracks, and buildings. Lineaments are one of the most
important topographic features used in exploration of resources such as minerals,
hydrocarbons, hydrogeological researches and hot spring detection as well as to solve certain
problems in the area for instance, in site selection for construction a dams, bridges, roads, etc.,
for seismic and landslide risk assessment etc.

While mapping conducting lineament mapping all linear features are to be interpreted from the
map. The cultural features like road, railway line, high tension lines etc. are to be excluded.
The lineament may not be a single continuous line, rather it has to be shown as discontinuous
line segments. Lineaments from topographic map can be identified mainly based on their
linear nature, alignment of vegetation, alignment of ponds, straight stream segments, etc.
However, interpretation of lineaments is to be done in conjunction with other diagnostic
criteria such as channel offset, bank erosion and down-cutting of channel along lineament,
warping and displacement of sediment layer, anabranching of river course, abrupt change of
river course, presence of dry channel in an active river course, channel rejuvenation and land
subsidence, linear ridges, scarp surface, linear alignment of water bodies and straight channel
segments.

Classification of lineaments
The following two types of lineaments are to be interpreted from the topographic map.
A. Geomorphic lineaments
1. Scarp parallel
2. Drainage parallel

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3. Ridge parallel D
4. Parallel to shoreline
5. Gorge / trench parallel
6. Break-in slope
B. Structural lineaments
1. Fault,
2. Joint/Fracture
3. Shear Zone,
4. Axial trace of fold
5. Dyke

Magnitude of lineament

All lineaments are to classified based on their length into the following two types.

A. Micro lineaments - Very small (magnitude) linear features frequently observed in the
map. They correspond to minor faults, fractures, joints and bedding traces in the rock.
Geomorphologically they are expressed as linear alignments of local depressions/
ponds. For quantification purpose, lineament length < 3 km is classifiedas micro
lineaments.
B. Mega lineaments - Large linear features. Adjacent/coincides with regional trends/
structural features. It cuts across various geomorphic units both in time and space.
Lineament length > 3 km is classified as mega lineaments.

7.2 Geological map

A geological map always represents the distribution and association of rock types, ores and
other economic mineral deposits. The map is usually super imposed on a topographic map of
an area. It represents the way in which the beds would appear. Geological sections are useful
for solving both Stratigraphy and structural problems.

Drawing a geological section:

From a geological map a section along a suitable line is constructed to show the geological
information in a concise form. The procedure of drawing a section consists of three steps:
i) Drawing a topographic profile
ii) Determination of dip and strike
iii) Construction of geologic structures
i) Drawing a topographic profile: Suppose it is required to draw a topographic profile
along a XY line on the geological map. The map is first folded along the XY line on
thedrawing paper. A horizontal line equal to the XY line is drawn, which serves as a
baseline to the geological sections to be made over this line. The folded map is

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placed and the positions of the various contour lines along XY lines are marked. From these
points vertical lines are drawn their length being proportional to the values of corresponding
contours as per the scale of the map. Then a free hand curve joins their tops. The vertical lines
drawn above the base line are not desired and thereforeshould be removed.
ii) Determination of dip and strike: Generally on geological maps both the contour
lines as well as boundaries of rock beds are shown. To determine the dip of a rock bed
by graphical method, such a contour is selected which cuts the particular rock
boundary at two points. A line called strike lines joins these points. Two strike lines
from contours of different values are drawn for the same boundary. Then the distance
between them along XY line is measured. And a line having the same length is drawn
on the drawing paper somewhere below the profile already made. Fromone end a
perpendicular of length equal to the strike of interval is constructed as perthe scale of
the map. The angle formed by joining its top with the other end of the line will be the
dip angle. And its direction will be from the strike line of higher value to the one that
has the lower value. In this way dip of various rock beds shown on the map are
determined.
iii) Construction of geologic structures: Now the map is folded along the XY line and
is placed over the base line of the profile. The points of intersection of the boundary
lines between different beds and the XY line are transferred. These points are then
projected to the surface profile. From these points lines are drawn according to the dip
of the respective boundary surfaces. This is usually done by drawing angles of dipfirst
at the base line and then drawing parallel lines from the corresponding points atthe
surface profile. In the section thus constructed, the various structure present are
completed as follows:
a) If unconformity is present, an undulating line shows its plane.
b) If fold is present, anticline or syncline structures are made accordingly.
c) If fault is present, strata must be shown dislocated along it.
d) Dykes are shown running vertically. Sills are shown running parallel to the
bedding planes.

REMOTE SENSING AND IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Remote sensing and image interpretation are relatively new fields. Remote sensing is defined
as a science and method of acquiring information about Earth materials without coming in
direct contact with the objects. This can be done with the help of cameras/sensors mounted in
the aircrafts or satellites.
Through remote sensing technique we can acquire data about characteristics of the Earth in an
almost continuous and two-dimensional fashion. Remote sensors are designed in such a way
that they record interaction between Earth materials and electromagnetic radiation (EMR).
Thus, it is useful for acquiring information about Earth not only in visible light but also in
other regions of the spectrum that extend from gamma rays to microwaves. Each Earth object
has its own unique spectral characteristic (i.e. signature), which can help us to discern them

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from others in remote sensing images. Process of extracting information from remote sensing
images is known as image interpretation.

6.1.1 Remote Sensing System

You now know that remote sensing is a tool for gathering information about objects at a
distance. However, it is not just about a sensor or platform. There are several steps in remote
sensing system as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Source of Energy (A): The first and very important requirement for remote sensing is an
energy source which provides electromagnetic energy to the Earth. It may be either from
natural (e.g. solar radiation) or artificial (e.g. RADAR) sources. For remote sensing, Sun’s
radiations are commonly used as a source of energy.
Interaction of energy with the atmosphere (B): When energy travels from its source to the
Earth surface, it comes in contact with the Earth’s atmosphere where it interacts with
atmospheric constituents. The energy reflected from Earth’s surface is received by remote
sensors. In this process the energy once again interacts with atmosphere.
Interaction with Earth surface features (C): Energy reaching the Earth surface through the
atmosphere interacts with the Earth surface features. The interaction and its outcome depend
on the characteristics of the features and the energy.

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Recording of energy by the sensor (D): After interacting with Earth surface features the
reflected and emitted energy travels to the sensor. And, the sensor records the reflected and
emitted energy.
Transmission, reception, and processing of the recorded signals (E):
The energy recorded by the sensor is transmitted in the form of signals to receiving and
processing station on the Earth. The signals are in electronic form and are processed and
converted into an image.
Utilisation of the data (F): The processed image is interpreted and analysed to extract
information about the object of interest. The above mentioned components comprise the
remote sensing system and underline the importance of energy and its interaction with
atmosphere and Earth features.

6.1.2 Interpretation of Satellite Data

Interpretation is the process of extraction of qualitative and quantitative information of

objects from aerial photographs or satellite images. Interpretation is generally called image
interpretation except for the case when the interpretation is carried out on aerial photographs.
Based on the mode of the interpretation, interpretation can be categorized into visual and
digital interpretation. Visual interpretation involves visual analysis of aerial photographs and
satellite images. When the interpretation is carried out with the help of computer software, it is
known as digital interpretation. Visual image interpretation is a process of identifying
features seen on the images by an analyst/interpreter and communication of information
obtained from these images to others for evaluating their significance. This process, however,
is not restricted to making decisions concerning what objects appear in images but it also
includes determination of their relative locations and extents. Success in visual image
interpretation varies with the training and experience on the pictorial data analysis. If the
interpreter has an artistic and photographic sense then information derived from the
interpretation process may be more authentic and reliable. Visual interpretation of satellite
images are applied successfully in many fields including geology, geography, agriculture,
water resources and forestry.

6.1.3 Image Interpretation Tasks

The image interpretation procedure is a complex task and requires several tasks to be
conducted in a methodical manner which include:
classification
enumeration
mensuration and
delineation.

Classification is the assignment of object, features, or area to the classes based on their
appearance on the images. Often the distinctions are made between three levels of confidence
and precision namely- detection, recognition and identification. Detection is the determination
of presence or absence of the feature. Recognition implies a higher level of knowledge about

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a feature or an object such that the object can be assigned identity. And, identification means
that the identity of an object or feature can be specified with enough confidence and detail to
place it in a specific class.
Enumeration is the task of listing or counting discrete items visible on an image.
Mensuration or measurement is an important function in many image interpretation
problems. Two kinds of measurements are important, first, is the measurement of distanceand
height, and by extension, volumes and areas as well. A second form of measurement is
quantitative assessment of image brightness.
Finally, the interpreter must delineate, or outline, regions as observed on remotely sensed
images. The interpreter must be able to separate distinct aerial units that are characterized by
specific tones and textures and to identify edges or boundaries. The image analyst may
simultaneously apply several of these skills in examining an image. Recognition, delineation
and mensuration may all be required as the interpreter examines an image.

