ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

Module - 2

S. Devi Yamini

August 29, 2022

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Overview

1 Groups

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Binary Operation

Binary Operation
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is a function ∗ : G × G → G
We denote it as a ∗ b for any a, b ∈ G

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Binary Operation

Binary Operation
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is a function ∗ : G × G → G
We denote it as a ∗ b for any a, b ∈ G
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is associative if for all a, b, c ∈ G ,

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c

August 29, 2022 3 / 30

Binary Operation

Binary Operation
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is a function ∗ : G × G → G
We denote it as a ∗ b for any a, b ∈ G
A binary operation ∗ on a set G is associative if for all a, b, c ∈ G ,

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c

If ∗ is a binary operation on a set G , then ∗ is commutative if for all

a, b ∈ G
a∗b =b∗a

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Binary Operation

Example
+ (usual addition) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or on
Q, R, or C respectively)

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Binary Operation

Example
+ (usual addition) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or on
Q, R, or C respectively)
× (usual multiplication) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or
on Q, R, or C respectively)

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Binary Operation

Example
+ (usual addition) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or on
Q, R, or C respectively)
× (usual multiplication) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or
on Q, R, or C respectively)
−(usual subtraction) is a noncommutative binary operation on Z

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Binary Operation

Example
+ (usual addition) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or on
Q, R, or C respectively)
× (usual multiplication) is a commutative binary operation on Z (or
on Q, R, or C respectively)
−(usual subtraction) is a noncommutative binary operation on Z
− is not a binary operation on Z+ (nor Q+ , R+ ) because for
a, b ∈ Z+ with a < b, a − b ∈
/ Z+ , that is, − does not map Z+ × Z+
into Z +

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
Identity: ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ G

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
Identity: ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ G
Inverse: ∀a ∈ G , ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
Identity: ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ G
Inverse: ∀a ∈ G , ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a

A semigroup is an ordered pair (S, ∗) where S is a non empty set and

∗ is a binary operation which is associative

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
Identity: ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ G
Inverse: ∀a ∈ G , ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a

A semigroup is an ordered pair (S, ∗) where S is a non empty set and

∗ is a binary operation which is associative
A monoid is a semigroup with an identity element

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Groups

A group (G , ∗) is a set G together with a binary operation ∗ such that

Associative: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G
Identity: ∃e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a ∀a ∈ G
Inverse: ∀a ∈ G , ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = e = b ∗ a

A semigroup is an ordered pair (S, ∗) where S is a non empty set and

∗ is a binary operation which is associative
A monoid is a semigroup with an identity element
The group (G , ∗) is called abelian (or commutative) if a ∗ b = b ∗ a
for all a, b ∈ G .

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Examples of Semigroup and Monoid
Example
The set of natural numbers with + as the binary operation is a
semigroup. That is, {N, +}
Let X be any set. Then ρ(X ), the power set of X is also a semigroup
under the operation of taking union of two sets. (verify!)

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Examples of Semigroup and Monoid
Example
The set of natural numbers with + as the binary operation is a
semigroup. That is, {N, +}
Let X be any set. Then ρ(X ), the power set of X is also a semigroup
under the operation of taking union of two sets. (verify!)

Example
The set of integers, rational numbers, real numbers and the complex
numbers are monoids under addition.
{Z+ , .}, the set of positive integers forms a monoid under
multiplication.

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Examples of Semigroup and Monoid
Example
The set of natural numbers with + as the binary operation is a
semigroup. That is, {N, +}
Let X be any set. Then ρ(X ), the power set of X is also a semigroup
under the operation of taking union of two sets. (verify!)

Example
The set of integers, rational numbers, real numbers and the complex
numbers are monoids under addition.
{Z+ , .}, the set of positive integers forms a monoid under
multiplication.

find an example of a semigroup which is not a monoid

an example of a monoid which is not a group
an example of a group which is not an abelian group
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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?)

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?) Inverse doesnot exists

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?) Inverse doesnot exists
(Q, +) is a group

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?) Inverse doesnot exists
(Q, +) is a group
Is (Q, x) a group?

