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Subject: Discrete Structure Paper Code: CS/IT–302

UNIT–I
1. a) If A  1, 4 , B  4, 5 , C  5, 7 , determine
(i).  A  B    A  C 
(ii).  A  B    A  C 
Solution: Give: A  1, 4 , B  4, 5 , C  5, 7
Now, A  B  1, 4 , 1, 5 ,  4, 4  ,  4, 5 and A  C  1, 5 , 1, 7  ,  4, 5 ,  4, 7 
  A  B    A  C   1, 4 , 1, 5 ,  4, 4 ,  4, 5 , 1, 7  ,  4, 7  Answer
and  A  B    A  C   1, 5 ,  4, 5 Answer

b) Let A  2, 3, 4 and B  3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . Assume a relation R from A to B such that (x, y)R when a
divides 6.
Solution: Given: A  2, 3, 4 and B  3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Since R is a relation from A to B such that (x, y)R, when a divides 6 i.e. x and y both divisor of 6.
 R   2, 3 ,  3, 3 Answer

c) Briefly explain the application of Pigeon hole principle using an example.

Solution: If the number of pigeon is more than the number of pigeonholes, then some pigeonhole must be
occupied by two or more than two pigeons. This statement is called the Pigeon hole principle, it is also called
Dirchlet Drawer Principle. This statement is also written as
“If n pigeonholes are occupied by n + 1 or more pigeons, then at least one pigeonhole is occupied bby more
than one pigeon”.
Example 1 Among 13 people there are two who have their birthdays in the same month.
Example 2 A basket of fruit is being arranged out of apples, bananas, and oranges. What is the smallest
number of pieces of fruit that should be put in the basket in order to guarantee that either there are at least 8
apples or at least 6 bananas or at least 9 oranges?
Answer: 8 + 6 + 9 − 3 + 1 = 21.

d) Show by mathematical induction:

n  2n  1 2n  1
12  32  52  ...  (2n  1)2 
3
n  2n  1 2n  1
Solution: Suppose: P  n   12  32  52  ...  (2n  1)2  … (1)
3
Case 1: For n = 1, we get

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1.3.1
P 1  1
3
There statement true for n = 1 i.e. P(1) is true.
Case 2: Suppose the statement true of n = k such that
k  2k  1 2k  1
P  k   12  32  52  ...  (2k  1)2  … (2)
3
Next we will prove the statement true for n = k + 1.
Now, 12  32  52  ...  (2k  1)2   2  k  1  1  P  k    2k  1
2 2
 
k  2k  1 2k  1
  2k  1
2
 from (2)
3
(2k  1) (2k  1)
   k (2k  1)  3(2k  1)  (2k 2  k  6k  3)
3 3
(2k  1)  2 (2k  1)
  2k  5k  3  (k  1)(2k  3)
3   3
(k  1)  2(k  1)  1 2  k  1  1
   P  k  1
3
Which is true for n = k +1. Thus P(k + 1) is true.
Hence the statement true for each positive integral values of n. Hence proved

OR
d) Let f : R  R be defined by
2 x  1; x  0

f ( x)   2
 x  1; x  0

Let g : R  R be defined by
3x  7 ; x  0

g ( x)   3

x ;x0
Then find the composition gof.
2 x  1; x  0

Solution: Given, f ( x)   2
 x  1; x  0

Putting x = … –1, 0, 1, 2 …, we get
f (1)  2  1  1   1 , f (0)  2  0   1  1 , f (1)  12  1  2 and f (2)  22  1  5 ….
3x  7 ; x  0

and g ( x)   3

x ;x0
Putting x = … –1, 0, 1, 2 …, we get

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Discrete Structure (Grading System)
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g  1  3  1  7   10 , g  0  3  0   7   7 , g 1  13  1 and g  2   23  8

Since, gof  x   g  f  x 
Putting x = … –1, 0, 1, 2 …, we get
 gof  1  g  f  1  g  1   10
gof  0   g  f  0   g 1  1
gof 1  g  f 1  g  2   8
gof  2   g  f  2   g  5  53  125 ….

2. a) Define semi group. Write its properties.