6.1.4 ELEMENTS OF VISUAL IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Visual interpretation of aerial photographs involves the study of various basic characteristics of
an object. In case of interpretation of satellite images, these characteristics of objects are
studied with reference to a single or multiple spectral bands because there are generally more
than one images acquired in different spectral regions of electromagnetic spectrum. However,
the basic elements are tone, texture, shape, size, pattern, shadow, location and association,
similar to those used in aerial photo interpretation. Image interpretations employ combination
of the following eight elements (Fig. 7.4):

tone
size
shape
texture
association
shadow
site and
pattern

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A systematic study and visual interpretation of satellite images usually involves consideration
of two basic elements, namely image elements and terrain elements. Out of the eight elements
listed above, the first seven elements comprise image elements and the 8th element; pattern is
the terrain element such as drainage, landform, erosion, soil, vegetation and land-use patterns.
These elements are shown in the order of their
complexity in Fig. 7.5.

Tone
Tone refers to the colour or relative brightness of an object in colour image and the relative and
quantitative shades of gray in black and white image. As studied earlier, the tonal variation is
due to the reflection, transmission or absorption
characteristic of an object. This may vary from one object to another and from one band to
another. Tone is one of the most basic elements because it is difficult to discern other
elements without tonal differences. In general, smooth surface tends to have high reflectance
than rougher surface with
less reflectance. Tone in aerial photographs is influenced by the following factors:
 light reflectivity of the object
 angle of reflected light
 the geographic latitude
 type of photography and film sensitivity

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 light transmission of filters and D
 photographic processing.
Strong tonal contrasts on satellite imageries are always desirable for better image
interpretation. Similarly, in thermal imagery, objects at higher temperature are recorded in
lighter tone compared to objects at lower temperature, which appear of medium to darker tone.
Similarly, top soil gives dark tone compared to soil containing quartz (silica) sand. In Figs. 7.6
and 7.7, which show colour and gray scale images, respectively, you can observe different
tones for different features.

Size
Objects can be misinterpreted if their sizes are not evaluated properly. Size of objects in an
image is a function of scale hence, the size of objects must be considered in the context of the
scale of a photograph/image. Although, the third dimension, which comprises of height of the
objects is not readily measurable on satellite images but valuable information can be derived
from the shadows of the objects.
Size of an object can be important tool for its identification, in two ways. First, the size of an
object or feature is relative in relation to other objects on the image. This is probably the most
direct and important function of size, as it provides the interpreter with an intuitive notion of
the scale and resolution of an image even though no measurements or calculations may have
been made. This role is achieved by recognition of familiar objects like dwellings, highways
and rivers as shown in Fig. 7.8. Second, absolute measurement can be equally valuable as
interpretation aids. You should remember that size of an object in an
image depends on the scaleand resolution of the image.

Shape
Shape relates to the general form, configuration or outline of an individual object. Shape is one
of the most important single factors for recognizing objects from images (Fig. 7.8a-e). Regular
geometric shapes are usually indicators of human presence and use. Similarly, irregular shapes
are

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usually indicators of natural objects as shown in Fig. 7.8f. Some objects can be identified
almost solely on the basis of their shapes. For example, a railway line is usually readily
D
distinguished from a highway or an unmetalled road because its shape consists of long straight
tangents and gentle curves as opposed to the shape of highway as shown in Fig. 7.8b. You
should remember that shape of an object viewed from above may be quite different from its
profile view. For planar objects, it is easier to calculate the areal dimensions on imagery e.g.,
river as shown in Fig. 7.8f. Features in nature often have such distinctive shapes that shape
alone might be sufficient to provide clear identification e.g., beach, ponds, lakes and rivers
occur in specific shapes unlike others found in nature.

Texture
Texture is an expression of roughness or smoothness as exhibited by the images. It is the rate
of change of tonal values (frequency of tonal changes). Texture signifies the frequency of
change and arrangement of tones in an image and is produced by an aggregate of unit features
too small to be clearly recognised individually on an image. Texture can be expressed
qualitatively as coarse, moderate, fine, very fine, smooth, rough, rippled and mottled. It is
rather easier to distinguish various textural classes visually than in the digital oriented
techniques. Texture is, thus, dependent upon tone, shape, size, pattern, and scale of the
imagery, and, is produced by a mixture of features that are too small to be seen individually.
For example, grass and water generally appear ‘smooth’ while trees or a forest canopy may
appear ‘rough’ as shown in Fig. 7.8e.

Association
Association is occurrence of features in relation to its surroundings. Sometimes a single
feature by itself may not be distinctive enough to permit its identification. It specifies the
occurrence of certain objects or features in association of a particular object or feature. Many
features can be easily identified by examining the associated features. For example, a primary
school and a high school may be similar flat roofed building structures but it may be possible
to identify the high school by its association with an adjacent football field.

Shadow
Shadow is an especially important clue in the interpretation of objects in the following twoways:
the outline or shape of a shadow provides a profile view of objects, which aids in image
interpretation and objects within shadow reflect little light and are difficult to discern on
image, which hinders interpretation. Taller features cast larger shadows than shorter features
as observed in Fig. 7.9. Military image interpreters are often primarily interested in
identification of individual items of equipment. Shadow is significant in distinguishing subtle
differences that might not be otherwise visible.

Site
Site refers to the topographic position, for example, sewage treatment facilities are positioned
at low topographic sites near stream or

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rivers to collect waste flowing through the system from higher locations. The D
relationship of feature to the surrounding features provides clues towards its identity.
You can also consider the example of certain tree species located in areas of specific
altitudes. Similarly, identification of landforms can help in deciphering the underlying
geology. Often many of the rock types have distinct topographic expressions, for
example, some kinds of sedimentary rocks are typically exposed in the form of
alternating ridge and valley topography.

Pattern
You have read about the seven image elements. It is now time to discuss about the terrain
element which is also a significant element in image interpretation. The terrain elements
include drainage, topography/landform, soil, vegetation and land use planning patterns.
Pattern develops in an image due to spatial arrangement of objects. Hence, pattern can be
defined as the spatial arrangement of objects in an image. Certain objects can be easily
identified because of their pattern. A particular pattern may have its genetic relation with
several factors of its origin. For example, urban and rural settlement areas can be easily
identified based on the patterns created by the rows of houses or buildings. Similarly,
drainage pattern have orderly association with the underlying lithology, structure, soil
texture and hydrological characteristics of the ground and hence provide clues about
them (Fig. 7.7).
The drainage patterns and texture seen on images are good indicators of landform and
bedrock type and also suggest soil characteristics and drainage condition. For example,
dendritic drainage is most common drainage pattern found in nature which is developed
regions of homogeneous rocks. Landform patterns may be regional, for example, long
ridges and valleys correspond to resistant and non-resistant rocks which together develop
into ridge and valley patterns. Soils also have a distinct pattern. Generally, fine textured,
poorly drained soils are dark in colour due to higher water content whereas coarse
textured soils, which are well drained are light in colour. Similarly, vegetation correlated
to certain rock types could help in determining the lithology in an area. The changes
brought about in land use planning and pattern with time can be carefully monitored
which can provide information about the land use pattern. Images of different years
mentioned in Fig. 7.10 give you information about the land use planning in the area. You
can observe the effects of urbanization in this figure and evaluate the agricultural fields
that have been converted to human settlements.

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GIS D
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing,
checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth's surface. By relating seemingly
unrelated data, GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand spatial patterns
and relationships.
GIS is an acronym for “Geographic Information System.” A GIS
system uses computers and software to gather, manage and analyze
data based on geography, and visualizes the data on a map. GIS
mapping software uses spatial data to create maps and 3D models out
of layers of visual information, revealing patterns and relationships in
the GIS data. Many industries
and government data analytics agencies use GIS to better
communicate complex information and solve problems associated
with Maps — Shareable
 geographic locations.maps that contain geographic data layers.
 Data — Spreadsheets, tables and imagery with a geographic
HowGISWorks
component that ties data to
GIS systems generally consist ofathe
particular location.
following elements:
 Analysis — Spatial analysis enhances decision-making process
by providing insights that give users more confidence when
interpreting and predicting situations.
 Apps — GIS is no longer tied to a desktop. Mobile apps
While each application is different, Geographic Information Systems
are broadly GIS
allow dataintothe
similar beway
usedthey
anywhere, at any
work. All GIStime.
tools analyze and
visualize spatial data, which includes location information like
address, latitude or longitude.
Geographic Information Systems generally perform these tasks in
 Visualize data — Geographic data is displayed in GIS software.
three steps:
 Combine data — Layers of data are combined to form maps.
 Query data — Geographic queries search for values in layered
data.
What isthePurposeofGeographicInformationSystems?
Geographic Information Systems, or GIS, overlay data on a map. By
connecting data with geography, GIS programming helps people
understand how data relates to a specific location. Visualizing data
geographically can help people spot patterns that would have been
difficult or impossible to detect in a huge spreadsheet.

