FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION

The function concept is one of the most important ideas in mathematics. Generally,
mathematics is concerned with relationships between things, and it is through the generality
of these relations that applications arise. For instance, engineers are concerned with
expressing relationships between physical quantities clearly and unambiguously. This might
be the relationship between the displacement of an oscillating object and time, or perhaps the
amplitude of an AC voltage and time. Functions can be used to describe the way quantities
change; hence, we need functions to handle practical problems analytically. In this unit, you
will learn (i) how to represent such relationships in mathematical terms, (ii) the fundamentals
of functions, and (iii) how to apply them.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 Determine whether relations between two variables are functions.

 Use function notation and evaluate functions.
 Find the domain and range of functions.
 Use transformations to sketch graphs of functions.
 Determine odd and even functions.
 Formulate the inverse of a function.
 Identify and evaluate linear, quadratic, polynomial, and rational functions.

COMPILED BY T. PAEPAE
1.1 DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION

Many everyday phenomena involve two quantities related to each other by some rule of
correspondence. The mathematical term for such a rule of correspondence is a relation. This
section will define and develop the concept of a “function,” which is the basic mathematical
object that engineers, scientists, and mathematicians use to describe relationships between
variable quantities. Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on another. For instance,
consider the following situations:

 The area of a circle (𝐴𝐴) depends on the radius of that circle (𝑟𝑟).
 The time taken for a particular journey (𝑡𝑡) depends on the average speed (𝑠𝑠).
 Shoe size (𝑦𝑦) depends on how big the foot is (𝑥𝑥).
 The weight (𝑤𝑤) of a growing child increases with time (𝑡𝑡).

In these examples, the two variables in each case are related, and we shall define a function
as a special type of relation between two variables. We can then describe, analyze, and use
this relationship to make predictions.

1.1.1 Defining Functions by Equations

In mathematics, relations are often represented by mathematical equations and formulas. For
instance, suppose driving a car that averages 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ℎ. The distance travelled is determined
by the time travelled (𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡). This relation can be expressed by the
equation 𝐷𝐷 = 100𝑡𝑡. For 𝑡𝑡 = 2 hours, the distance travelled will be:
𝐷𝐷 = 100(2) = 200𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 For each specific value of 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0, the equation produces exactly one value for 𝐷𝐷. Such
a relation is called a function.
 The variable 𝑡𝑡 is called an independent variable (or input), indicating that values can
be assigned “independently” to 𝑡𝑡. The variable 𝐷𝐷 is called a dependent variable (or
output), indicating that the value of 𝐷𝐷 “depends” on the value assigned to 𝑡𝑡 and on the
given equation.

Because the variable 𝑡𝑡 represents time in the equation D = 100t, it is reasonable to say that
t ≥ 0. This set of all allowable real number values for the independent variable 𝑡𝑡 is called the
domain of the function. The set of corresponding real number values for the dependent
variable is called the range of the function. That is, the input values make up the domain and
the output values make up the range.

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1.1.2 Formal Definition of Function

In an equation with two variables, if each value of the independent variable corresponds to
exactly one value of the dependent variable, then the equation defines a function.

1.1.3 Four Ways to Represent a Function

 Verbally by a sentence that describes how the input is related to the output variable.
 Numerically by a table or a list of ordered pairs that matches input with output values.
 Graphically by points on a graph in a coordinate plane in which the input values are
represented by the horizontal axis and the output values by the vertical axis.
 Algebraically by an equation in two variables.

Since an equation is just one way to represent a function, we will say “an equation defines a
function” rather than “an equation is a function.” To determine whether or not a relation is a
function, you must check whether each input value is matched with exactly one output value.
The relation is not a function if any input value is matched with two or more output values. This
is usually tested algebraically or graphically, as discussed in example 1.1.

Example 1.1 Determining if an Equation Defines a Function

Determine if each of the following equations define a function with independent variable 𝑥𝑥.

1. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4

Solution 1: (Algebraically)
For any real number 𝑥𝑥, the square of 𝑥𝑥 is a unique real number. When you subtract 4, the
result is again a unique real number. So, for any input 𝑥𝑥, there is exactly one output 𝑦𝑦, and
therefore the equation defines a function.

2. 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 16

Solution 1: (Algebraically)
In this case, it will be helpful to solve the equation for the dependent variable.
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 16 Subtract 𝑥𝑥 2 from both sides.
𝑦𝑦 2 = 16 − 𝑥𝑥 2 Take the square root of both sides.

𝑦𝑦 = ±�16 − 𝑥𝑥 2

For any 𝑥𝑥 that produces an output, there are two choices for 𝑦𝑦, one positive and one negative.
The equation has more than one output for some inputs, so it does not define a function.

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Solution 2: Graphically (using the vertical line test)

The vertical line test can be used to determine whether a graph represents a function. If we
can draw any vertical line that intersects a graph more than once, then the graph does not
define a function because a function has only one output value for each input value.

It is very easy to determine whether an equation defines a function if you have the graph of
the equation. The two equations we considered in Example 1.1 are graphed in Figure 1.1.

(𝐴𝐴) (𝐵𝐵)

Figure 1.1: Graphs of equations and the vertical line test

In Figure 1.1(A), any vertical line will intersect the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 exactly once. This
shows that every value of the independent variable 𝑥𝑥 corresponds to exactly one value of the
dependent variable 𝑦𝑦, and that confirms our conclusion that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 defines a function. But
in Figure 1.1(B), there are many vertical lines that intersect the graph of 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 16 in two
points. This shows that there are values of the independent variable 𝑥𝑥 that correspond to two
different values of the dependent variable 𝑦𝑦, which confirms our conclusion that 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 16
does not define a function. These observations lead to Theorem 1.

THEOREM 1 Vertical Line Test for a Function

An equation defines a function if each vertical line in a rectangular coordinate system passes
through at most one point on the graph of the equation. If any vertical line passes through two
or more points on the graph of an equation, then the equation does not define a function.

Sometimes when a function is defined by an equation, a domain is specified, as in:

𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5, 𝑥𝑥 > 0
The “𝑥𝑥 > 0” tells us that the domain is all positive real numbers. More often, a function is
defined by an equation with no domain specified. Unless a domain is specified, we will use
the following convention regarding domains and ranges for functions defined by equations.

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1.2 CONVENTION ON DOMAINS AND RANGES

If a function is defined by an equation and the domain is not stated explicitly, then we assume
that the implied domain is the set of all real number replacements of the independent variable
that produce real values for the dependent variable. The range is the set of all values of the
dependent variable corresponding to the domain values.

1.2.1 Finding the Domain of a Function Defined by an Equation

Finding the domain of a function whose equation is provided involves remembering three
different forms. First, if the function has no denominator or an even root, consider whether the
domain could be all real numbers. Second, if there is a denominator in the function’s equation,
exclude values in the domain that force the denominator to be zero. Third, if there is an even
root, consider excluding values that would make the radicand negative.

Example 1.2 Finding the Domain of a Function

Before we begin, let us review the conventions of interval notation:

 The smallest term from the interval is written first.
 The largest term in the interval is written second, following a comma.
 Parentheses, (or), are used to signify that an endpoint is not included, called exclusive.
 Brackets, [or], are used to indicate that an endpoint is included, called inclusive.

Find the domain of each of the following functions and write the answer in interval notation:

1. Polynomial only

TIP: whenever the function has no denominator or an even root, consider whether the domain
could be all real numbers.

1.1 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 + 1

Solution:
There are no restrictions on the domain of this function. Therefore, the domain is the set of
real numbers. In interval notation, the domain is (−∞, ∞).

1.2 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5

Solution:
The domain is the set of real numbers. In interval notation, the domain is (−∞, ∞).