Solution: Suppose G be any non empty set, which is defined on binary operation , then (G, ) is said to be
semi group if they satisfy the following properties
G1: Closure
If a G and bG, then a  bG,  a, bG
G2 Associative
If a, b, c G, then (a  b)  c = a  (b  c),  a, b, cG.
Example: (N, ) is semi group.

b) Write short note:

(i). Monoid (ii). Normal Subgroup
Solution: (i). Monoid:
Suppose G be any non empty set, which is defined on binary operation , then (G, ) is said to be monoid if
they satisfy the following properties
G1: Closure
If a G and bG, then a  bG,  a, bG
G2 Associative
If a, b, c G, then (a  b)  c = a  (b  c),  a, b, cG.
G3 Existence of identity
If a  G, then there exist eG such that a  e = e  a = a
Example: (I, ) is monoid group.
(ii). Normal Subgroup
A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of G, if for every xG and for every hH,
so that x h x–1H
In other words, If H is normal subgroup of G, if and only if xHx–1H,  xG

c) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group G is cyclic.

Solution: Suppose G = {a} is a cyclic group generated by a. If H = G or {e}, then obviously H is cyclic. So let
H be a proper subgroup of G. The elements of H are integral power of a. if anH, then the inverse of an i.e.

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a–nH
 H contains elements which are positive as well as negative integral power of a.
Suppose m be the least positive integer such that
amH
then we shall prove that
H = {am} i.e. H is cyclic and is generated by am.
Suppose at be any arbitrary element of H, then division algorithm,  integer q and r, such that
t = mq + r, 0 ≤ r < m …(1)
Now, amH  (am)q H
 a m qH
 (am q)–1H
 a – m qH
Also, atH and a – m qH  at. a – m q H
 at–mq H
 ar H [From (1)]
Now m is the least positive integer, such that
amH, 0 ≤ r < m
Thus r must be equal to 0, then t = mq so that amq = (am)q
Therefore, H is cyclic and am is a generate of H.

d) Prove that the G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a finite abelian group of order 6 with respect to addition
modulo 6.
Solution: The composite table under addition modulo 6.
6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
G1 Closure Property:
Since all the elements of composite table belongs to set G, then G is closed with respect to addition
modulo 6.
G2 Associative Law:
If a, b, cG, then
a 6  b 6 c    a 6 b  6 c , a, b, cG
Example: If a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3, then
1 6  2 6 3  1 6 5  0 and 1 6 2  6 3  3 6 3  0 , then

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Discrete Structure (Grading System)
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Subject: Discrete Structure Paper Code: CS/IT–302

1 6  2 6 3  1 6 2  6 3
G3 Existence of identity:
Suppose aG be any element, then from composite table
a 6 0  0 6 a  a , aG
 e = 0G is the additive identity element.
G4 Existence of inverse:
Since if aG, then  bG such that a + 6 b = e = 0
From the composite table we can see that,
0 6 0  0  b  0 , additive inverse of 0
1 6 5  0  b  5 , additive inverse of 1
2 6 4  0  b  4 , additive inverse of 2
3 6 3  0  b  3 , additive inverse of 3
4 6 2  0  b  2 , additive inverse of 4
5 6 1  0  b  1 , additive inverse of 5
G5 Commutative identity:
If aG, then a 6 b  b 6 a , a, bG
Since G has finite number of elements, then (G, +6) is an abelain group.
OR
d) Let (R, +, ×) be a ring, the operation  is defined by a  b = a × b + b × a, show that (R, +, ×) is a
commutative ring.
Solution: Statement of above question is wrong.

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3. a) Prove by truth table that the following is tautology.

(p  q  r)  (~r  ~p)
Solution: Given statement can be written as
[p  (q  r) ]  [(~r)  (~p)]
Suppose A  p  (q  r) and B  (~r)  (~p)
then A  B is a tautology.
Truth table:
p q r q  r A  p  (q  r) ~r ~p B  (~r)  (~p) A  B
T T T T T F F T T
T T F F F T F F T
T F T F F F F T T
T F F F F T F F T
F T T T F F T T T
F T F F T T T T T
F F T F T F T T T
F F F F T T T T T
Thus the given statement is a tautology.

b) Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of the following formula;-