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?) Inverse doesnot exists
(Q, +) is a group
Is (Q, x) a group? No, as there is no inverse for 0. Note that, identity
is 1
(2Z, +) is a group

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Examples

Order of a group G is the number of elements of G , denoted by |G |. If the

order of G is finite, then G is a finite group. Otherwise it is an infinite
group

(Z, +) is a group - associativity holds, identity is 0, inverse for any a

is −a
(Z, −) is not a group (Check associative property)
(Z, x) is not a group (Why?) Inverse doesnot exists
(Q, +) is a group
Is (Q, x) a group? No, as there is no inverse for 0. Note that, identity
is 1
(2Z, +) is a group
Check whether {2n : n ∈ Z} is a group under multiplication?
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Infinite Groups

Examples
1 Q, R, Z, C forms an abelian group with usual addition. None of
these is a group under usual multiplication because 0 has no
multiplicative inverse.

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Infinite Groups

Examples
1 Q, R, Z, C forms an abelian group with usual addition. None of
these is a group under usual multiplication because 0 has no
multiplicative inverse.
2 Q∗ , R∗ , C∗ (nonzero elements of Q, R, C, respectively) are abelian
groups under usual multiplication

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Infinite Groups

Examples
1 Q, R, Z, C forms an abelian group with usual addition. None of
these is a group under usual multiplication because 0 has no
multiplicative inverse.
2 Q∗ , R∗ , C∗ (nonzero elements of Q, R, C, respectively) are abelian
groups under usual multiplication
3 The set Q+ is a group under the operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = 12 ab
for a, b ∈ Q+

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Infinite Groups

Examples
 
a b
1 M2×2 = { : a, b, c, d ∈ R} is a group under usual matrix
c d
addition.

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Infinite Groups

Examples
 
a b
1 M2×2 = { : a, b, c, d ∈ R} is a group under usual matrix
c d
 
0 0
addition.Note that is the identity. and for every matrix
0 0
   
a b −a −b
, is the inverse.
c d −c −d

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Infinite Groups

Examples
 
a b
1 M2×2 = { : a, b, c, d ∈ R} is a group under usual matrix
c d
 
0 0
addition.Note that is the identity. and for every matrix
0 0
   
a b −a −b
, is the inverse. Note M2×2 is not a group
c d −c −d
(but it is a monoid) under matrix multiplication because for matrices
with determinant zero inverse does not exists.

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Infinite Groups

Examples
 
a b
1 M2×2 = { : a, b, c, d ∈ R} is a group under usual matrix
c d
 
0 0
addition.Note that is the identity. and for every matrix
0 0
   
a b −a −b
, is the inverse. Note M2×2 is not a group
c d −c −d
(but it is a monoid) under matrix multiplication because for matrices
with determinant zero inverse does not exists.
2 The set of all non-singular 2 × 2 matrices is a group under matrix
multiplication.

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G
(x ∗ y ) ∗ z = (x ∗ y ) + z + (x ∗ y )z =
(x + y + xy ) + z + (x + y + xy )z = x + y + z + xy + yz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x + (y ∗ z) + x(y ∗ z) =
x + y + z + yz + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + yz + xy + xz + xyz

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G
(x ∗ y ) ∗ z = (x ∗ y ) + z + (x ∗ y )z =
(x + y + xy ) + z + (x + y + xy )z = x + y + z + xy + yz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x + (y ∗ z) + x(y ∗ z) =
x + y + z + yz + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + yz + xy + xz + xyz
Identity is 0 ∈ G

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G
(x ∗ y ) ∗ z = (x ∗ y ) + z + (x ∗ y )z =
(x + y + xy ) + z + (x + y + xy )z = x + y + z + xy + yz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x + (y ∗ z) + x(y ∗ z) =
x + y + z + yz + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + yz + xy + xz + xyz
Identity is 0 ∈ G
Inverse: Let b be the inverse of a.

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G
(x ∗ y ) ∗ z = (x ∗ y ) + z + (x ∗ y )z =
(x + y + xy ) + z + (x + y + xy )z = x + y + z + xy + yz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x + (y ∗ z) + x(y ∗ z) =
x + y + z + yz + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + yz + xy + xz + xyz
Identity is 0 ∈ G
Inverse: Let b be the inverse of a. Then a ∗ b = 0
That is, a + b + ab = 0

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Problems
1. Let G = {x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} and define x ∗ y = x + y + xy . Prove that
(G , ∗) is a group.