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2. Fraction only

TIP: when there is a denominator in the function’s equation, exclude values in the domain that
force the denominator to be zero.

5𝑥𝑥+1
2.1 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 2 +5𝑥𝑥+6

Solution:
Since there is a denominator, we want to include only values of the input that do not force the
denominator to be zero. So, we will set the denominator to ≠ 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 6 ≠ 0
(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥 ≠ −3 or 𝑥𝑥 ≠ −2
Now, we will exclude −3 and −2 from the domain. To help you visualise the solution, it will be
ideal to indicate these values on the number line as follows:

−∞ ∞
−3 −2

We will then use a symbol known as the union, ∪, to combine the three sets. In interval
notation, we write the solution as: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞)

2𝑥𝑥−3
2.2 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 2 +4

Solution:
We again set the denominator ≠ 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥 2 ≠ −4
Remember that the domain must consist of all real numbers for which the expression is
defined. Therefore, this tells you that there is no value of 𝑥𝑥 at which the domain is undefined.
In interval notation, the domain is (−∞, ∞).

3. Square root only

TIP: if there is an even root, consider excluding values that would make the radicand negative.

3.1 𝑦𝑦 = 2√𝑥𝑥 + 4

Solution:

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Since there is an even root in the formula, we exclude any real numbers that result in a
negative number in the radicand. Set the radicand ≥ 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
𝑥𝑥 + 4 ≥ 0
𝑥𝑥 ≥ −4
Now, we will exclude any number less than −4 from the domain. Hence, the domain in interval
notation is [−4 , ∞).

3.2 𝑦𝑦 = √3 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 5

Solution:
Since there is an even root in the formula, set the radicand ≥ 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
3 − 2𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
−2𝑥𝑥 ≥ −3
3
𝑥𝑥 ≤
2
3
In interval notation, the domain is �−∞ , �.
2

3.3 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 28

Solution:
Set part radicand ≥ 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥. Importantly, to solve a polynomial inequality such as
𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 28 ≥ 0, you can use the fact that a polynomial can change signs only at its zeros
(the 𝑥𝑥-values that make the polynomial equal to zero). Between two consecutive zeros, a
polynomial must be entirely positive or entirely negative. These zeros are the critical
numbers of the inequality, and the resulting intervals are the test intervals for the inequality.
For instance, the polynomial above factors as:
𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 28 = (𝑥𝑥 + 7)(𝑥𝑥 − 4)
and has two zeros, 𝑥𝑥 = −7 and 𝑥𝑥 = 4. These zeros divide the real number line into three test
intervals as shown in the figure below:

−∞ ∞
−7 4

Now test these three intervals in order to make sure that indeed (𝑥𝑥 + 7)(𝑥𝑥 − 4) ≥ 0. For the
first interval, choose any value less than −7 and substitute it into (𝑥𝑥 + 7)(𝑥𝑥 − 4) ≥ 0. For
instance, let us choose −10. Substituting it results in (−10 + 7)(−10 − 4) = 42, which is
indeed ≥ 0 and therefore the first interval is part of the solution. Let us choose 0 (or any value
between −7 and 4) for the second interval. Substituting it results in (0 + 7)(0 − 4) = −28,

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which is not ≥ 0 and therefore this interval is not part of the solution. For the last interval,
choose any value greater than 4 and substitute. Choosing 5 results in (5 + 7)(5 − 4) = 12,
which is indeed ≥ 0. Therefore, the final solution is (−∞, −7] ∪ [4, ∞) in interval notation.

4. Square root on bottom

𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 3
𝑦𝑦 =
√2𝑥𝑥 − 1

Solution:
Since the square root is the denominator, we set the radicand > 0 and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
2𝑥𝑥 − 1 > 0
1
𝑥𝑥 >
2
1
This � � has to be excluded from the solution since it will result in division by zero. Therefore,
2
1
the solution is �2 , ∞� in interval notation.

5. Square root on top

√𝑥𝑥 − 4
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 25

Solution:

We are going to set the denominator ≠ 0, radicand ≥ 0, and then take the intersection of the
two domains as follows:
For the numerator
𝑥𝑥 − 4 ≥ 0
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 4
For the denominator
𝑥𝑥 2 − 25 ≠ 0
(𝑥𝑥 − 5)(𝑥𝑥 + 5) ≠ 0
𝑥𝑥 ≠ 5 or 𝑥𝑥 ≠ −5

Since 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 4, the number line would look like this

−∞ ∞
4 5

Therefore, in interval notion, the solution is [4 , 5) ∪ (5 , ∞).

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6. Square root on top

√𝑥𝑥 + 3
𝑦𝑦 =
√𝑥𝑥 2 − 16

Solution:
We are going to set the radicand in numerator ≥ 0, radicand in denominator > 0, test the
intervals for the denominator, and then find the intersection of the two domains by creating a
hybrid number line.
For the numerator
𝑥𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0
𝑥𝑥 ≥ −3
For the denominator
𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 > 0
(𝑥𝑥 − 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) > 0

Find the critical numbers and test the resulting intervals the same way we did in example 3.3.
You should, from the test, find that the only valid regions are (−∞, −4) and (4, ∞). Finally,
since 𝑥𝑥 must be ≥ −3, this means we must exclude the intervals (−∞, −4) and (−4, 4).
Therefore, the final solution is (4, ∞).

1.2.2 Finding Domain and Range from Graphs

Another way to identify the domain and range of functions is by using graphs. Since the domain
refers to a set of possible input values, the domain of a graph consists of all the input values
shown on the 𝑥𝑥-axis. The range is the set of possible output values, which are shown on the
𝑦𝑦-axis. Keep in mind that if the graph continues beyond the portion of the graph we can see,
the domain and range may be greater than the visible values, as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Domain and range from a graph

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We can observe that the graph extends horizontally from −5 to the right without bound, so the
domain is [−5, ∞). The vertical extent of the graph is all range values 5 and below, so the
range is (−∞, 5]. Remember that the domain and range are always written from smaller to
larger values, or from left to right for domain, and from the bottom of the graph to the top of
the graph for range.

ACTIVITY 1

1. For the following exercises, determine whether the relation represents a function.
1.1 {(7, 1); (8, 2); (7, 3); (8, 4); (7, 5)} [No]
1.2 {(1, 2); (2, 4); (3, 6); (4, 8); (5, 10)} [Yes]
1.3 {(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏); (𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑); (𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐)} [No]
1.4 {(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏); (𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐); (𝑐𝑐, 𝑐𝑐)} [Yes]
1.5 {(0, −1); (2, 2); (1, −2); (3, 0), (1, 1)} [No]

2. Determine the domain of each of the following and give solutions in interval notation.

2.1 𝑦𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 [−2, 2]
2.2 𝑦𝑦 = √7 − 𝑥𝑥 (−∞, 7]
𝑥𝑥
2.3 𝑦𝑦 = � [0, 2)
2−𝑥𝑥

2.4 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 + 3 [−3, ∞)

𝑥𝑥−1
2.5 𝑦𝑦 = (−∞, 2)
√2−𝑥𝑥

√𝑥𝑥+3
2.6 𝑦𝑦 = [−3, 1)
√1−𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥+1
2.7 𝑦𝑦 = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
2−𝑥𝑥
4𝑥𝑥+1 1 1
2.8 𝑦𝑦 = �−∞, � ∪ � , ∞�
2𝑥𝑥−1 2 2

2.9 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 2 + 7𝑥𝑥 + 12 (−∞, −4] ∪ [−3, ∞)

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2.10 𝑦𝑦 = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥
4
2.11 𝑦𝑦 = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
𝑥𝑥 2 −9

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1.3 FUNCTION NOTATION AND SUBSTITUTION

We will use letters (such as 𝑓𝑓, 𝑔𝑔, ℎ, etc.) to name functions and to provide a very important and
convenient notation for defining functions. For example, if 𝑓𝑓 is the name of the function defined
by the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1, we will simply write:

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 Functional notation

The symbol 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is read “𝑓𝑓 of 𝑥𝑥”, “𝑓𝑓 at 𝑥𝑥”, or “the value of 𝑓𝑓 at 𝑥𝑥” and represents the number
in the range of the function 𝑓𝑓 (the output) that is paired with the domain value 𝑥𝑥 (the input).
Keep in mind that if we have a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then the notation 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) implies that we replace 𝑥𝑥
by 𝑎𝑎 in the equation.