GIS maps are used in a variety of ways, from tracking climate change
to analyzing crime patterns. Many companies use Geographic
Information Systems, and GIS technology is integrated into nearly
every industry and government organization. Environmentalists were
some of the earliest adopters, using9 GIS to track melting glaciers
Dept. of Civil Engineering
and
AJIET Mangaluru
deforestation. The agricultural industry
122 relies on GIS to map crop and
soil of
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Businesses use GIS to pick store sites, manage their supply chain andD
profile their customers. GIS applications help real estate companies
and land planers compare locations and parcels. Journalists use GIS to
illustrate concepts for their audience. GIS data can also effectively
target ad campaigns.
Today, GIS continues to expand into diverse areas including
archaeology, education and transportation.
BenefitsofGIS(GeographicInformationSystems)
GIS benefits businesses and governments by giving them the ability to
ask complex questions about location-based data.

GIS analysis uses spatiotemporal data to provide visual clues that

help people discover deeper insights than they could with a paper
map or traditional spreadsheet.
 Numeric data — Statistical data collected with a geographic
This iscomponent and displayed
important when dealing withas big
a layer
issuesonlikea climate
map. US Census
change,
demographics
population dynamicsare andannatural
example of numeric data.
disasters.
 Vector data — Consisting of X and Y coordinates, vector data
TypesofGeographicInformationSystems
The types
can of data in Geographic
describe points, lines Information
or polygons Systems, or GIS, include:
connected to a
geographic space. Vector formats are best for data with strict
borders, like a street or political district.
 Raster data — Typically digital images in JPEG, TIF or GIF
format, raster data is formed from grids of cells or pixels.
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Satelliteisimagery
Photogrammetry is aand
the science good example
technology of rasterreliable
of obtaining data. information about
 Linear networks — A layered line that can represent multiple
physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and
elements, such as a road that is also the boundary of a city or
interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant imagery and other
political district.
phenomena.

Steps to Create a Photogrammetric Model

Creating a photogrammetric model requires the following:

1. TIE POINTS: Tie points link coordinates from two or more overlapping images. In
general, you assign tie points for features that are visually apparent in two or more
photographs. When you have overlap, tie points adjust photos together through
common feature coordinates.

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2. GROUND CONTROL POINTS (GCP): Establishing ground control orientates and
D
positions images to known geographic coordinates on Earth’s surface. By adding
ground control points, you give photogrammetric products a spatial reference to the
real world.
3. BUNDLE ADJUSTMENT: Running a block bundle adjustment removes geometric
distortion from a set of images of three-dimensional points at different viewpoints.
This process minimizes the error between observed and predicted image points during
reprojection.

GPR
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a non-destructive detection and imaging method which
identifies subsurface elements either underground or within a surface such as concrete.
According to the New York State Museum, GPR was invented in the 1930s as a tool for
measuring the thickness of glaciers. It wasn’t until the mid-1980s that the technology
advanced to a stage where it became affordable for widespread use.
GPR can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects, giving it a wide range of applications.
It reveals all types of utilities, including electrical conduit, steam pipes, telecommunications
lines, gas & oil lines, water lines, and sewer & storm pipes. GPR can locate the presence of
voids, rebar, conduit, post tension cables, and other structural elements hidden within
concrete.

In short, GPR works by sending a radio signal into a structure and reading the “bounce.” The
radio wave bounces off any material it encounters and creates a reading that displays those
bounces as parabolas. An experienced GPR technician interprets this reading to determine the
type of material located. GPR is extremely accurate. However, external factors such as
ground and soil conditions, proper use of equipment, and correct interpretation of readings
can affect accuracy. In cases where GPR may not be the appropriate tool for the job, GPRS
will use complimentary underground imaging technology such as electromagnetic (EM)
locating to identify subsurface obstructions.

As stated above, the uses for ground penetrating radar are many and varied.
GPRS uses GPR to map underground utilities and other findings, and to scan for materials in
concrete. We do this to help our clients avoid the costly and dangerous repercussions of
striking any of these subsurface objects during construction activities. Scanning and locating
services enable contractors or homeowners to get a clear picture of what lies beneath before
continuing with a project.
GPS
GPS (Global Positioning System) is a satellite-based navigation system which was created by
U.S. Department of Defence as a part of NAVSTAR satellite program. It gives geolocation
and time information to a GPS receiver in all climate conditions, anywhere on or close to the
Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
GPS has three segments:
1. Space segment
2. Control segment
3. User segment

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The space segment is made up of at least 24 satellites with are placed on six circular orbital
D
planes (Four satellites per one orbit). Each orbit is inclined at an angle of 55° relative to
equator plus they are separated by 60°. Satellites are at an altitude of approximately
20,200km (12,600 mi).

The control segment handles synchronizing satellite’s atomic clocks and adjusts the
ephemeris of each and every satellite’s inner orbital model. It is maintained by U.S. Air
Force.
User segment is for typical users (like civil, commercial, scientific, military users, etc.) that
want to make use of GPS receivers to estimate their position.

What is GPS used for ?

At present, GPS is a multi-use, space-based radio navigation system belonging to the united
states government and controlled by the US Air Force to meet national defense, homeland
security, civil, commercial, and scientific requirements.
How Global Positioning System Works ?
GPS satellites circle the Earth 2 times a day in a precise orbit. GPS position is determined
using data coming from satellites. GPS receiver computes distance to satellites and using
theirs position calculate its own.
To find out the distance to satellites receiver will need to have very precise clock. This is the
primary reason why each satellite comes with an atomic clock and all those clocks should be
synchronized. In this system the weakest part is the GPS receiver since it has only the quartz
clock and require time synchronization.

DRONE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

What is a drone?

A drone is an unmanned aircraft. Drones are more formally known as unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) or unmanned aircraft systems. Essentially, a drone is a flying robot that can
be remotely controlled or fly autonomously using software-controlled flight plans in
its embedded systems, that work in conjunction with onboard sensors and a global
positioning system (GPS).

UAVs were most often associated with the military. They were initially used for anti-aircraft
target practice, intelligence gathering and, more controversially, as weapons platforms.
Drones are now also used in a range of civilian roles, including the following:

 search and rescue

 surveillance
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 traffic monitoring D
 weather monitoring

 firefighting

 personal use

 drone-based photography

 videography

 agriculture

 delivery services

How do drones work?

Drones have two basic functions: flight mode and navigation.

To fly, drones must have a power source, such as battery or fuel. They also have rotors,
propellers and a frame. The frame of a drone is typically made of a lightweight, composite
material to reduce weight and increase maneuverability.

Drones require a controller, which lets the operator use remote controls to launch, navigate
and land the aircraft. Controllers communicate with the drone using radio waves, such as Wi-
Fi.

Drones have a large number of components, including:

 electronic speed controllers, which control a motor's speed and direction;

 flight controller;
 GPS module;
 battery;
 antenna;
 receiver;
 cameras;
 sensors, including ultrasonic sensors and collision avoidance sensors;
 accelerometer, which measures speed; and
 altimeter, which measures altitude.
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Drone features vary based on the use it is put to. Examples of features include:

 various types of cameras with high-performance, zoom and gimbal steadycam and tilt capabilities;
 artificial intelligence (AI) that enables the drone to follow objects;
 augmented reality features that superimpose virtual objects on the drone's camera feed;
 media storage format;
 maximum flight time, which determines how long the drone can remain in the air;
 maximum speeds, including ascent and descent;
 hover accuracy;
 obstacle sensory range;
 altitude hold, which keeps the drone at a fixed altitude;
 live video feed; and
 flight logs.
 Applications of DRONE
 Aerial photography for journalism and film.
 Express shipping and delivery.
 Gathering information or supplying essentials for disaster management.
 Thermal sensor drones for search and rescue operations.
 Geographic mapping of inaccessible terrain and locations.
 Building safety inspections.