Proof
For x, y ∈ G , x ∗ y = (x + 1)(y + 1) − 1 ̸= −1
Hence, x ∗ y ∈ G
(x ∗ y ) ∗ z = (x ∗ y ) + z + (x ∗ y )z =
(x + y + xy ) + z + (x + y + xy )z = x + y + z + xy + yz + xyz
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x + (y ∗ z) + x(y ∗ z) =
x + y + z + yz + x(y + z + yz) = x + y + z + yz + xy + xz + xyz
Identity is 0 ∈ G
Inverse: Let b be the inverse of a. Then a ∗ b = 0
That is, a + b + ab = 0
−a
b = 1+a is the inverse of a. Note that b ∈ G
Hence, G is a group under ∗

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Problems

Check whether the following is a group or not under the stated binary
operation. If so, determine the identity and inverse.
(i) {−1, 1} under multiplication
(ii) {−1, 1} under addition
(iii) {−1, 0, 1} under addition
(iv) {10n : n ∈ Z} under addition

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Finite groups

Modular addition
For any n ∈ N, let (a + b) mod n or a +n b is denoted by the remainder
when a + b is divided by n.

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Finite groups

Modular addition
For any n ∈ N, let (a + b) mod n or a +n b is denoted by the remainder
when a + b is divided by n.Define Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)}.

Example
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Now, we construct a cayley table.
+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3 1 + 2(mod4) = 3
1 1 2 3 0 2 + 2(mod4) = 0
2 2 3 0 1 2 + 3(mod4) = 1
3 3 0 1 2 3 + 3(mod4) = 2

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Finite groups

Example
Z4 is closed under the addition modulo 4 operation

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Finite groups

Example
Z4 is closed under the addition modulo 4 operation
Associativity holds; Identity is 0

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Finite groups

Example
Z4 is closed under the addition modulo 4 operation
Associativity holds; Identity is 0
Inverse of 0, 1, 2 and 3 are 0, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.

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Finite groups

Example
Z4 is closed under the addition modulo 4 operation
Associativity holds; Identity is 0
Inverse of 0, 1, 2 and 3 are 0, 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
Hence, (Z4 , +4 ) is a group

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Finite groups
Modular multiplication
For any n ∈ N, let (a × b) mod n or a ×n b is denoted by the remainder
when a × b is divided by n. Define Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)}.

Example
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}
×4 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3
2 0 2 0 2
3 0 3 2 1

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Finite groups
Modular multiplication
For any n ∈ N, let (a × b) mod n or a ×n b is denoted by the remainder
when a × b is divided by n. Define Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)}.

Example
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}
×4 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3
2 0 2 0 2
3 0 3 2 1
Closure, Associativity holds; Identity is 1; but inverse doesn’t exist for
0

August 29, 2022 14 / 30

Finite groups
Modular multiplication
For any n ∈ N, let (a × b) mod n or a ×n b is denoted by the remainder
when a × b is divided by n. Define Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)}.

Example
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}
×4 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3
2 0 2 0 2
3 0 3 2 1
Closure, Associativity holds; Identity is 1; but inverse doesn’t exist for
0
(Z4 , ×4 ) is not a group

August 29, 2022 14 / 30

Finite groups
Modular multiplication
For any n ∈ N, let (a × b) mod n or a ×n b is denoted by the remainder
when a × b is divided by n. Define Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , (n − 1)}.

Example
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}
×4 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3
2 0 2 0 2
3 0 3 2 1
Closure, Associativity holds; Identity is 1; but inverse doesn’t exist for
0
(Z4 , ×4 ) is not a group
Let Z∗4 = Z4 \ {0} = {1, 2, 3}. Check whether Z∗4 is a group under ×4

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Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} is a group under modular addition for any
n ∈ N. The order of the group (Zn , +n ) is n

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Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} is a group under modular addition for any
n ∈ N. The order of the group (Zn , +n ) is n
Z∗p = Zp \ {0} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , p − 1} for prime p is a group under
modular muliplication. The order of this group is p − 1

August 29, 2022 15 / 30

 Zn = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1} is a group under modular addition for any
n ∈ N. The order of the group (Zn , +n ) is n
Z∗p = Zp \ {0} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , p − 1} for prime p is a group under
modular muliplication. The order of this group is p − 1

Try!!!
Check whether Z8 \ {0} is a group under multiplication modulo 8 or not.

August 29, 2022 15 / 30

Subgroups
Subgroup
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ̸= ∅ ⊆ G such that
for a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H
e ∈ H, where e is the identity of G
for any a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H
then (H, ∗) is called a subgroup of (G , ∗)

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Subgroups
Subgroup
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ̸= ∅ ⊆ G such that
for a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H
e ∈ H, where e is the identity of G
for any a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H
then (H, ∗) is called a subgroup of (G , ∗)

({e}, ∗), (G , ∗) are trivial subgroups of (G , ∗). All other subgroups are
termed as nontrivial or proper.