~ (p  q)  (p  q)
Solution: Given: ~  p  q    p  q 
 ~  p  q    p  q    p  q  ~  p  q 
 ~  p  q    p  q    p  q   ~  p  q    p  q   ~  p  q    p  q   ~  p  q 
 ~ p ~ q  p  q   p  q    ~ p ~ q    p  q    ~ p ~ q    p  q    ~ p ~ q 
 ~ p ~ q  p  q   p  q    ~ p ~ q  [By De-Margon]
 ~ p ~ q  p  q   p  q   ~ p   p  q   ~ q [By Distributive Law]
 ~ p ~ q  p  q   p ~ p    q ~ p    p ~ q    q ~ q  [By Distributive Law]
This is required principle disjunctive normal form.

c) Investigate the validity of the following argument

pr
~p  q
qs

 ~rs

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Solution: Here the three premises are p  r, ~p  q, q  s and conclusion is (~r  s). The given argument
will be valid if [(p  r)  (~p  q)  (q  s)]  (~r  s) is a tautology.
Suppose A  ( p  r )  (~ p  q)  (q  s) and B  ~ r  s , then A  B is a tautology.
Truth table
p q r s p  r ~p ~p  q q  s (p  r)  (~p  q) A ~r B  ~ r  s A  B
T T T T T F T T T T F T T
T T T F T F T F T F F T T
T T F T F F T T F F T T T
T T F F F F T F F F T F T
T F T T T F T T T T F T T
T F T F T F T T T T F T T
T F F T F F T T F F T T T
T F F F F F T T F F T F T
F T T T T T T T T T F T T
F T T F T T T F T F F T T
F T F T T T T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T F T F T F T
F F T T T T F T F F F T T
F F T F T T F T F F F T T
F F F T T T F T F F T T T
F F F F T T F T F F T F T
Since all entries in the last column are of “T” only, therefore A B is a tautology. Hence the given argument is
valid.

d) Design DFA and NDFA accepting all string over {0, 1}, which end in 0 but do not contain 11 as
substring.
Solution: (i) DFA (Deterministic Finite Automata):
The required DFA is defined by
M  q0 , q1, q2 , q3 , q4  , 0,1 , q3 , q4 

Where  is given by

0 1
Q
q0 q1 q2
q1 q3 q2
q2 q1 q4
q3 q3 q3
q4 q4 q4

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0, 1
Transition graph

0
q1 q3
0

q0 1 0 0, 1

1 q2 q4
1

(i) NDFA (Non-Deterministic Finite Automata):

The required NDFA is defined by
0, 1
1 q2
q1
1

q0 1 0

0 q3
0

OR

d) Prove that the validity of the following argument:

“If Ram is selected in IAS examination, then he will not be able to go to London. Since Ram is
going to London, he will not be selected in IAS examination.
Solution: Suppose p  Ram is selected in IAS examination
q  Ram is going to London
The given argument, in symbolic form, may be written as
p  ~q (Premises)
q (Premises)

 ~p (Conclusion)
Here two premises are p  ~q, q and conclusion is ~p. The given argument will be valid if
[(p  ~q)  (q)]  (~p) is a tautology.
Suppose A  (p  ~q)  (q) and B  ~p, then A  B is a tautology.
Truth table:

p q ~q p  ~q A  ( p ~ q)  q B~ p AB

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T T F F F F T
T F T T F F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T F T T
Since all entries in the last column are of “T” only, therefore A B is a tautology. Hence the given argument is
valid.

4. a) Prove that, in a graph total number of odd degree vertices is even but then number of even degree
vertices may be odd.
Solution: Suppose G = (V, E) be any graph in which
V = {v1, v2, v3, … vn} and E = {e1, e2, e3, … em}Where n = m or n  m.
By Handshaking theorem we have,
The sum of degree of all the vertices of the graph, is twice the number of edges.
in
Therefore,  d (vi )  2em
i 1

  d (vi )   d (vi )  2m
i  odd i  even

  d (vi )  2m   d (vi )
i  odd i  even

  d (vi )  2m  even deg ree  Even

i  odd

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Thus the total number of odd degree vertices is even.