QUESTION BANK
1. Short notes on GPS
2. Explain briefly about topo sheets and topography
3. Write short notes on drone and its applications
4. What is photogrammetry
5. Explain GIS
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
III SEM CIVIL

(STUDENT MANUAL)

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY LABORATORY

(BVC303)

Name

USN
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): A J INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE VISION AND MISSION

Vision
To produce top-qualit y engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in t heir profession and
compet it ive enough to help in the growth of nat ion and global societ y.
Mission
M1 To offer affordable high-qualit y graduate program in engineering wit h value educat ion and
make the students socially responsible.
M2 To support and enhance the inst itutional environment to attain research excellence in both
facult y and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge base.
M3 To ident ify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effect ive industry -
inst itute partnership in a sustainable way by systemat ically working tog ether.
M4 To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovat ive ideas among the engineering
professionals.

DEPARTMENT VISION AND MISSION

Vision
To produce competent and professional civil engineers with academic excellence and ethics to meet societal
challenges at global level.
Mission
M1: To impart students with strong theoretical and practical skills through the state-of-the-art concepts and
fundamentals of various civil engineering subjects.
M2: To prepare the students to be competent and skilled enough to take up the challenges in research to meet the
ever changing needs of society and to continue learning.
M3: To promote active learning, critical thinking, industry - institute collaborative activities and contribute to
social development with ethical conduct

M4: To nurture innovative ideas and develop entrepreneurial attitude among the engineering professionals .

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO'S)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
2. Problem analysis: :
(18CV35)Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health,
safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams,
and in multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community
and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and
life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)

PSO1: Should be able to understand the various domain concepts of civil engineering and execute the projects
effectively.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
PSO2: Demonstrate :
(18CV35)competency in the technical community and arrive at sustainable solutions to the real world
problems.
PSO3: Take up challenging roles by focusing on a systematic approach

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Civil Engineering graduates are able to
PEO1: Apply concepts of interdisciplinary sciences and technology to solve any civil engineering problem.
PEO2: Execute civil engineering projects effectively by addressing the ever-changing needs of society and aim
for continuous improvement.
PEO3: Competent enough to pursue higher studies and also to monitor and manage the research project with the
effective utilization of resources to suit the needs and face the challenges involved to meet the global demands.

A J INSTITUTE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COURSE OUTCOMES, PSO AND CO-PO-PSO MAPPING

Staff Name: POOJA DEEPAK SEM: III Semester. Course code: BCV303
Sub Name : Engineering Geology Laboratory

Course Outcomes (CO’s)

Comprehend the relations between minerals and rocks based on their physical
CO1
properties

CO2 Assess the suitability of materials used in building construction

Differentiate geological investigations necessary for the construction of dams, bridges,

CO3
and tunnels
CO4 Describe the groundwater investigation using resistivity methods
CO5 Understand the applications of Geospatial technology in Civil Engineering.

CO-PO-PSO Mapping

CO/P
O'S
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 P07 PO8 PO9 P010 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO1 2 1 3 1

CO2 2 2 3 1

CO3 2 2 3 1

CO4 2 2 3 1

CO5 2 2 3 1
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

SL MARKS STAFF
EXPERIMENTS
NO OBTAINED SIGNATURE
1 Identification of common minerals based on Physical
Properties
2 Identification of rocks used in building construction based
on Physical properties
3 Solving Geological maps for suitability for aqua duct

4 Geological maps with inclined beds, suitability for

tunnels/ Dams
5 Geological maps with folds, in tunnels/ Dams

6 Geological maps with unconformity , in tunnel/dam

project
7 Geological maps with faults in Dams/tunnels project

8 One Day Nearest Field Visit Investigation

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Experiment No: Date:

1. MINEROLOGY

Geology is a branch of science that deals with the study of planet Earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of
those materials, and the processes acting upon them. It is also known as Earth science. For studying the Earth in detail,
Geology has been divided into various branches, which are as follows:
1. Mineralogy
2. Petrology
3. Structural Geology
4. Engineering Geology
5. Mining Geology
6. Economic Geology
7. Stratigraphy
8. Photo Geology
9. Physical Geology
10. Hydrology etc.

Importance of Geology for Civil Engineering:

The role of geology in civil engineering may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials, their structure and properties.
2. The knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition by surface water helps in soil conservation, river control, coastal
and harbor works.
3. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in tunneling, constructing roads and in determining the
stability of cuts and slopes.
4. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology of the area where they are to
be built.
5. The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with excavation works, water supply, irrigation and many
other purposes.
6. Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering projects.

Engineering Geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the geological
factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and
accounted for.

The following branches of Geology are important from the subject point of view
1. Mineralogy
2. Petrology
3. Structural Geology

Mineralogy:
Mineralogy is a branch of Geology which deals with the study of minerals. The subject attempts to study various aspects of
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
minerals. (18CV35):

The study of mineralogy includes the:

 Physical properties (Physical Mineralogy)
 Chemical properties (Chemical Mineralogy)
 Optical properties (Optical Mineralogy)
 Mode of occurrence and the formation of minerals {X-Ray Mineralogy)

A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid, inorganically formed having a definite chemical
composition and ordered atomic arrangement".

According to this definition, a mineral will have the following characters:

1. It must have formed naturally; Minerals prepared in the laboratory by artificial method cannot be called minerals in the
true sense.
2. Every mineral will be uniform or homogenous in composition.
3. It must be a solid, but the recent (latest) trend is to include coal and petroleum under minerals. But majority of the
minerals are solids.
4. Inorganic processes form the minerals. Very rarely formation of certain minerals like Quartz, calcite etc. has been
observed in certain parts of the human body, Even though such substances in the body possess the characters of minerals
they cannot be called minerals.
5. Every mineral will have a definite chemical composition.
For example: Quartz (SiO2)
Graphite (C)
Calcite (CaCO3)
6. Every mineral is characterized by a definite internal atomic arrangement of an atom.

Physical Properties of Minerals or External Characters of Minerals:

Minerals are characterized by a number of properties that can be observed externally. Such characters are called physical
properties. The various physical properties can be studied under the following different headings:
1. Physical properties of minerals depending on light, such as Form, Colour, Streak, Diaphaneity, Luster.
2. Physical properties of minerals depending on state of aggregation, such as Cleavage, Fracture, Hardness.
3. Physical properties of minerals depending on the specific gravity of the mineral.
4. Physical properties of minerals depending on certain senses, such as Taste, Feel and Odour (Smell).
5. Special properties such as Dil. HCL test, Magnetism.

1. Physical properties of minerals depending on light:

a. Form
Minerals assume different shapes, which depend upon the internal structure of the minerals. Different terms have been used
to describe the forms of different minerals. The important terms that are commonly used are:

1. Fibrous - When the mineral has a thread- like structure.

Example: Asbestos.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

2. Columnar - When the mineral has a thick or thin columnar structure.

Example: Hornblende

3. Granular - When the mineral has numerous grains, coarse or fine

Example: Calcite, Chromite

4. Crystalline - When the mineral has fine crystals packed together.

Example: Galena, Pyrite.

5. Massive - When the mineral has an irregular structure.

Example: Feldspar.

6. Bladed - When a mineral appears to be composed of a blade- like structure.

Example: Kyanite.

7. Acicular - When the mineral consists of thin, sharp and slender needles as shown in the figure. Example: Natrolite.

8. Botryoidal - Rounded aggregates of minerals like a bunch of grapes.

Example: Chalcedony.

9. Foliated - When the mineral consists of thin separable sheets. Example: Mica.

10. Radiating - When the fibers or needles are arranged around a central point. Example: Iron Pyrite.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

11. Tabular- The mineral is flat rather than elongated as shown in the figure.
Example: Calcite, Orthoclase.

12. Reniform - When the mineral possesses rounded prominences like those of a Kidney as shown in the figure.
Example: Hematite, Pyrolusite.

b. Colour
Colour is an important physical property of minerals, which depends upon light. The colour of any mineral depends up on
the absorption of some wavelengths and reflection of others of visible light (390 nm to 700 nm). If the mineral absorbs all
the wavelength of visible light, it appears black. If the mineral reflects all the wavelength of visible light it appears white. A
mineral appears red when it can absorb all the wavelength of white light except red. Similarly, a mineral appears green when
it can absorb all the wavelength of visible light except green.

c. Streak
Streak is nothing but the colour of the mineral in its powdery form. Rubbing the mineral against the streak plates can get
streak. Some minerals will have the same colour from their massive form also in their powdery form.
For example: Natural gold is yellow in its colour and powder form. There are some other minerals, which have different
chloroform their massive form due to their powdery form.
For example: The mineral pyrite which is commonly called as "Fool's Gold" is yellow in colour in its massive form but it
gives a Black streak. Similarly Hematite, the ore of Iron is Red or Brownish Gray in colour but it gives Cherry red Streak.