Example 1.3 Evaluating Functions

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1. Find 𝑓𝑓(4𝑎𝑎) for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
√𝑥𝑥−2

Solution:
2
𝑓𝑓(4𝑎𝑎) =
√4𝑎𝑎 − 2
2
=
√4 √𝑎𝑎 − 2
2 1
= =
2 √𝑎𝑎 − 2 √𝑎𝑎 − 1

2. Let 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 1. Find each function value.

2.1 𝑔𝑔(−2)

Solution:
𝑔𝑔(−2) = −(−2)2 + 4(−2) + 1 = −11

2.2 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

Solution:
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 + 2) = −(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 + 4(𝑥𝑥 + 2) + 1
= −(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4) + 4𝑥𝑥 + 8 + 1
= −𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 9
= −𝑥𝑥 2 + 5

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1.3.1 Combinations of Functions

Just as numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided to produce other numbers,
so functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided to produce other functions. In
this section we will discuss these operations and some others that have no analog in ordinary
arithmetic (composite functions).

1.3.1.1 Arithmetic Combinations of Functions

Just as two real numbers can be combined by the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division to form other real numbers, two functions can be combined to
create new functions. For instance,

1. Sum: (𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

2. Difference (𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
3. Product (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) . 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
4. Quotient � � (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) , 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑔𝑔

The domain of an arithmetic combination of functions 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 consists of all real numbers
that are common to the domains of 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔. That is, if the domain of 𝑓𝑓 is 𝐴𝐴 and the domain of
𝑔𝑔 is 𝐵𝐵, then the domain of 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔 is the intersection 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 because both 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) have
to be defined.

Example 1.4 Combinations of Functions and their Domains

1. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1.

1.1 Find the functions (𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) , (𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥).

Solution:
(𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
= (2𝑥𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
= 4𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2

(𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

= (2𝑥𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
= 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1
= 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2

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1.2 Find (𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(2) and (𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(−2)

Solution:
(𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(2) = 4(2) + (2)2 = 12
(𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(−2) = 2 − (−2)2 = −2

2. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔
Find the functions � � (𝑥𝑥) , � � (𝑥𝑥) and their domains.
𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓

Solution:

𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) √𝑥𝑥
� � (𝑥𝑥) = =
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) √4 − 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
� � (𝑥𝑥) =
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
√4 − 𝑥𝑥 2
=
√𝑥𝑥
The domain of 𝑓𝑓 is [0, ∞) and the domain of 𝑔𝑔 is [−2, 2]. The intersection of these domains is
𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔
[0, 2]. So, the domains of � � and � � are as follows.
𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔
Domain of � � = [0, 2) and Domain of � � = (0, 2]
𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓

1.3.2 Composition of Functions

Another way of combining two functions is to form the composition of one with the other. For
instance, given any two functions 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔, we start with a number 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔𝑔 and
find its output 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥). If this number 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓𝑓, then we can calculate the value
of 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)). This new function ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) is obtained by substituting 𝑔𝑔 into 𝑓𝑓. It is called
the composition of 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 and is denoted by 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔, (read “𝑓𝑓 composed with 𝑔𝑔”). That is
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�

The domain of (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔) is the set of all 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔𝑔 such that 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is in the domain of
𝑓𝑓. In other words, (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) is defined whenever both 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� are defined.

When computing 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔, it is important to keep in mind that the first function that appears in the
notation (𝑓𝑓, in this case) is usually the second function that is applied. For this reason, 𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 is
sometimes read as “𝑓𝑓 following 𝑔𝑔”.

12
Example 1.5 Finding the Composition of Functions and the Domain

1. Given 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 , find the following:

1.1 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥)

Solution:
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) + 2
= 𝑓𝑓(4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )
= (4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) + 2
= 6 − 𝑥𝑥 2

1.2 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥)

Solution:
(𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 4 − (𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥))2
= 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
= 4 − (𝑥𝑥 + 2)2
= 4 − (𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4)
= −𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥

2. Given 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥𝑥, find the composition (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥). Then find the
domain of (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥).

Solution:
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = �4 − (𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))2

= 𝑓𝑓�√3 − 𝑥𝑥�
2 2
= �4 − �√3 − 𝑥𝑥� remember that �√𝑎𝑎� = 𝑎𝑎 as long as 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 0.

= �4 − (3 − 𝑥𝑥)

= √1 + 𝑥𝑥

Although √1 + 𝑥𝑥 is defined for all 𝑥𝑥 ≥ −1, we must restrict the domain of (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔) to those
values that are also in the domain of 𝑔𝑔. Therefore, the domain of (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔) is [−1, 3].

It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the composite
function (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥𝑥) is found by first applying ℎ, then 𝑔𝑔, and then 𝑓𝑓 as follows:
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔((ℎ(𝑥𝑥))�

13
Example 1.6 A Composition of Three Functions

If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 2, 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥𝑥 , and ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 , find (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥𝑥).

Solution:
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ ℎ)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑔𝑔�ℎ(𝑥𝑥)��

= 𝑓𝑓�𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥 2 )�

= 𝑓𝑓 ��3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 �
2
= 1 − 2 ��3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 �

= 1 − 2(3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )
= 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 5

ACTIVITY 2

1. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1; 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 + 2 and ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 1. Find each of the following:
1.1 (𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔)(2) [15]

1.2 (𝑓𝑓 × 𝑔𝑔)(3) [98]

ℎ 3
1.3 � � (1) � 2�
𝑔𝑔

1.4 (𝑓𝑓 − 𝑔𝑔)(−1) [1]

1.5 (𝑔𝑔 − ℎ)(4) [−63]

2. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 1, evaluate the following:

2.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) [2𝑎𝑎2 + 3𝑎𝑎 − 1]

2.2 𝑓𝑓(−𝑎𝑎) [2𝑎𝑎2 + 3𝑎𝑎 − 1]

2.3 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + ℎ) [2𝑎𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ2 + 3𝑎𝑎 + 3ℎ − 1]

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
2.4 [4𝑎𝑎 + 2ℎ + 3]
ℎ

3. Let 𝐹𝐹(𝑤𝑤) = −𝑤𝑤 2 + 2𝑤𝑤. Find:

3.1 𝐹𝐹(4) [−8]
3.2 𝐹𝐹(−4) [−24]
3.3 𝐹𝐹(4 + 𝑎𝑎) [−(𝑎𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑎 + 8)]
3.4 𝐹𝐹(2 − 𝑎𝑎) [2𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑎2 ]

14
4. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 , show that:
15
4.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 3) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥+3)
4.2 = 𝑓𝑓(4)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥−1)

5. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 6, show that:

1 7
5.1 𝑓𝑓 � � = 𝑓𝑓 � �
2 2

5.2 𝑓𝑓(2 − ℎ) = 𝑓𝑓(2 + ℎ)

1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
6. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = , show that 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑓𝑓 � �.
𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎

7. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥, show that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 1) = 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥).

8. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = (𝑡𝑡 − 2)2 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 + 1. Find:

8.1 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑡𝑡) [𝑡𝑡 2 − 2𝑡𝑡 + 1]
8.2 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑡𝑡) [𝑡𝑡 2 − 4𝑡𝑡 + 5]
8.3 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(−2) [17]

9. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3, find each of the following functions.
9.1 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) [4𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 2]
9.2 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑎𝑎) [2𝑎𝑎2 + 4𝑎𝑎 − 5]
9.3 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) [8𝑥𝑥 − 21]

10. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = √2 − 𝑥𝑥, find the following functions and their domains.
4
10.1 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) � √2 − 𝑥𝑥 �
Domain (−∞, 2]

10.2 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) ��2 − √𝑥𝑥�

Domain [0, 4]

4
10.3 (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) � √𝑥𝑥 �
Domain [0, ∞)

10.4 (𝑔𝑔 ∘ 𝑔𝑔)(𝑥𝑥) ��2 − √2 − 𝑥𝑥�

Domain [−2, 2]

15
1.4 TRANSFORMATION OF FUNCTIONS

The graph of a function can provide valuable insight into the information provided by that
function. However, there is an endless variety of functions and it seems like an insurmountable
task to learn about so many different graphs. Nonetheless, the graphs shown in Figure 1.3
represent the most commonly used functions (usually called parent functions) in algebra.
Familiarity with the basic characteristics of these simple graphs will help you analyze the
shapes of more complicated graphs.

Figure 1.3: Parent functions

1.4.1 Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

If a new function is formed by performing an operation on a given function, then the graph of
the new function is called a transformation of the graph of the original function. Many
functions have graphs that are simple transformations of the parent graphs. Thus, knowing
the graphs of these common functions and how to shift, reflect, and stretch them can help you
sketch a wide variety of simple functions by hand. For instance, you can obtain the graph of
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2
by shifting the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 upward two units, as shown in Figure 1.4(A). In function
notation, ℎ and 𝑓𝑓 are related as follows
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 2
Similarly, you can obtain the graph of
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2
by shifting the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 to the right two units, as shown in Figure 1.4(B). In this
case, the functions 𝑔𝑔 and 𝑓𝑓 have the following relationship
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 2)

16
 (𝐴𝐴) (𝐵𝐵)

Figure 1.4: A shifted quadratic function

We can summarize this discussion about horizontal and vertical shifts as follows.

1.4.1.1 Vertical shifting

To summarise the observation from Figure 1.4(A), adding a constant to a function shifts its
graph vertically: upward if the constant is positive and downward if it is negative. That is, if we
add or subtract a constant 𝑐𝑐 to 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), then the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is transformed as follows
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑐𝑐 (𝑐𝑐 > 0)
The 𝑦𝑦-coordinate of each point on the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐 is 𝑐𝑐 units above the 𝑦𝑦-coordinate
of the corresponding point on the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) . Therefore, we obtain the graph of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐 by shifting the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) upward 𝑐𝑐 units. Similarly, we obtain the graph
of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑐𝑐 by shifting the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) downward 𝑐𝑐 units, as shown below.

1.4.1.2 Horizontal shifting

To summarize our observation from Figure 1.4(B), this is how we obtain the graphs of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐) (𝑐𝑐 > 0)
knowing the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). The value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐) at 𝑥𝑥 is the same as the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) at
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐. Since 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐 is 𝑐𝑐 units to the left of 𝑥𝑥, it follows that the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐) is just the
graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) shifted to the right 𝑐𝑐 units. Similar reasoning shows that the graph of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐) is the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) shifted to the left 𝑐𝑐 units, as shown below.

17
Example 1.7 Combining Horizontal and Vertical Shifts

1. Sketch a graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 − 3 + 4.

Solution:
We start with the parent function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 and shift it to the right 3 units (since this is a
change on the inside of the function) to obtain the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 − 3. We then shift the
resulting graph 4 units upward to obtain the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 − 3 + 4, as shown below.

2. Sketch a graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 + 1| − 3.

Solution:
We again start with the parent function 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥| and shift it one unit to the left to obtain the
graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 + 1|. We then shift the resulting graph three units downward to obtain the
graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 + 1| − 3, as shown in the Figure below.

18
To find the 𝑥𝑥 intercepts in an absolute value equation such as |𝑥𝑥 + 1| = 3, remember that the
absolute value will be equal to 3 if the quantity inside the absolute value is 3 or −3. This leads
to two different equations (|𝑥𝑥 + 1| = 3 and |𝑥𝑥 + 1| = −3) that we can solve independently.

1.4.2 Graphing Functions Using Reflections about the Axes

The second common type of transformation is a reflection. For example, if you consider the
𝑥𝑥-axis to be a mirror, the graph of
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2
is the mirror image (or reflection) of the graph of
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2
as shown in the Figure below

We can summarise the three common reflections as follows:

(i) The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) by changing the
sign of each 𝑦𝑦 coordinate. This has the effect of moving every point to the opposite side
of the 𝑥𝑥 axis. So, the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is the reflection through the 𝒙𝒙 axis of the
graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) [Figure 1.5(a)].

(ii) The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) by changing the
sign of each 𝑥𝑥 coordinate. This has the effect of moving every point to the opposite side
of the 𝑦𝑦 axis. So, the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) is the reflection through the 𝒚𝒚 axis of the
graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) [Figure 1.5(b)].

(iii) The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) can be obtained from the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) by changing the
sign of each 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 coordinate. So, the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) is the reflection through
the origin of the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) [Figure 1.5(c)].

19
 Figure 1.5: Refection of a function

Example 1.8 Reflecting Graphs

Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.

1. 𝑦𝑦 = −√𝑥𝑥
2. 𝑦𝑦 = √−𝑥𝑥
3. 𝑦𝑦 = −√−𝑥𝑥
4. 𝑦𝑦 = −√2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 4

Solution:

Using the parent function 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 as a reference, a good way to remember which sides the
transformation arms will go is to look at the signs. For instance, in 𝑦𝑦 = −√𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥 is positive and
𝑦𝑦 negative, and therefore the arm will point towards the fourth quadrant. Also, notice that the
arms ‘in most cases’ move away from the 𝑦𝑦-axis.

(2, 4)

2.59

−14

𝑦𝑦 = −√𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = √−𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = −√−𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 = −√2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 4

1.4.3 Even and Odd Functions

Certain transformations leave the graphs of some functions unchanged, as discussed below.

1.4.3.1 Function symmetry

As shown in the figure below, some functions exhibit symmetry (with respect to one of the
coordinate axes or with respect to the origin) so that reflections result in the original graph.

20
For example, reflecting the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 through the 𝑦𝑦-axis does not change the graph.
Functions whose graphs are symmetric about the 𝑦𝑦-axis are called even functions. Similarly,
3
reflecting the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 through the origin does not change the graph. Functions with
this property are called odd functions.

1.4.3.2 Determining even and odd functions algebraically

From the figure above, we can show that 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for even functions and 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
for odd functions. More formally, we have the following definitions:
 If 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓𝑓, then 𝑓𝑓 is an even function.
 If 𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓𝑓, then 𝑓𝑓 is an odd function.

Note: a function can also be neither even nor odd if it does not exhibit either symmetry.

Example 1.9 Even and Odd Functions

Determine whether the functions are even, odd, or neither.

1. 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 4 + 1
Solution:
𝑔𝑔(−𝑥𝑥) = (−𝑥𝑥)4 + 1
= 𝑥𝑥 4 + 1
= 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
This function is even because 𝑔𝑔(−𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥).

2. ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 5 − 𝑥𝑥
Solution:
ℎ(−𝑥𝑥) = (−𝑥𝑥)5 − (−𝑥𝑥)
= −𝑥𝑥 5 + 𝑥𝑥
= −(𝑥𝑥 5 − 𝑥𝑥) = −ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
This function is odd because ℎ(−𝑥𝑥) = −ℎ(𝑥𝑥).

21
 𝑥𝑥
3. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
1−𝑥𝑥

Solution:
−𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(−𝑥𝑥) =
1 − (−𝑥𝑥)
−𝑥𝑥
=
1 + 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
≠ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ≠ −𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Remember that − 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
= −𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

Thus, the function is neither even nor odd.

1 3
4. 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥) = + √𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥

Solution:
1 3
𝑘𝑘(−𝑥𝑥) = + √−𝑥𝑥
−𝑥𝑥
1 3 1 3
= − − √𝑥𝑥 = − � + √𝑥𝑥 � = −𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
This function is odd because 𝑘𝑘(−𝑥𝑥) = −𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥).

1.4.4 Graphing Functions using Stretches and Compressions

Adding a constant to the inputs or outputs of a function changed the position of a graph with
respect to the axes, but it did not affect the shape of a graph. We now explore the effects of
multiplying the inside (input values) or the outside (output values) by some quantity.

1.4.4.1 Vertical stretches and compressions

When we multiply a function by a positive constant, we get a function whose graph is stretched
or compressed vertically in relation to the graph of the original function. That is, given a
function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), a new function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥), where is 𝑎𝑎 constant, is a vertical stretch or
vertical compression of the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), as follows:
 If 𝑎𝑎 > 1, then the graph will be vertically stretched.
 If 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1, then the graph will be vertically compressed.

22
1.4.4.2 Horizontal stretches and compressions

Now we consider changes to the inside of a function. When we multiply a function’s input by
a positive constant, we get a function whose graph is stretched or compressed horizontally in
relation to the graph of the original function. That is, given a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), a new function
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏), where 𝑏𝑏 is a constant, is a horizontal stretch or horizontal compression of the
function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), as follows:
 If 𝑏𝑏 > 1, then the graph will be horizontally compressed by 1⁄𝑏𝑏.
 If 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1, then the graph will be horizontally stretched by 1⁄𝑏𝑏.

Example 1.10 Combining All Transformations

In the following, identify the parent function, describe the transformation, and sketch the graph
of each function.

1. 𝑦𝑦 = √4𝑥𝑥 + 2

Solution:

Parent graph: Square root function.

Transformation: Horizontal shrink/compression by factor 1⁄4.
Horizontal shift, 0.5 units to the left. To find 0.5, we equated the radicand
(4𝑥𝑥 + 2) to 0 and solved for 𝑥𝑥.

𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦 = √4𝑥𝑥 + 2

1.41

𝑥𝑥
−0.5

23
2. 𝑦𝑦 = 4 − 2(𝑥𝑥 + 3)2

Solution:

Rewrite the function

𝑦𝑦 = −2(𝑥𝑥 + 3)2 + 4
Parent function: Quadratic function.
Transformation: Reflection across the 𝑥𝑥-axis and a vertical stretch by a factor of 2.
Horizontal shift to the left by 3 units.
Vertical shift, 4 units up.
𝑦𝑦
(−3, 4)

𝑥𝑥
−4.41 −1.59

−14

3. 𝑦𝑦 = √3𝑥𝑥 − 6 + 3

Solution:

You may separate a shrink from a shift or handle the radicand as we did in number 1 above:
𝑦𝑦 = �3(𝑥𝑥 − 2) + 3
Parent function: Square root function.
Transformation: Horizontal shrink/compression by factor 1⁄3.
Horizontal shift, 2 units to the right.
Vertical shift, 3 units up.

𝑦𝑦

(2, 3)
𝑥𝑥

24
 ACTIVITY 3

1. Describe the transformation and sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
1.1 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 + 3)2 − 5
1.2 𝑦𝑦 = 4 − √3 − 𝑥𝑥
1.3 𝑦𝑦 = 2|𝑥𝑥 + 3| − 1
1.4 𝑦𝑦 = √2𝑥𝑥 + 5 − 1
1.5 𝑦𝑦 = |4 − 3𝑥𝑥| + 2

1.5 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Let 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑓𝑓 −1 be inverse functions defined on all real numbers. Let us then say that we have
the following situation:
𝑓𝑓(2) = 5 𝑓𝑓 −1 (3) = 7
𝑓𝑓 −1 (5) = 2 𝑓𝑓(7) = 3
𝑓𝑓 −1 �𝑓𝑓(2)� = 2 𝑓𝑓�𝑓𝑓 −1 (3)� = 3

Notice that in both these situations, the function and the inverse cancel each other. That is, if
we start with 𝑥𝑥, apply 𝑓𝑓, and then apply 𝑓𝑓 −1 , we arrive back at 𝑥𝑥, where we started. Similarly,
𝑓𝑓 undoes what 𝑓𝑓 −1 does. In general, any function that reverses the effect of 𝑓𝑓 in this way must
be the inverse of 𝑓𝑓. We express these observations precisely as follows:
𝑓𝑓 −1 �𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓�𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑥𝑥
This property is called the inverse function property or “cancellation property”. The domain of
𝑓𝑓 must be equal to the range of 𝑓𝑓 −1, and the range of 𝑓𝑓 must be equal to the domain of 𝑓𝑓 −1.
Generally, given a function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), we represent its inverse as 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥), read as “𝑓𝑓 inverse of 𝑥𝑥.”
The raised −1 is part of the notation and not an exponent; it does not imply a power of −1.

Example 1.11 Verifying Inverse Functions

1
Verify that 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 is the inverse of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 4.
2

Solution:

To verify, you are required to show that (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 and (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥.

(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)) (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥))

= 𝑓𝑓(0.5𝑥𝑥 − 2) + 4 = 𝑓𝑓 −1 (2𝑥𝑥 + 4)

25
 = 2(0.5𝑥𝑥 − 2) + 4 = 0.5(2𝑥𝑥 + 4) − 2
= 𝑥𝑥 − 4 + 4 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 2
= 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥

As mentioned above, inverse “undoes” or reverses what the function has done. However, not
all functions have inverse functions; those that do are called one-to-one.

1.5.1 One-to-One Functions

Some functions have only one input value for each output value and only one output for each
input. That is, each 𝑥𝑥 in the domain has exactly one image in the range and no 𝑦𝑦 in the range
is the image of more than one 𝑥𝑥 in the domain. We call these functions one-to-one functions.
As an example, consider two functions 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 whose arrow diagrams are shown below.

Note that 𝑓𝑓 never takes on the same value twice (any two numbers in A have different images),
whereas 𝑔𝑔 does take on the same value twice (both 2 and 3 have the same image, 4). In
symbols, 𝑔𝑔(2) = 𝑔𝑔(3) but 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥𝑥2 . Functions that have this latter
property are called one-to-one. An equivalent way of writing the condition for a one-to-one
function is this:
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ), then 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2
If a horizontal line intersects the graph of 𝑓𝑓 at more than one point, then we see from the
Figure below that there are numbers 𝑥𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥𝑥2 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ). This means that 𝑓𝑓 is not
one-to-one.

This geometric method for determining whether a function is one-to-one is commonly called a
horizontal line test. Formally, a function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.

26
Example 1.12 Showing That a Function Is One-to-One

1. Show that the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 is one-to-one.

Solution:

Suppose there are numbers 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ). Then
3𝑥𝑥1 + 4 = 3𝑥𝑥2 + 4
3𝑥𝑥1 = 3𝑥𝑥2
𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2
Therefore 𝑓𝑓 is one-to-one.