Example:
In the graph the odd degree vertices are v1, v2, v4 and v5, then
d (v1) + d (v2) + d (v4) + d (v5) = 3 + 3 + 5 +1 = 12(Even)
But even degree vertex v3 of degree is odd.

b) Distinguish between k-coloring of a graph and chromatic number of a graph.

Solution: (i). k–coloring:
A vertex colouring of a graph G is a labeling f : V(G)  {1, 2, . . .}; the labels called colours, such that
no two adjacent vertices get the same colour and each vertex gets one colour. A k–colouring of a graph G
consists of k different colours and G is then called k-colourable.
Example:

(ii). Chromatic number:

The minimum number k for which there is a k–colouring of the graph is called the chromatic number of
G and is denoted by (G). If (G) = k, the graph G is said to be k–chromatic.

c) Define Euler and Hamiltonian graph with example.

Solution: (i). Euler Graph:
If some closed walk in a graph G contains all the edges of the graph G1, then a walk is called an Euler
line and the graph is called an Euler graph.
In other words, If we are moving on a graph, by covering all the edges of the graph and returning to the initial
vertex, such a walk is called Euler line and graph is called Euler graph.
v1

e1 e4
e2 e3

v2

If we starting from v1 and covering all the edges such that v1 e1 v2 e2 v1 e4 v2 e3 v1.
(ii). Hamiltonian Graph:
If a closed walk contains every vertex of the graph G, such that the degree of every vertex is 2, then the
walk is called Hamiltonian circuit or graph, and if the walk is open then it is said to be Hamiltonian path.

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v1 e1 v2 v1 e1 v2
e11 e11
v6 e6 v7 e12 v6 e12
v7
Hamiltonian
e4 e5 e7 e2 e5 e7
circuit
v8 v8
v e8 e9 e10 v5 e9
e10 5
v4 e3 v3 v4 e3 v3

d) Find minimum distance between two vertices K and L of graph, using Disjkstra’s algorithm.
A 7 B
4 4 1
5
1 20
K L
2 16
2

C 6 D

Solution: Suppose
Step 1: P1  K  and T1   A, B, C, D, L
Then, we have
l (A) = 4, l (C) = 2 (Minimum) l (B) = , l (D) =  and l (L ) = 
 1 is the minimum value, then next vertex is C.
Step 2: Taking, P2  K , C and T2   A, B, D, L
Now, l  A  minimum  4, 2 +1  3 (Minimum)
l  B   minimum  4  7, 3  7   10
l  D   minimum  2  6, 4     8
l  L   minimum  20, 2  , 4     20
 3 is minimum value, and then we take next vertex A.
Step 3 Taking, P3  K , C, A and T3  B, D, L
Now, l  B   minimum  3  7, 4  7, 2  5  7
l  D   minimum  3  4, 2  6   7 (Minimum)
l  L   minimum  20, 3     20
 7 is minimum value, and then we take next vertex D.

Step 4 Taking, P4  K , C, A, D and T4  B, L

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Now, l  B   minimum 8  , 4  7, 2  5  7 (Minimum)

l  L   minimum  20, 7  2, 2  5  1  8
 7 is minimum value, and then we take next vertex B.

Step 5 Taking, P5  K , C, A, D, B and T5  L

Now, l  L   minimum  7  2,7  1, 8  2   8

Clearly the minimum path is K, C, B, L and length of path is 8.

OR
d) State Euler’s formula for a planar graph. Give an example of a planar graph with 5 vertices and 5
regions and verify Euler’s formula for your example.
Solution: Statement of Euler Formula:
Suppose G be a finite connected planer graph and v is the number of vertices, e is the number of edges
and f is the number of faces (regions bounded by edges, including the outer, infinitely large region), then
ve f  2 … (1)
Example of 5 vertices and 5 regions of planer graph:
e8
R5 v5
v1
e7 e4
R2
e1 e6 e5 R v4
R1 4
R3
e3
v2 e2 v3

Here number of vertices v = 5, Number of edges e = 8 and number of Region f = 5

Then by Euler formula, v–e+f=5–8+5=2

5. a) Let L = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be the lattice show below. Find all sub lattices with three or more elements.
5

2 3 4

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Solution: Given the Lattice L = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The sub-lattice are S1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, S2 = {1, 2, 3, 5},
S3 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, S4 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and S3 = {1, 3, 4, 5}
5
5 5 5

2 3 4
2 4 2 3 3 4

1 1 1 1

5
5

2 3 4
2 3 4

1
1

b) Write down the binomial theorem.