Table: 1 Colour of Streak of Some Minerals

Mineral Streak
Barite White
Biotite Colourless
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): Chalcopyrite Black
Chromite Brown
Galena Lead-grey
Gold Natural yellow
Graphite Black
Gypsum White
Haematite Cherry-red
Limonite Yellowish-brown
Pyrite Black
Quartz Colourless
Siderite White

d. Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity means ability to transmit light. The terms used are:

i) Transparent: When the mineral allows the light to pass through it. In the case of transparent minerals the objects can be
clearly seen through such minerals.
Example: Quartz and Calcite (Coloured varieties).

ii) Translucent: When the minerals allow only a part of the light to pass through. The outlines of any object cannot be seen
clearly through such lines of translucent mineral.
Example: Quartz and Calcite (Milky white varieties)

iii) Opaque: When a mineral does not allow any light to pass through. The Objects are not seen through opaque mineral.
Example: Bauxite, Hematite, and Magnetite.

e. Lustre
The Lustre of a mineral is its appearance in a reflected light, which is independent of its colour.
The terms used are:
(i) Adamantine- when a mineral has lustre like Diamond.
Example: Zircon, Diamond, Sulphur etc.,
(ii) Resinous- when a mineral has lustre like Grease.
Example: Opal amber and a variety of Zincblende.
(iii) Vitreous-When a mineral has lustre like Glass.
Example: Quartz, Calcite and in many other Silicate Minerals.
(iv) Pearly- when a mineral has lustre like Pearls.
Example: Talc. Brucite, Micas etc.,
(v) Metallic-When a mineral has lustre like metals.
Example: Galena, Pyrite, and Chalcopyrite.
(vi) Silky lustre- Mineral with a Silky shine
Example: Asbestos
(vii) Dull- when a mineral has no lustre.
Example: Bauxite.

2. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on State of Aggregation

a. Cleavage
Cleavage of the mineral is its tendency to split along certain parallel planes producing more or less smooth surface. Cleavage
lines are the weaklings or divisional planes in a mineral.
The terms used are:
i. Perfect, Good or Distinct- When a mineral can split up with great ease and give a smooth surface.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
Example: (18CV35) :
Mica, Feldspar
ii. Imperfect, Poor, Imperfect or None- When a mineral does not split up with an average force.
Example: Quartz.

b. Fracture
Fracture of the mineral may be defined as the appearance of its broken surface, when the mineral is hammered and broken.

Conchoidal Uneven
fracture fracture

Even
fracture

The terms used are:

(i) Even fracture - Appearance of a mineral in its broken surface is Smooth.
Examples: Chert, Mica.
(ii) Uneven fracture - When the mineral breaks with very rough and coarse surfaces.
Examples: Chromite and various other minerals.
(iii) Conchoidal fracture - When a mineral breaks with curved Surfaces or concentric
rings or half-moon shape.
Example: Quartz
(iv) Hackly fracture- When a mineral breaks with irregular Surfaces having sharp edges.
Example: Native copper.
(v) Earthy fracture- When the broken surface is soft and almost smooth.
Example- Chalk.

c. Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is the resistance it offers to abrasion, which is determined by observing the comparative ease
or difficulty in scratching it with another mineral of known hardness. It is always expressed by Moh's Scale of Hardness
given below-
Table: 2 Moh’s Scale of Hardness

Standard Mineral and its composition Hardness Remarks

scale
Talc Mg3 (Si4O10) (OH) 2 1 Can be scratched by a fingernail
Gypsum CaSO4 2 Can be scratched by a fingernail
Calcite CaCO3 3 Can be scratched by a copper coin
Fluorite CaF2 4 Can be scratched by a iron nail
Apatite Ca3 (F, CL, OH) (PO4) 5 Can be scratched by window glass
Orthoclase KALSI3O8 6 Steel pocket knife
Quartz SiO2 7 Pen knife
Topaz Al2 (SiO4) (SOH) 2 8 Can be scratched by a Pen knife
Corundum Al2O3 9 Can be scratched by a Pen knife
Diamond C 10 Cannot be scratched by a Pen knife
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
A mineral with :
lowest hardness
(18CV35) is talc and the mineral with the maximum hardness is Diamond. It has been observed that a
soft mineral like Talc and Gypsum can be scratched with a Fingernail. A steel knife can cut Apatite and Orthoclase but not
Quartz. The average hardness of a normal fingernail may be up to 2.5 whereas the hardness of penknife is 6.5

3. Physical Properties of Minerals depending on Specific Gravity:

The Specific gravity of a mineral is the ratio of its weight to the weight of equal volume of water.

Density = Mass = M
Volume V

Specific gravity is depending on the weight of the specimen -Palm is the Judge
Low - Light minerals (less weight)
Medium - Intermediate minerals (medium weight)
High - Heavy minerals (much weight)

4. Physical Properties of Minerals depending on certain senses such as Taste, Feel

and Odour

1. Taste: The terms used are-

(i) Alkaline-Taste of soda
(ii) Bitter-Taste of Epsom salt
(iii) Cooling- Taste of Saltpeter
(iv) Saline- Taste of common salt
(v) Sour- taste of Sulphuric acid

2. Feel: Feel is the sensation upon touching or handling minerals.

The terms used are-
"Greasy"
"Soapy"
"Rough"
"Harsh"

3. Odour: Some characteristic smell when rubbed breathed upon heated.

The terms used are-
(a) Arsenical - Like the Odour of Garlic. Example-Orpiment
(b) Sulphurous - Like the Odour of burning Sulphur. Example-Pyrite
(c) Argillaceous - Like the Odour of clay.

Special Properties of Minerals: Special properties of minerals are:

(i) Magnetism
(ii) Reaction with Dil. HCL acid
Magnetism
Only few minerals are attracted by a Bar magnet or Horseshoe magnet. Such minerals are called Ferromagnetic. The most
common minerals that attract a magnet are Magnetite, Pyrrhotite, Magnet, etc.,
Based on the strength of the magnetism, the minerals can be grouped
Under the following headings.
(i) Highly Magnetic - Examples: Magnetite, Pyrrhotite
(ii) Moderate Magnetic - Example: Siderite, Iron Garnet, Ilmenite, and hematite
(iii) Weakly Magnetic - Example: Tourmaline, spinel, and monazite
(iv) Non Magnetic - Example: Calcite, quartz, and feldspars

Reaction with acid

Acid test- Scratch a fresh even surface of the given mineral until grooved and powdered.
Certain carbonate minerals react with Hydrochloric acid.
Example: Calcite (CaCO3). Carefully add one or two drops of Dilute HCL to it. Immediate effervescence (fizzing) confirms
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
Carbonate especially
(18CV35) : 3.
CaCO

Table: 3 Classification of Minerals

1) Quartz group
2) Feldspar group
A) Silicate minerals
3) Mica group
Rock forming minerals
4) Amphibole group
5) Garnet group
B) Non-silicate minerals 6) Carbonate group
Rock forming minerals Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite.
C) Non- 7) Sulphide group
silicate Galena, Pyrite, Chalcopyrite.
minerals
Ore forming minerals 8) Oxide group
Hematite, Magnetite, Bauxite, Corundum.
9) Sulphate group
Gypsum, Barytes.

Description of Minerals:
1. Quartz Group:
Physical Properties Quartz Group
Form Massive / granular
Colour Variable
Streak Colourless
Luster Vitreous
Cleavage Absent
Fracture Conchoidal to uneven
Hardness 7 (high)
Diaphenity Transparent to opaque
Sp Gravity 2.7 (low to medium)
Composition SiO2, Silicon oxide

Occurrence Ig, Sed. and Met. Rocks

Uses:
1. Manufacture of glass, porcelain
2. Flux in metallurgical operation
3. Agates are used as Ornaments
4. Amethysts are considered as semiprecious stone
5. Pure quartz crystal shows piezoelectricity
6. Quartz plates are used in controlling frequencies in radio circuits, radar, ultrasonic and multiple telephone lines.
7. Fibre quartz wires are frequently used for transmission of telephone messages. Each minute fibre wire can send large
messages.
8. Quartz is used in refractories
9. Pure silica is used in ceramics
10. Pure sand, free from impurities is used in manufacturing Sand paper and abrassive
cloth.