2. Determine whether 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 is one-to-one.

Solution:

Suppose there are numbers 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ). Then
𝑥𝑥1 2 + 4 = 𝑥𝑥2 2 + 4
𝑥𝑥1 2 = 𝑥𝑥2 2
𝑥𝑥1 2 − 𝑥𝑥2 2 = 0
(𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥2 )(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 0
𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑥𝑥1 = −𝑥𝑥2
Therefore 𝑓𝑓 is not one-to-one.

1.5.2 Finding the Inverse of a Function

Let us now examine how we compute the inverse of a function. Given a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the
first coordinates of points on the graph are represented by 𝑥𝑥, and the second coordinates are
represented by 𝑦𝑦. Finding the inverse by reversing the order of the coordinates would then
correspond to switching the variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦. This leads us to the following procedure, which
can be applied whenever it is possible to solve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) for 𝑥𝑥 in terms of 𝑦𝑦.

Step 1: If the function is written with function notation, like 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), replace the function
symbol with the letter 𝑦𝑦.
Step 2: Interchange 𝑥𝑥 (independent variable) and 𝑦𝑦 (dependent variable).
Step 3: Solve the resulting equation for 𝑦𝑦.
Step 4: Replace 𝑦𝑦 by 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥).
Step 5: Verify that 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑓𝑓 −1 are inverse functions of each other.

27
Example 1.13 Finding the Inverse of a Function

3
1. Find the inverse of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 and verify the result.
2

Solution:

We will use the strategy given above to find 𝑓𝑓 −1. We will then verify the result by showing that
(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 and (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥.

Step 1: Replace 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) with 𝑦𝑦.

3
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 2
2
Step 2: Interchange 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦.
3
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 + 2
2
Step 3: Solve the equation for 𝑦𝑦.
2𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑦𝑦 + 4 Multiply both sides by 2
2𝑥𝑥−4
𝑦𝑦 =
3
Step 4: Replace 𝑦𝑦 by 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥).
2𝑥𝑥−4
𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) =
3
3 2𝑥𝑥−4
To verify that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) = are inverse functions of each other, we must
2 3

show that (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 and (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥. This is left as an exercise.

2. Find 𝑓𝑓 −1 for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 − 2 and verify the result.

Solution:
𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 2

𝑥𝑥 = �𝑦𝑦 − 2

𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑦𝑦 − 2

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2

𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2

We use the inverse function property to verify our answer:

(𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥)) (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥))

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) = 𝑓𝑓 −1 �√𝑥𝑥 − 2�
2
= �(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) − 2 = �√𝑥𝑥 − 2� + 2

= √𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 + 2
= 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥
Therefore, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥) are inverse functions since (𝑓𝑓 ∘ 𝑓𝑓 −1 )(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑓𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑓𝑓)(𝑥𝑥).

28
1.5.3 Graphing the Inverse of a Function

The principle of interchanging 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 to find the inverse function also gives us a method for
obtaining the graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1 from the graph of 𝑓𝑓. If 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑏𝑏, then 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎. Thus, the point
(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) is on the graph of 𝑓𝑓 if and only if the point (𝑏𝑏, 𝑎𝑎) is on the graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1 . But we get the
point (𝑏𝑏, 𝑎𝑎) from the point (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) by reflecting in the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 (see Figure 1.6(A). Therefore,
as Figure 1.6(B) illustrates, the following is true:

The graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of 𝑓𝑓 in the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥. That is, the graph
of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect to the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥.

(𝐵𝐵)
(𝐴𝐴)

Figure 1.6: Plotting inverse functions

Example 1.14 Graphing the Inverse of a Function

1. Sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 2.

Solution:
Using the transformations, we sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 2 by plotting the parent function
𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 and shifting it to the right 2 units, as discussed before.

2. Use the graph of 𝑓𝑓 to sketch the graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1.

Solution:
The graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1 is obtained from the graph of 𝑓𝑓 (question 1) by reflecting it in the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥,
as shown in the Figure below.

29
3. Find an equation for 𝑓𝑓 −1.

Solution:
Solve 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 2 for 𝑥𝑥, noting that 𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0.
√𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2 𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0
Interchange 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, as follows:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
−1 2
𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0

This expression shows that the graph of 𝑓𝑓 −1 is the right half of the parabola 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, and
this seems reasonable from the graph shown above.

ACTIVITY 4

1. Find the inverse of the following functions and verify the results:
5 5
1.1 ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = �𝑥𝑥 + 2�
𝑥𝑥−2
2𝑥𝑥−1 3𝑥𝑥+1
1.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = � 2−𝑥𝑥 �
𝑥𝑥+3
𝑥𝑥 5 −3 5
1.3 ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = � √2𝑥𝑥 + 3�
2

1.4 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥𝑥 [3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ]
1.5 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 5 [𝑥𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑥 + 23]

2. Assume that 𝑓𝑓 is a one-to-one function.

2.1 If 𝑓𝑓(2) = 7, find 𝑓𝑓 −1 (7). [2]
2.2 If 𝑓𝑓 −1 (3) = −1, find 𝑓𝑓(−1). [3]
2.3 If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5 − 2𝑥𝑥, find 𝑓𝑓 −1 (3). [1]

3. Use the Inverse Function Property to show that 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 are inverses of each other.
1 1
3.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ; 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
1
3.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 1 ; 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 − 1)3
3.3 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 9, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0 ; 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = √𝑥𝑥 + 9, 𝑥𝑥 ≥ −9
1 1
3.4 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = ; 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = + 1
𝑥𝑥−1 𝑥𝑥

30
1.6 LINEAR FUNCTIONS

1.6.1 The Slope-Intercept Form of a Line

The simplest mathematical model for relating two variables is the linear equation in two
variables 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏. The equation (in which the variable occurs to the first power only) is
called linear because its graph is a line. By letting 𝑥𝑥 = 0, you can see that the line crosses the
𝑦𝑦-axis at 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏, as shown in Figure 1.7(A). The steepness or slope of the line is 𝑚𝑚. The slope
of a nonvertical line is the number of units the line rises (or falls) vertically for each unit of
horizontal change from left to right, as shown in Figure 1.7(A) and Figure 1.7(B).

(𝐴𝐴) (𝐵𝐵)

Figure 1.7: Increasing and decreasing functions

A linear equation that is written in the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 is said to be written in slope-intercept
form because it identifies the slope and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept. The slope determines if the function
is an increasing linear function, a decreasing linear function, or a constant function as follows.

 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 is an increasing function if 𝑚𝑚 > 0.

 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 is a decreasing function if 𝑚𝑚 < 0.
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 is a constant function if 𝑚𝑚 = 0.

1.6.2 Finding the Slope of a Line

If a line passes through two distinct points 𝑃𝑃1 = (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝑃𝑃2 = (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ), we can calculate its
slope 𝑚𝑚, as follows:
rise vertical change ∆𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1
𝑚𝑚 = = = =
run horizontal change ∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1

31
1.6.3 The Point-Slope Form of a Linear Equation

Suppose a line has slope 𝑚𝑚 and passes through the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ). If (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is any other point
on the line (see the Figure below),

then:
𝑦𝑦−𝑦𝑦1
𝑥𝑥−𝑥𝑥1
= 𝑚𝑚

Multiplying both sides by (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 ) yields:

𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

This is called the point-slope form of an equation of a line. Keep in mind that the slope-intercept
form and the point-slope form can be used to describe the same function. We can move from
one form to another using basic algebra.

Example 1.15 Using the Point-Slope Form

2
Find an equation for the line that has slope and passes through the point (−2, 1). Write the
3

final answer in slope-intercept form.