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Subgroups
Subgroup
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ̸= ∅ ⊆ G such that
for a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H
e ∈ H, where e is the identity of G
for any a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H
then (H, ∗) is called a subgroup of (G , ∗)

({e}, ∗), (G , ∗) are trivial subgroups of (G , ∗). All other subgroups are
termed as nontrivial or proper.

Example
(i) H = {1, −1} is a subgroup of G = {1, −1, i, −i} under usual
multiplication

August 29, 2022 16 / 30

Subgroups
Subgroup
Let (G , ∗) be a group and H ̸= ∅ ⊆ G such that
for a, b ∈ H, a ∗ b ∈ H
e ∈ H, where e is the identity of G
for any a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H
then (H, ∗) is called a subgroup of (G , ∗)

({e}, ∗), (G , ∗) are trivial subgroups of (G , ∗). All other subgroups are
termed as nontrivial or proper.

Example
(i) H = {1, −1} is a subgroup of G = {1, −1, i, −i} under usual
multiplication
(ii) (Z, +) is subgroup of (Q, +) which is a subgroup of (R, +) which is a
subgroup of (C, +)
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Subgroups

Theorem
A non empty subset H of a group (G , ∗) is a subgroup if and only if for
a, b ∈ H , a ∗ b −1 ∈ H

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Subgroups

Theorem
A non empty subset H of a group (G , ∗) is a subgroup if and only if for
a, b ∈ H , a ∗ b −1 ∈ H

Theorem
If H is a non empty subset of a finite group G , then H is a subgroup of G
if and only if whenever a, b ∈ H then a ∗ b ∈ H

August 29, 2022 17 / 30

Subgroups

Theorem
A non empty subset H of a group (G , ∗) is a subgroup if and only if for
a, b ∈ H , a ∗ b −1 ∈ H

Theorem
If H is a non empty subset of a finite group G , then H is a subgroup of G
if and only if whenever a, b ∈ H then a ∗ b ∈ H

Problems
1 If S and T are subgroups of a group G , then prove or disprove S ∩ T
is a subgroup of G .

August 29, 2022 17 / 30

Subgroups

Theorem
A non empty subset H of a group (G , ∗) is a subgroup if and only if for
a, b ∈ H , a ∗ b −1 ∈ H

Theorem
If H is a non empty subset of a finite group G , then H is a subgroup of G
if and only if whenever a, b ∈ H then a ∗ b ∈ H

Problems
1 If S and T are subgroups of a group G , then prove or disprove S ∩ T
is a subgroup of G .
2 Find all subgroups of (a)(Z7 , +), (b)(Z6 , +)

August 29, 2022 17 / 30

Permutation groups
Permutation
A permutation of a set S is a one to one function π of a set S onto itself.
If π(1) = 1 π(2) = 2 π(3) = 3, then we get the permutation as
 
1 2 3
1 2 3

Permutation groups
Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then the permutation set is S3 = {p0 , p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 }
where  
1 2 3
p0 =
1 2 3
 
1 2 3
p1 =
2 3 1
 
1 2 3
p2 =
3 1 2 August 29, 2022 18 / 30
Permutation groups

 
1 2 3
p3 =
1 3 2
 
1 2 3
p4 =
3 2 1
 
1 2 3
p5 =
2 1 3
The binary operation considered here is composition of mappings.
Consider the composition of mappings of p1 and p2 .
 
1 2 3
p1 ◦ p2 = =e
1 2 3

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◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e

August 29, 2022 20 / 30

◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e
From the cayley table, ◦ is a binary operation on S3 .

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◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e
From the cayley table, ◦ is a binary operation on S3 .
Associativity holds and e is the identity element of S3

August 29, 2022 20 / 30

◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e
From the cayley table, ◦ is a binary operation on S3 .
Associativity holds and e is the identity element of S3
The inverse of p1 is p2 ; inverse of p2 is p1 ; inverse of p3 is p3 ; inverse
of p4 is p4 ; inverse of p5 is p5

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◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e
From the cayley table, ◦ is a binary operation on S3 .
Associativity holds and e is the identity element of S3
The inverse of p1 is p2 ; inverse of p2 is p1 ; inverse of p3 is p3 ; inverse
of p4 is p4 ; inverse of p5 is p5
Hence, S3 forms a group under composition of mappings