Varieties of Quartz:
1) Crystalline Varieties
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
a) Rock crystal :
or colourless
(18CV35) quartz [colourless, transparent]
b) Rosy quartz [Rose colour, Translucent.]
c) Milky quartz [Milk colour, translucent]
d) GREY quartz [Grey colour, translucent]
e) Amethyst [Purple or violet colour, translucent]
f) Smoky quartz [Smoky- yellow or smoky-brown colour, translucent]
g) Orange quartz [Orange colour, translucent]
h) Green quartz (Green colour, translucent])
2) Cryptocrystalline Varieties

a) Chalcedony [Botryoidal, uniform light colour]

b) Agate [Banded, zebra Agate- zebra colour]
c) Jasper [Blood red colour]
d) Chert [Brick red colour]

3) Amorphous Varieties
a) Opal.

2. Feldspar Group:

Physical Feldspar Group

Properties
Orthoclase Microclase Plagioclase
Form Tabular Tabular / massive Tabular / massive
Colour Pink White / greenish White / grayish
Streak Colourless Colourless Colourless
Luster Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous
Cleavage Perfect Perfect Perfect
Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven
Hardness 6 6 - 6.5 6

Diaphaneity Translucent Translucent to Translucent to

to opaque opaque opaque
Sp Gravity 2.6 2.6 2.6
Composition KAlSi3O8 KAlSi3O8 NaCaAlSio2
Occurrence Acid igneous rock, granite and pegmatite
Uses Sanitary ware, Earthenware, porcelain items, glazed
tiles, flux enamel, binders

3. Mica Group:

Physical Mica Group

Properties Biotite Muscovite
Form Flaky Flaky
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): Colour Black Colourless
Streak White White
Luster Vitreous Vitreous
Cleavage Perfect Perfect
Fracture Uneven Uneven
Hardness 2-3 2-3
Diaphaneity Translucent Transparent
Sp Gravity 2.5 2.5
Composition KMgFeAlSi-OH KAlSi-OH

Occurrence Ig, Met rocks Ig, Met rocks

Electrical
Electrical Insulator,
Uses Insulator,
furnace window.
furnace window,

4. Amphibole & Garnet Group:

Physical Amphibole Group

Garnet group
Properties
Hornblende Asbestos Garnet
Form Crystal tabular Fibrous/massive Crystal
Colour Green / brown Greenish/white Red, Brown
Streak White White Colourless
Luster Vitreous Greasy/vitreous Vitreous
Cleavage Perfect None Imperfect/none
Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven
Hardness 5.5-6 3 6- 7.5
Translucent- Translucent-
Diaphaneity Opaque
opaque opaque
Sp Gravity 3.0 2-3 3.5
Ca,Na,Mg,Fe,Al Mg,Fe,Ca,Al,
Composition MgSi – OH
,Si – OH Si - O
Ultra basic Ig,
Occurrence Intrusive, Met. Met. rock
rocks
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): It is crushed and Refractory, heat Gem stones,
used for highway and fire resistant, abrasives
construction and as cement, acid
railroad ballast. The resistant
highest quality
pieces are cut,
Uses polished under the
name "black granite"
for use as floor tiles
and architectural
uses.

5. Kaolin (China Clay):

Physical Kaolin
Properties (china clay)
Form Earthy/granular
Colour White/yellowish
Streak White
Luster Dull
Cleavage None
Fracture Uneven
Hardness 1
Diaphaneity Opaque
Sp Gravity 2.5
Composition Al,Si-OH
Weathered product
Occurrence
of Ig, Met rock
Ceramic, paper
Uses industry, pottery,
bricks, pesticide

6. Carbonate & Sulphates Group:

Physical Carbonates Sulphates

Properties Calcite Dolomite Magnesite Gypsum Baryte
Form Crystal / rhomb Crystal/massive Massive Crystal/fibrous Crystal/tabular
Colour Colourless / white Black White White/yellowish White/grey
Streak White White White White White
Luster Vitreous Vitreous Dull Vitreous Vitreous/perly
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
:
Cleavage (18CV35)Perfect Perfect None Perfect Perfect
Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven
Hardness 3 3-4 3-4 1.5 3-3.5
Diaphaneity Transparent Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque

Sp Gravity 3 3 3 2.3 4.5

Composition CaCO3 CaMg(CO3)2 MgCO3 CaSO4 – 2H2O BaSO4
Hydro
Hydro thermal/ Hydro thermal/ Oxidation of Hydro thermal/
Occurrence thermal/
weathering weathering sulphides weathering
weathering

Optics, building
building Refractory, Cement, Metullargy, x-ray
Uses material (reacts
material, cement building material Metullargy exam
with dil. acid)

7. Sulphide Group:

Sulphide group
Physical
Properties Pyrite
Galena Chalcopyrite
(fool’s gold)
Form Crystal/granular Crystal/granular Massive/granular
Colour Lead grey Brass yellow Yellow/dark yellow
Streak Black Black Black
Luster Metallic Metallic Metallic
Cleavage Perfect Indistinct Imperfect
Fracture Uneven Uneven uneven
Hardness 2–3 6 3
Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque opaque
Sp Gravity 7.5 5 4.3
Composition PbS FeS2 CuFeS2
Weathering / Weathering / hydro
Occurrence Hydro thermal
hydro thermal thermal
Ore of Copper
Uses Ore of lead Ore of iron
and Iron

8. Oxide Group:
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): Oxide group
Physical
Properties Hematite Magnetite Bauxite Corundum
Form Massive/granular Massive/granular Massive/cryptocry Crystal/tabular
Colour Black Black White/yellowish Grey/blue/black
Streak Cherry red Black White None
Luster Sub - metallic Sub - metallic Dull Vitreous
Cleavage None None None Indistinct
Fracture Uneven Uneven Uneven Uneven
Hardness 5.5 - 6 5.5 - 6 3.5 9
Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque
Sp Gravity 5 5 3 4
Composition Fe2O3 Fe3O4 Al2O3 – H2O Al2O3
Weathering hydro Magmatic, hydro Hydro thermal/ Pegmatite, Met.
Occurrence
thermal thermal weathering rocks
Aluminum ore,
refractory, paper
Uses Iron ore, dye Iron ore Gem/ abrasive
making, dying,
ceramics

9. Serpentine and Talc:

Physical Serpentine Talc

Properties
Form Massive/fibrous Massive
Colour Green/yellow Pale green/white
Streak White White
Luster Greasy Pearly/vitreous
Cleavage None None
Fracture Uneven Uneven
Hardness 3 1
Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque

Sp Gravity 2-3 2-3

Composition MgSi – OH MgSi – OH
Ultra basic Ig, Ultra basic
Occurrence
rocks Ig, rocks
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35): Fillers, paper,
Decorative,
cosmetics,
Uses furnace
furnace lining,
repair
toilet powder

Describe the physical properties, Chemical composition, uses, and crystal system and identify the mineral specimens.

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note
mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
forming
Note mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
Note
mineral
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35) :
2] Rock
forming
mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
3] Belongs to
which group

Properties
Observation
Form/ Habit

Colour

Streak

Diaphaneity

Luster

Cleavage

Fracture

Hardness

SP. GR

Name
Chemical
Theoretical
Composition
Information
(C.C)
Crystal System
(C.S)
Occurrence

Uses

1] Silicate/
Non silicate
mineral
2] Rock
Note forming
mineral / Ore
forming
mineral
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35) : to
3] Belongs
which group

VIVA QUESTIONS

1) Define Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring elements or compounds. Most are inorganic solids (apart from liquid
mercury and a few organic minerals) and defined by their chemical composition and crystal structure.
2) What are rocks
A rock is a natural substance composed of solid crystals

3) Define hardness of mineral

A mineral's hardness is a measure of its relative resistance to scratching, measure scratching the mineral
against another substance of known hardness
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Experiment No: Date:

PETEROLOGY (Greek: Petra=Rock, Logy=Study)

Petrology is the branch of geology which deals with the study of rocks. Especially their mode of formation, composition and
uses for all types of engineering works. The study of petrology is most important for a civil engineering in the selection of
suitable rocks for building stones, road metals etc., Rocks reveal the geological events of our mother earth. Rocks of other
planets also decipher the secrets of their geological evolution.

Definition of as rock: A Rock is defined as the aggregation of the mineral constituents, which forms the earth's crust. Some
rocks may be hard like Granite or soft like sand or clay. The hard and resistant substances may be called stones.
Example: Granite, Sandstones, Marble etc. that is why all the stones are rocks, but at the same time all rocks are not
necessarily stones.