Solution:
2
Since 𝑚𝑚 = , 𝑥𝑥1 = −2 and 𝑦𝑦1 = 1, then:
3

𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

2
𝑦𝑦 − 1 = (𝑥𝑥 − (−2))
3
3(𝑦𝑦 − 1) = 2(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
2 7
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 +
3 3

1.6.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

From geometry, we know that two vertical lines are parallel to each other and that a horizontal
line and a vertical line are perpendicular to each other. To tell when two lines are parallel or
perpendicular, the theorem, which is stated without proof, provides a convenient procedure.
Given two nonvertical lines 𝐿𝐿1 and 𝐿𝐿2 with slopes 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2 , respectively, then:

32
 𝐿𝐿1 ∥ 𝐿𝐿2 if and only if 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2
𝐿𝐿1 ⊥ 𝐿𝐿2 if and only if 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 = −1

The symbols ∥ and ⊥ mean, respectively, “is parallel to” and “is perpendicular to”. In the case
of perpendicularity, the condition 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 = −1 also can be written as:
1 1
𝑚𝑚1 = − or 𝑚𝑚2 = −
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚1

Example 1.16 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Given the line 𝐿𝐿: 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 5 and the point 𝑃𝑃 = (−3, 5), find an equation of a line (in slope-
intercept form) through 𝑃𝑃 that is:

1. Parallel to 𝐿𝐿

Solution:
First, we need to find the slope of 𝐿𝐿 by writing 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 5 in the equivalent slope-intercept
form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐:
3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 5
−2𝑦𝑦 = −3𝑥𝑥 + 5
3 5
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 −
2 2

3 3
So, the slope of 𝐿𝐿 is . The slope of a line parallel to 𝐿𝐿 is the same , hence:
2 2

𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

3
𝑦𝑦 − 5 = (𝑥𝑥 + 3)
2
3 19
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 +
2 2

2. Perpendicular to 𝐿𝐿

Solution:
3 2
Since the slope of 𝐿𝐿 is , the line perpendicular to 𝐿𝐿 is − . Hence:
2 3

𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

2
𝑦𝑦 − 5 = − (𝑥𝑥 + 3)
3
2
𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 + 3
3

33
1.6.5 Slope and Rate of Change

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 be a linear function. If 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑥𝑥2 are two different values for 𝑥𝑥 and if
𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) and 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ), then the points (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) lie on the graph of 𝑓𝑓. From the
definitions of slope and average rate of change we have
𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 )
slope = = = average rate of change
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1
Since the slope of a linear function is the same between any two points, we conclude from the
above equation that the average rate of change of a linear function is the same between any
two points. Also, this rate of change is equal to the slope. The average rate of change of a
linear function is simply called the rate of change since it is the same between any two points.

The difference between “slope” and “rate of change” is simply a difference in point of view. For
instance, to describe how a reservoir fills up over time, it is natural to talk about the rate at
which the water level is rising, although we can also think of the slope of the graph of the water
level.

ACTIVITY 5

1
1. Find the equation of the line going through (1, 3) and (3, 6). �𝑦𝑦 = 2 (3𝑥𝑥 + 3)�

2. Find the equation of a line that passes through the point (3, 0) and is perpendicular to
1
the line 1 = 𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑥 �𝑦𝑦 = − 3 𝑥𝑥 + 1�

3. Find an equation of the line 𝐿𝐿 through (−1, 4) and parallel to the line 𝑀𝑀 with the equation
1
3𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 = 2. �𝑦𝑦 = 4 (−3𝑥𝑥 + 13)�

4. If the point (3, 𝑘𝑘) lies on the line with slope 𝑚𝑚 = −2 passing through the point (2, 5), find
𝑘𝑘. [𝑘𝑘 = 3]

5. If the point (2, 𝑘𝑘) lies on the line with slope 𝑚𝑚 = 3 passing through the point (1,6), find 𝑘𝑘.
[𝑘𝑘 = 9]
6. Determine whether the following pairs of lines are parallel, perpendicular, or neither:
6.1 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 [Parallel]
6.2 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 5 [Neither]
6.3 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 5 and 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 = 4 [Perpendicular]

34
 6.4 6𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 = 1 and 4𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 = 3 [Parallel]
6.5 𝑥𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦𝑦 = −4 [Perpendicular]

7. For what values of 𝑘𝑘 will the line 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 3𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑘𝑘 have the following properties:
7.1 Have slope 1 [𝑘𝑘 = 3]
3
7.2 Have 𝑦𝑦 intercept 2 �𝑘𝑘 = − 2�

7.3 Pass through the point (2,4) [𝑘𝑘 = −6]

3
7.4 Be parallel to the line 2𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑦𝑦 = 1 �𝑘𝑘 = 2�

7.5 Be perpendicular to the line 𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑦𝑦 = 2 [𝑘𝑘 = −18]

1.7 POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Functions defined by polynomial expressions are called polynomial functions. That is, a
function such as
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 4 − 7𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝜋𝜋
which is the sum of a finite number of terms, each of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘 , where 𝑘𝑘 is a nonnegative
integer, is called a polynomial function. Remember that an integer is a whole number (not a
fractional number) that can be positive, negative, or zero. The polynomial function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is said
to have degree 4 because 𝑥𝑥 4 is the highest power of 𝑥𝑥 that appears among the terms of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

Unlike linear functions whose graphs do not change direction, the graphs of polynomial
functions can have one or many peaks and valleys (or turning points). This property makes
them suitable models for many real-world situations.

1.7.1 Quadratic Functions

A quadratic function is a second-degree polynomial function in one variable, defined by an

equation of the form 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 (𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0), where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers. A
quadratic function written in this form is said to be in general form. If we take 𝑎𝑎 = 1 and
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐 = 0, we get the quadratic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 , whose graph is a parabolic parent
function. In fact, the graph of any quadratic function is a parabola and can be obtained from
the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 by the transformations discussed in Section 1.4.

1.7.1.1 Characteristics of Parabolas

The graph of a quadratic function is a U-shaped curve called a parabola. One important feature
of the graph is that it has an extreme point, called the vertex. If the parabola opens up, the
vertex represents the lowest point on the graph, or the minimum value of the quadratic

35
function. If the parabola opens down, the vertex represents the highest point on the graph, or
the maximum value. In either case, the vertex is a turning point on the graph. The graph is
also symmetric with a vertical line drawn through the vertex, called the axis of symmetry.
These features are illustrated in the Figure below.

The 𝑦𝑦-intercept is the point at which the parabola crosses the 𝑦𝑦-axis. The 𝑥𝑥-intercepts are the
points at which the parabola crosses the 𝑥𝑥-axis. If they exist, the 𝑥𝑥-intercepts represent the
zeros, or roots, of the quadratic function, the values of at which 𝑦𝑦 = 0.

1.7.1.2 Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Functions

As mentioned above, the general form of a quadratic function presents the function in the form
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑐𝑐 are real numbers and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0. When 𝑎𝑎 > 0, the parabola opens upward and
opens downward when 𝑎𝑎 < 0. Expressing a quadratic function in standard form helps us to
sketch its graph as well as to find its maximum or minimum value. If we are interested only in
finding the maximum or minimum value, then a formula is available for doing so. This formula
is obtained by completing the square for the general quadratic function. The maximum or
minimum value of a quadratic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 occurs at:
𝑏𝑏
𝑥𝑥 = −
2𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
When 𝑎𝑎 > 0, then the minimum value is: 𝑓𝑓 �− �
2𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
When 𝑎𝑎 < 0, then the maximum value is: 𝑓𝑓 �− �
2𝑎𝑎

The Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

A quadratic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 can be expressed in the standard form
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘𝑘
by completing the square. This form is especially convenient for sketching a parabola because
it identifies the vertex of the parabola as (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘). As with the general form, if 𝑎𝑎 > 0, the parabola

36
opens upward and the vertex is a minimum. If 𝑎𝑎 < 0, the parabola opens downward, and the
vertex is a maximum, as shown in the Figure below.