August 29, 2022 20 / 30

 ◦ e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
e e p1 p2 p3 p4 p5
p1 p1 p2 e p4 p5 p3
p2 p2 e p1 p5 p3 p4
p3 p3 p5 p4 e p2 p1
p4 p4 p3 p5 p1 e p2
p5 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 e
From the cayley table, ◦ is a binary operation on S3 .
Associativity holds and e is the identity element of S3
The inverse of p1 is p2 ; inverse of p2 is p1 ; inverse of p3 is p3 ; inverse
of p4 is p4 ; inverse of p5 is p5
Hence, S3 forms a group under composition of mappings
Note that this is a non abelian finite group as p1 ◦ p3 ̸= p3 ◦ p1

Try!!
Prove that S4 forms a group under composition of mappings.

August 29, 2022 20 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

Problem
1. If ϕ : (R, +) → (R+ , ×) defined by ϕ(x) = exp(x), then prove that ϕ is
a group homomorphism.

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

Problem
1. If ϕ : (R, +) → (R+ , ×) defined by ϕ(x) = exp(x), then prove that ϕ is
a group homomorphism.
Solution: Consider x, y ∈ R. Since R is a group, x + y ∈ R. Then

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

Problem
1. If ϕ : (R, +) → (R+ , ×) defined by ϕ(x) = exp(x), then prove that ϕ is
a group homomorphism.
Solution: Consider x, y ∈ R. Since R is a group, x + y ∈ R. Then
ϕ(x + y ) = exp(x + y ) (by definition)

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

Problem
1. If ϕ : (R, +) → (R+ , ×) defined by ϕ(x) = exp(x), then prove that ϕ is
a group homomorphism.
Solution: Consider x, y ∈ R. Since R is a group, x + y ∈ R. Then
ϕ(x + y ) = exp(x + y ) (by definition)
= exp(x) exp(y )

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Let (G , ∗) and (H, ⋄) be groups. Then ϕ : G → H is a group

homomorphism if ∀x, y ∈ G such that

ϕ(x ∗ y ) = ϕ(x) ⋄ ϕ(y )

Problem
1. If ϕ : (R, +) → (R+ , ×) defined by ϕ(x) = exp(x), then prove that ϕ is
a group homomorphism.
Solution: Consider x, y ∈ R. Since R is a group, x + y ∈ R. Then
ϕ(x + y ) = exp(x + y ) (by definition)
= exp(x) exp(y )
= ϕ(x) × ϕ(y )
Hence ϕ is a homomorphism.

August 29, 2022 21 / 30

Homomorphism

Problems
2. f : (Z, +) → (Z, +) defined by f (x) = 2x is a homomorphism.

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Homomorphism

Problems
2. f : (Z, +) → (Z, +) defined by f (x) = 2x is a homomorphism.

3. ϕ : (R, +) → (R, +) defined by ϕ(x) = cx for c ∈ R. ϕ is a

homomorphism.

August 29, 2022 22 / 30

Homomorphism

Problems
2. f : (Z, +) → (Z, +) defined by f (x) = 2x is a homomorphism.

3. ϕ : (R, +) → (R, +) defined by ϕ(x) = cx for c ∈ R. ϕ is a

homomorphism.

4. f : (Z2 , +) → (R, ×) defined by f (m, n) = am b n where a, b ∈ R. Then

f is a homomorphism.

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Cosets

Let (G , ∗) be a group and (H, ∗) be a subgroup of G .

For g ∈ G , the left H-coset is

g ∗ H = {g ∗ h : h ∈ H}

The right H-coset is

H ∗ g = {h ∗ g : h ∈ H}

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Illustration

Example
Consider the subgroup (2Z, +) of the group (Z, +).

Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . .}
2Z = {. . . , −2, 0, 2, . . .}

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Illustration

Example
Consider the subgroup (2Z, +) of the group (Z, +).

Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . .}
2Z = {. . . , −2, 0, 2, . . .}
The left cosets of 2Z in Z are

August 29, 2022 24 / 30

Illustration

Example
Consider the subgroup (2Z, +) of the group (Z, +).

Z = {. . . , −1, 0, 1, . . .}
2Z = {. . . , −2, 0, 2, . . .}
The left cosets of 2Z in Z are

0 + 2Z = {. . . , −2, 0, 2, . . .}
1 + 2Z = {. . . , −1, 1, 3, . . .}
Note that Z = (0 + 2Z) ∪ (1 + 2Z)

August 29, 2022 24 / 30

Cosets

Problem 1
List the cosets of the subgroup {−1, 1} of {1, −1, i, −i} under usual
multiplication.