Solution: Suppose x, y be any real value and any integer n  0, then binomial theorem is
 x  y n  xn n C1xn  1 y n C2 xn  2 y 2 n C3xn  3 y3  ... n Cr xn  r y r  ...  y n
n
  x  y n   n Cr x n  r y r
r 1

c) Draw hasse diagram for the “less than or equal to” relation on set A = {0, 2, 5, 10, 11, 15}
Solution: Given the set A = {0, 2, 5, 10, 11, 15} and R be a relation of less than or equal to, then
R = {(0, 2), (2, 5), (5, 10), (10, 11), (11, 15)}
The required Hasse Diagram is
\
15

10 11

5 2

0
d) Determine the particular solution of the recurrence relation
ar  5ar 1  6ar 2  3r 2
Solution: Given, ar  5ar 1  6ar 2  3r 2 …. (1)
For homogeneous solution, the characteristic equation is
m2 + 5m + 6 = 0

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 (m + 2) (m + 3) = 0
 m = –2, –3
 Homogeneous solution is
ar(h)  c1  2   c2  3
r r
…. (2)
2
For the particular solution f (r) = r is a polynomial of degree 2, so that P.S. is
ar  A0  A1r  A2r 2 …. (3)
Putting in equation (1), we get
 A0  A1r  A2 r 2   5  A0  A1 (r  1)  A2  r  12   6  A0  A1 (r  2)  A2  r  2 2   r 2
     

  A  A r  A r 2   5  A  A r  A  A r 2  A 2 A r   6  A  A r  2 A  A r 2  4 A 4 A r   r 2
 0 1 2   0 1 1 2 2 2   0 1 1 2 2 2 

 12 A2r 2  r 12 A1  34 A2   12 A0  17 A1  29 A2   r 2

Equating the coefficient of r2, r and constant terms, we get
1
12 A2  1  A2 
12
34 17  1  17
and 12 A1  34 A2  0 A1  A2    
12 6  12  72
 12 A0  17 A1  29 A2  0
17 29 17  17  29  1  289 29 115
 A0  A1  A2         
12 12 12  72  12  12  864 144 864
Putting in equation (3), we get
115 17 1
a( p)   r  r2
r 864 72 12
The total solution of equation (1) is,
ar  ar( h)  a( p )
r

115 17 1
ar  c1  2   c2  3 
r r
  r  r2 Answer
864 72 12

OR

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d) Explain briefly:-
(i). Poset (ii). Permutation
(ii). Combination (iv) Total solutions
Solution: (i). Poset
A set on which a partial ordering relation is defined, is called a partially ordered set or poset.
Example: Suppose I+ be the set of positive integers, then usual notation  (Less than or equal to) is a poset on
I+, So, (I+, ) is a poset.

(ii). Permutation:
The different arrangements which can be made out of a given number of objects by taking some or all it
a time, are called permutations.
Suppose n objects, can be arranged in r ways, then it is denoted by n Pr or P  n, r  and it defined as
n
Pr 
n
nr
 
 n (n  1) (n  2).... n  r  1

5 5 4 3
Example: The number of permutations formed by the letters of ELORA is 5 P2    20
52 3
(iii). Combination:
Each of the different groups or selections which can be obtained by taking r objects of n given objects,
irrespective of their arrangements, is called a combination.
Suppose n objects in which r objects to be selected, then it is denoted by nCr or C  n, r  and
It is defined as
n n (n  1) (n  2)...(n  r  1)
n
Cr  
r nr r.(r  1).(r  2)....3.2.1
Example: The number of combinations can be formed by taking 2 letters at a time from the letters of DELHI is

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5 5 4 3
5
C2    10
5  2 2 2 1 3 
(iv). Total solutions
The solution of any difference equation is called the total solution.
Suppose we have any difference equation, then we will two solution one is called Auxiliary solution say ar( h)
and another is called particular solution say a ( p ) , then total solution of difference equation is
r
( p)
ar  ar( h) a
r

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