Classification of rocks

Igneous: These are primary rocks formed by solidifying from a molten magma.
Sedimentary: Result when fragments of pre- existing rocks accumulate and are cemented together or by the
precipitation of mineral crystals out of water solutions.
Metamorphic: pre-existing rocks are altered due to pressure and /or temperature and fluid activity.

Classification of rocks based on their Genesis

Igneous rocks or Sedimentary rocks or Metamorphic rocks or
Primary rocks Secondary rocks Altered rocks
Volcanic Organic Thermal
Examples: Basalt, Examples: Fossiliferos Example: Marble.
Trachyte. Limestone.

Hypabyssal Chemical Dynamic

Examples: Pegmatite Example: Limestone. Example: Slate, Schist.

Plutonic Mechanical Dynamo thermal

Examples: Granite, Example: Shale, Example: Quartzite.
Syenite, Conglomerate,
Diorite, Breccia.
Gabbro,
Dunite etc.,

Terminology
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks Or
Or First formed rocks Or secondary formed altered rocks
Or Primary rocks Or second formed Or third formed or Hard rocks
Or Hard rocks Or soft rocks
Or Consolidated rocks.
Or Consolidated rocks Or unconsolidated rocks
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Classification of Igneous rocks
Over Saturated Saturated Under
Saturated
Based on Mode Acidic Ultra Basic
of Silica Content: Intermediate Basic Sio2< 44 %
Origin Sio2>66% Sio2; 55-66 % Sio2 44-55 %
With Free Quartz
Mineral Q, F, B, H OF+PF+Hbl Augite +PF Olivine and
composition little or no
feldspar
Colour Leucocratic Me Socratic Melanocratic
Sp. gravity 2.6-2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1
Volcanic Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt Limbergite
(Extrusive) Dacite Andesite Alkali-Basalt Olivine
Obsidian Phonolite Basalt
Hypobyssal Granite-porphyry Syenite-porphyry Dolerite-
Minor Pegmatite Diorite-porphyry porphyry
Intrusive - sill, Dolerite
dyke, Laccolith.

Classification of Sedimentary rocks

Mode of Formation Texture and Mineral Rock types

Composition

Mechanically formed or i) Rudaceous (Pebbly) Breccia, Conglomerate

ii) Arenaceous (Sandy)
iii) Argillaceous (Clayey)
Clastic Sandstone

Shale

Chemically Formed Massive Limestone

(Precipitation/evaporation (CaCo3) - Calcite

/residual deposits)

Organically formed Fossiliferos (Animal Shell Limestone

remains, Shells, Corals) Or

Calcite
Coral Limestone

Sedimentary or Residual Concretionary Laterite

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
Deposits loosely :
cemented
(18CV35) (Clay) Fe2O AL2O3

Classification of Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic agencies Heat Pressure (Stress) Enormous heat and

pressure together

Mode of Formation (Process) Thermal Dynamic Dynamo thermal

Metamorphic Metamorphic or Regional Metamorphic

Rocks rock
Rock

Non Recrystallization- Marble_ __________ ________

foliated Granulose
Quartzite

Reorientation Chlorite,

Foliated Schistose _______ Schist,

Mica Schist

Banded Reorientation _____ ________ Gneiss

Gneissose Augen Gneiss

Mode of Origin

1) Of Igneous Rocks

Mode of origin Acidic Intermediate Basic Ultra basic

Plutonic Granite Syenite, Diorite Gabbro -------

Hypobyssal Pegmatite Porphyries Dolerite -------

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
Volcanic (18CV35):
Rhyolite Trachyte, Andesite Basalt -------

2) Of Sedimentary Rocks

Mode of Origin Examples

1) Mechanical Breccia. Conglomerate, Shale, Sand stone

2) Chemical Lime stone

3) Organic Fossiliferos shale, Fossiliferos lime stone

3) Of Metamorphic Rocks

Mode of Origin Examples

1) Dynamic Metamorphism Slate, Schist, Gneiss

2) Thermal Metamorphism Marble

3) Dynamo thermal Metamorphism Quartzite

Parent rocks to the:

1) Shale Slate, Schist

2) Limestone Marble

3) Granite Gneiss

4) Sandstone Quartzite

Description of Igneous Rocks:

Plutonic Igneous Rocks:
Properties Granite Syenite Diorite Dunite
Light colour with Light colour Light colour Olive green,
Colour White pink tint yellowish
Green, greenish
yellow
Grain size Medium to coarse Medium to Medium to Fine to medium
coarse coarse
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
Texture (18CV35) :
Equigranular Equigranular Equigranular Equigranular
Quartz, Feldspar Feldspars, Quartz, Olivine altering
Minerals Biotite, Hornblende Biotite, Feldspars, to Serpentine,
Present Hornblende Hornblende, Chromite,
Biotite Magnetite
Mode of PAIR PIIR PIIR PUIR
origin
Engineering a) Granite is one of Though Syenite Used as a Used for
Uses the most important building stone Ornamental
building stones is not so purposes
Specially used for
decoration, common, yet it
monumental and
Architectural can be used
purposes
b) Large blocks of instead of
granites are used as
building stone granite.
c) Smaller blocks of
granites are used as
(b) Presence of
Railway ballast or
feldspar shows
Road metal.
beautiful blue
and green effect,
which improves
its appearance
and hence is used
for decorative
purposes.
Group Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock

Hypabyssal Igneous rocks:

Properties Pegmatite Porphyries Dolerite

Colour Light colour Light colour Usually dark

(White, pink. Green) being almost black
when fresh
Grain Size Coarse Medium to coarse Medium to coarse
Texture Pegmatitic Porphyritic Doleritic
Minerals Feldspars, Quartz, Because of Porphyritic Plagioclase.
Present Biotite texture It may be Augite and
Granite porphyry Hornblende with
Syenite porphyry some Olivine
Diorite porphyry
Mode of Origin HIIR Hypobyssal Hypobyssal,
Basic igneous rock
Engineering Uses The Muscovite mica is used Occurs
commercially and is obtained ----------- Chiefly in dykes
from pegmatite Used
as a Road metal
Group Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock

Volcanic Igneous Rocks:

Properties Rhyolite Trachyte Pumicite Basalt

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Colour Dirty Dark Silver Dark
White with Gray when
Reddish brown Fresh,
Patches Ash grayish
White
Grain Size Fine Fine Fine Fine
Texture Vesicular Trachytic Vesicular Vesicular,
Amygdaloidal
Minerals present Same Same Same Plagioclase,
as granite as Syenite as granite Augite
Mode of origin Volcanic Acidic Volcanic Volcanic Basic volcanic
Igneous rock Intermediate Igneous rock Igneous rock
Igneous rock
Engineering Uses Used as filler, Light weight The crushed basalt
Abrassive -------- concrete, Tooth is used as a road
Polisher powder, metal

Note: PAIR: Plutonic Acidic Igneous Rock.

HIIR: Hypobyssal Intermediate Igneous Rock
PIIR: Plutonic Intermediate Igneous Rock
BVIR: basic volcanic igneous rock
PUIR: Plutonic ultra basic igneous rock

Description of Sedimentary Rocks:

Properties Breccia Conglomerate Shale Sand stone Lime stone

Color Light color Light color Light (white, Light (red, brown, Light

(chocolate) pink, black) pink)

Grain size Rudaceous Rudaceous Argillaceous Arenaceous Argillaceous

Minerals Angular Rounded pebbles Compaction Quartz, feldspars Calcite

present pebbles of mud and

clay

Cementing Siliceous Ferruginous Siliceous Siliceous Siliceous

material (much (because of red /

Ferruginous Ferruginous Ferruginous
quantity brown color)
Calcareous Calcareous Calcareous
quartz)

Mode Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Chemical Organic

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
of origin(18CV35): Fossiliferos

Limestone.

Engineering a) Used Harder Used a) Siliceous and Note –

uses. ferruginous sand

as a building and tougher for Depending on the
stone are used as a
stone varieties colour
bricks and
building stone
of conglomerates of limestone's the
tile industry.
used varieties
b) Used for
b) Calcareous sand
ornamental as foundation, are classified as,
stones are not used
purposes concrete and
1] Siliceous
as a building stone
railway ballast's.
limestone

[Rich in quartz]

2] Ferruginous

limestone

[Red or brown

colour.

3] Calcareous

limestone

(White colour)

Limestone is used

in cement

industry.