1 × {−1, 1} = {1, −1}

−1 × {−1, 1} = {1, −1}
i × {−1, 1} = {−i, i}
−i × {−1, 1} = {i, −i}
are the left cosets of {1, −1}
Note that {1, −1, i, −i} = (1 × {1, −1}) ∪ (i × {1, −1})

August 29, 2022 25 / 30

Cosets

Problems
2. Find all the left cosets of H = {0, 3} of (Z6 , +6 )

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Cosets

Problems
2. Find all the left cosets of H = {0, 3} of (Z6 , +6 )

3. List the elements of all left cosets of < 9 > in U28 with multiplication
modulo 28.

August 29, 2022 26 / 30

Cosets

Problems
2. Find all the left cosets of H = {0, 3} of (Z6 , +6 )

3. List the elements of all left cosets of < 9 > in U28 with multiplication
modulo 28.

4. If G is the additive group of integers and H is a subgroup of G obtained

by multiplying each element of G by 3, Find the distinct of H in G

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Properties of Cosets

Any two left cosets have same number of elements

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Properties of Cosets

Any two left cosets have same number of elements

g1 ∗ H and g2 ∗ H are either equal or disjoint for g1 , g2 ∈ G

August 29, 2022 27 / 30

Properties of Cosets

Any two left cosets have same number of elements

g1 ∗ H and g2 ∗ H are either equal or disjoint for g1 , g2 ∈ G

g ∈ g ∗ H for any g ∈ H

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Properties of Cosets

Any two left cosets have same number of elements

g1 ∗ H and g2 ∗ H are either equal or disjoint for g1 , g2 ∈ G

g ∈ g ∗ H for any g ∈ H

A coset g ∗ H is a subgroup of G iff g ∈ H

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Lagrange’s Theorem

The order of a subgroup H of a finte group G is a divisor of the order of

the group G .

August 29, 2022 28 / 30

Lagrange’s Theorem

The order of a subgroup H of a finte group G is a divisor of the order of

the group G .

Outline of the proof

We know that there exists g1 , g2 , . . . , gm such that

G = (g1 ∗ H) ∪ (g2 ∗ H) ∪ . . . ∪ (gm ∗ H)

where gi ∗ H, i = 1, 2, . . . , m are disjoint left cosets of H in G .

August 29, 2022 28 / 30

Lagrange’s Theorem

The order of a subgroup H of a finte group G is a divisor of the order of

the group G .

Outline of the proof

We know that there exists g1 , g2 , . . . , gm such that

G = (g1 ∗ H) ∪ (g2 ∗ H) ∪ . . . ∪ (gm ∗ H)

where gi ∗ H, i = 1, 2, . . . , m are disjoint left cosets of H in G .

Since cardinality of each of these left cosets is same as the cardinality of H,

|G | = |g1 ∗ H| + |g2 ∗ H| + . . . + |gm ∗ H|

August 29, 2022 28 / 30

Lagrange’s Theorem

The order of a subgroup H of a finte group G is a divisor of the order of

the group G .

Outline of the proof

We know that there exists g1 , g2 , . . . , gm such that

G = (g1 ∗ H) ∪ (g2 ∗ H) ∪ . . . ∪ (gm ∗ H)

where gi ∗ H, i = 1, 2, . . . , m are disjoint left cosets of H in G .

Since cardinality of each of these left cosets is same as the cardinality of H,

|G | = |g1 ∗ H| + |g2 ∗ H| + . . . + |gm ∗ H|

|G | = m × |H| = mk

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Lagrange’s Theorem

Example
If |G | = 14, then the only possible orders for a subgroup are 1,2,7 and 14.

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Lagrange’s Theorem

Example
If |G | = 14, then the only possible orders for a subgroup are 1,2,7 and 14.

The number of different right cosets of H in G is called the index of H in

G and is denoted by [G : H].
|G |
Note that [G : H] = |H|

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Lagrange’s Theorem

Example
If |G | = 14, then the only possible orders for a subgroup are 1,2,7 and 14.

The number of different right cosets of H in G is called the index of H in

G and is denoted by [G : H].
|G |
Note that [G : H] = |H|

The converse of Lagrange’s theorem need not be true.

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Problem

Consider G = S3 and H = {e, (1, 2)}, a subgroup of G under composition

of mappings. Compute all left cosets of H in G . Find the disjoint left
coset partition of G .

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