Description of Metamorphic Rocks

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Properties Slate Schist Marble Gneiss Quartzite

Color Bluish black Dark White, gray, red, Alternate layers of Light

blue, green and dark and light

yellow

Structure Slaty Schistose Saccharoidal Gneissose Granulose

Minerals Very fine grained Flaky minerals Calcite, quartz. Quartz, felds par, Quartz small

present mixture of quartz, such as Biotite, hornblende. amount of mica,

chlorite, Seri cite muscovite, tourmaline,

and felds par. Biotite graphite and

hornblende, iron minerals

chlorite, talc etc.

Depending upon

the type of flaky

mineral present

the schist's are

described.

Mode Dynamic Dynamic Thermal Dynamic Dynamo

metamorphism metamorphism metamorphism metamorphism thermal

of origin
metamorphism

Sand stone
Shale Shale Lime stone Granite

Quartzite
Slate Schist Marble Gneiss

Engineering Used for Schist being a) Coarse grained Used as a road Extensively

uses weak rock, are marbles used for metal and concrete used as a road
a)
Flooring
not use d for historical, aggregates metal and
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Purposes important works monumental and concrete

architectural aggregates
b) For
Roofing
purposes.

Materials
b)extensively

c) Table used as a building

Tops
stone for the
d) Stair
Cases decoration of

columns, stair
e) Switch
cases, floors etc
Boards.

EXERCISE: Describe and identify the Rocks based on their geological and mineralogical properties. And state how
these rocks are useful in Civil Engineering works.

Properties

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Cementing

material

Mode

of origin

Engineering

uses

Properties
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin

Engineering

uses
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Properties

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Engineering

uses.
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Properties

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin

Engineering

uses
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Properties

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Engineering

uses

Properties

Color
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):
Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin

Engineering

uses
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Properties

Color

Grain size

Minerals

present

Cementing

material

Mode

of origin
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
(18CV35):

Engineering

uses
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
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GEOLOGICAL MAPS

A Student of Geology should have a thorough knowledge in reading a geological map, interpreting the geological features of
an area for a specific purpose.

Geological Map
A Geological map always represents the distribution and association of rock types, ores and other economic mineral
deposits. The map is usually superimposed on a topographic map of an area.

Topographic Map
A topographic map indicates the ground features like hills, valleys, river courses, roads, railway lines, forests and desert area
besides villages, towns, cities, lakes, wells, etc.

Map
Maps are representation of three-dimensional view on two dimensions. Thus the relief of the ground such as depressions and
elevations is shown by

1. Shading: Different colours to indicate different altitude with reference to Mean sea level (MSL).
2. Hachuring: only one colour is employed and lines are drawn in the direction of the slope of the ground.
3. Contour: Lines joining all points of equal elevation with some constant intervals.

A contour is invariably in curved line passing through all points of equal altitudes. Each contour is numbered, indicating
its positions above or below mean sea level (MSL). The difference in height between any two consecutive contours is known
as contour interval (CI). It is also known as VERTICAL INTERVAL (VI). The space between the contours is the horizontal
distance on the ground in a particular scale. It is known as the Horizontal equivalency (HE). If the contour Interval (CI) and
the Horizontal Equivalent (HE) are available, the slope or the Gradient can be calculated.

Slope= Contour interval

= CE
Horizontal distance HE
When the contours are closely spaced the slope is STEEP, and when the contours are far apart the slope is GENTLE.

Contours remain horizontal and parallel to one another. As they represent different altitudes, they never intersect one another
(but in exceptional cases) with the help of the contour; Profile can be drawn in required direction.

Profile
A Profile is a longitudinal section as seen from a side, which shows the rise and fall of the ground between any two points on
a map. This is drawn on a Datum line between two end lines with a suitable scale. The height of such profile would be
between 4 cms and 6 cms.
There are few Geological maps without contours, but they are provided with spot heights or Trigonometrical heights.

Dip and Strike

C
S S

SS = Strike
CD = True Dip
CD1=CD2=Apparent dip
D1 D2
D

Dip and Strike: (Details given in dip and strike Problems)

 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
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Bed and a Bedding plane:

E
D

C Bedding planes

ABCDE = Beds
Bedding Planes: the planes which are separating the different beds.

Folds: When the Sedimentary rocks are subjected to compressional forces they tend to buckle up or down into a flexure
called FOLD.

Anticline

300 300 Symmetrical anticlinal fold

300 400 Asymmetrical anticlinal fold

Syncline

300 300 Symmetrical synclinal fold

300 400 Asymmetrical Synclinal fold

Faults:
A fault is a dislocation of strata along a plane and the two blocks move in opposite directions- upwards and
downwards- and they are called Up throw block and “Down throw” block accordingly.

Unconformities:
Border between the two series of beds. Older series deposited at the bottom and Younger series at the top.

Dyke: Dyke is cutting the bedding planes.

Sill: Sill is running parallel to the bedding planes.
Batholith: Irregular shaped igneous intrusion with a narrow top and wide base.
Geological Map It represents the way in which the rock beds would appear, if a section of the land surface is cut
vertically along a certain line. Sections are useful for solving both Stratigraphic and structural problems.

Drawing a Geological Section: From the Geological map a section along a suitable line is constructed to show
the geological information in a concise form. The procedure of drawing a section consists of three steps:
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Prepared by: Pooja Deepak
i) Drawing a :topographic profile
(18CV35)
ii) Determination of Dip and Strike of rocks
iii) Construction of Geological Structures

Drawing a topographic profile

Suppose it is required to draw a topographic profile along a X-Y Line on the geological map. The map is first
folded along the X-Y Line on a drawing paper. A horizontal line equal to the X-Y Line is drawn, which serves as
a base line to the Geological sections to be made over this line. The folded map is placed and the positions of the
various contour lines along X-Y Lines are marked. From these points vertical lines are drawn at their length being
proportional to the values of corresponding contours as per the scale of the map. Then a Free Hand Curve joins
their tops.

Topographic Profile: The vertical lines drawn above the base line are not desired and therefore should be
removed.

Determination of Dip and Strike

Generally on Geological maps both the contour lines as well as boundaries of rock beds are shown. To determine the dip of a
rock bed by graphical method. Such a contour is selected which cuts the particular rock boundary at two points. A line called
Strike line joins these two points. Two Strike lines from contours of different values are drawn for the same boundary.
Then the distance between them along X-Y Line is measured. And a line having the same length is drawn on the drawing
paper somewhere below the profile already made. From one end a perpendicular of length equal to the strike of interval is
constructed as per the scale of the map. The angle formed by joining its top with the other end of the line will be the dip
angle. And its directions will be from the strike line of higher value to the one that has the lower value. In this way dip of
various rock beds shown on the map are determined.

Construction of Geological Structures

Now the map is folded along the X-Y Line and is placed over the base line of the profile.
The points of intersection of the boundary lines between different beds and the X-Y Line are transferred. These points are
then projected to the surface profile. From these points lines are drawn according to the Dip of the respective boundary
surfaces. This is usually done by drawing angles of Dip first at the base line and then drawing parallel lines from the
corresponding points at the surface profile. In the section thus constructed, the various structures present are completed as
follows:
If Unconformity is present, an Undulating Line shows its plane.
If a fold is present, Anticline or Synclinal structures are made accordingly.
If a Fault is present, strata must be shown dislocated along it.
Dykes are shown running vertically. Sills are shown running parallel to the bedding planes.

Problems:
Map-1:
Draw a Profile along A B and C D Describe the topography of the area
Note: 1) Use Centimeter graph sheets
2) Horizontal and Vertical Scales are the same
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Map-2:
1) Draw a cross-section along XY and describe the geological history of the area
2) A dam is proposed outside the eastern border of the map. A horizontal diversion tunnel is planned to divert the river
water at an invert level (floor) at 200m up to the western valley of the area. Discuss its feasibility.

Map-3:
1) Draw a geological cross-section along XY and describe the geological history of the area.
2) Determine the Dip and Strike of the formations.
3) Find out the order of Superposition and Vertical thickness of beds
4) A horizontal tunnel is proposed at an altitude of 100m. Discuss its feasibility and suggest suitable precautionary
measures.

Map-4:
1) Draw a geological cross-section along XY and describe the geological history of the area
2) Determine Dip and Strike, order of Superposition and thickness of the strata

Map-5:
1) Draw a geological cross-section along XY and describe the geological history of
the area.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1) Define Geological maps
A map that consists of geological information of the outer layer of earth crust
2) What are Contours?
Imaginary lines joining all the points of equal elevation or mean sea level.
3) Uses of geological maps
Petroleum, mineral, and ground-water exploration; land use planning; and natural hazard studies.