The vertex (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) is located at

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
ℎ=− , 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑓𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑓𝑓 �− �.
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑎

Example 1.17 Minimum and Maximum Value of a Quadratic Function

1. Find the maximum or minimum value of each quadratic function.

1.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥

Solution:
This is a quadratic function with 𝑎𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏𝑏 = 4. Thus, the min or maximum value occurs at
𝑏𝑏 4
𝑥𝑥 = − =− = −2
2𝑎𝑎 2(1)
Since 𝑎𝑎 > 0, the function has the minimum value
𝑓𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 + 4(−2) = −4
1.2 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = −2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 5

Solution:
This is a quadratic function with 𝑎𝑎 = −2 and 𝑏𝑏 = 4. Thus, the min or maximum value occurs at
𝑏𝑏 4
𝑥𝑥 = − =− =1
2𝑎𝑎 2(−2)
Since 𝑎𝑎 < 0, the function has the maximum value
𝑓𝑓(1) = −2(1)2 + 4(1) − 5 = −3

2. Consider the quadratic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 30𝑥𝑥 + 49.

2.1 Express 𝑓𝑓 in standard form.

Solution:

37
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 30𝑥𝑥 + 49
= 5(𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥) + 49 Factor 5 from the 𝑥𝑥-terms
= 5(𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9) + 49 − (5 × 9) Create a perfect square and correct the constant
= 5(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + 4 Factorize and simplify

2.2 Sketch a graph of 𝑓𝑓.

Solution:
The graph is a parabola that has its vertex at (3, 4) and opens upward, as sketched below.

2.3 Find the minimum value of 𝑓𝑓.

Solution:
Since the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 is positive, 𝑓𝑓 has a minimum value, which is 𝑓𝑓(3) = 4.

3. Consider the quadratic function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2.

3.1 Express 𝑓𝑓 in standard form.

Solution:
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2
= −(𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥) + 2 Factor −1 from the 𝑥𝑥-terms
1 1
= − �𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + � + 2 − �−1 × � Create a perfect square and correct the constant
4 4

1 2 9
= − �𝑥𝑥 − � + Factorize and simplify
2 4

3.2 Sketch the graph of 𝑓𝑓.

Solution:

38
 1 9
The graph is a parabola that has its vertex at � , � and opens downward, as sketched below.
2 4

3.3 Find the maximum value of 𝑓𝑓.

Solution:
1 9
Since the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 is negative, 𝑓𝑓 has a maximum value, which is 𝑓𝑓 � � = .
2 4

1.7.1.3 Modeling with Quadratic Functions

Many real-world applications involve finding the maximum or minimum value of a quadratic
function. You can find this value by locating the vertex of the graph of a quadratic function.

Example 1.18 Modeling with Quadratic Functions

1. A small local soft-drink manufacturing company has the daily production costs of
𝐶𝐶 = 60 000 − 110𝑥𝑥 + 0.065𝑥𝑥 2, where 𝐶𝐶 is the total cost (in rands) and 𝑥𝑥 is the number
of units produced. How many units should be produced each day to yield a minimum
cost?
Solution:
Use the fact that a quadratic function has a minimum when 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑏𝑏/(2𝑎𝑎). From the given
function, you can see that 𝑎𝑎 = 0.065 and 𝑏𝑏 = −110. Therefore, producing
𝑏𝑏 −110
𝑥𝑥 = − =− = 846 units
2𝑎𝑎 2(0.065)
each day will yield a minimum cost.

2. A ball is thrown upward from the top of a 40 meters high building at a speed of 80 meters
per second. The ball’s height above ground can be modeled by the quadratic equation
𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = −16𝑡𝑡 2 + 80𝑡𝑡 + 40.

2.1 When does the ball reach the maximum height?

39
Solution:
The ball reaches the maximum height at the vertex of the parabola. That is,
𝑏𝑏
ℎ=−
2𝑎𝑎
80
ℎ=− = 2.5
2(−16)
Therefore, the ball reaches a maximum height after 2.5 seconds.

2.2 What is the maximum height of the ball?

Solution:
To find the maximum height, find the 𝑦𝑦-coordinate of the vertex of the parabola.
𝑏𝑏
𝑘𝑘 = 𝐻𝐻 �− �
2𝑎𝑎

= 𝐻𝐻(2.5)
= −16(2.5)2 + 80(2.5) + 40 = 140
Thus, the ball reaches a maximum height of 140 meters.

2.3 When does the ball hit the ground?

Solution:
To find when the ball hits the ground, we need to determine when the height is zero, 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = 0.
−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Using the quadratic formula 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑎𝑎
, solving for 𝑡𝑡 yields
−80+√8960 −80−√8960
𝑡𝑡 = −32
≈ −0.458 or 𝑡𝑡 = −32
≈ 5.458

The first answer is outside the reasonable domain of our model, and therefore we conclude
the ball will hit the ground after about 5.458 seconds.

1.7.2 Power Functions and Polynomial Functions

In this section we study polynomial functions of any degree. But before we work with
polynomial functions, we must agree on some terminology.

1.7.2.1 Identifying Polynomial Functions

As mentioned earlier, a polynomial function of degree 𝑛𝑛 is a function of the form:

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎0
where 𝑛𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0.
 The numbers 𝑎𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , …, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 are called the coefficients of the polynomial.
 The number 𝑎𝑎0 is the constant coefficient or constant term.

40
 The number 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , the coefficient of the highest power, is the leading coefficient, and the
term 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 is the leading term.

We normally refer to polynomial functions simply as polynomials. The following table lists
some examples of polynomials.

Polynomial Degree Leading term coefficients Constant term

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 1 2𝑥𝑥 2 −3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥 2 𝜋𝜋, 1 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 3 −4𝑥𝑥 3 6, −4 −2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 5 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 7𝑥𝑥 + 1 5 5𝑥𝑥 5 5, −2, 7 1

A polynomial that consists of just a single term called a monomial. For example, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 4
and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 5 are monomials.

1.7.2.2 Graphs of Polynomial Functions

The simplest polynomial functions are the monomials 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , whose graphs are shown in
the figure below. As the figure suggests, the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 has the same general shape
as the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 when 𝑛𝑛 is even and the same general shape as the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3
when 𝑛𝑛 is odd. However, as the degree 𝑛𝑛 becomes larger, the graphs become flatter around
the origin. Polynomial functions of the form 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 are commonly called power functions.

Example 1.19 Sketching Transformations of Monomial Functions

Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 5
2. ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)4

Solution:
1. Since the degree of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 5 is odd, its graph is similar to the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 . The
negative coefficient has the effect of reflecting the graph in the 𝑥𝑥-axis.
2. The graph of ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)4 , is a left shift by one unit of the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 4 .

41
1.7.2.3 Graphs of Polynomial Functions: End Behavior

The graphs of polynomials of degree 0 or 1 are lines, and the graphs of polynomials of degree
2 are parabolas. The greater the degree of a polynomial, the more complicated its graph can
be. However, the graph of a polynomial function is continuous. This means that the graph
has no breaks, holes, or gaps. Moreover, the graph of a polynomial function is a smooth
curve; that is, it has no corners or sharp points (cusps) as shown in the figure below.

The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers, so we can sketch only a
small portion of the graph. However, for values of 𝑥𝑥 outside the portion of the graph we have
drawn, we can describe the behavior of the graph.

The end behavior of a polynomial is a description of what happens as 𝑥𝑥 becomes large in the
positive or negative direction. For any polynomial, the end behavior is determined by the term
that contains the highest power of 𝑥𝑥 (whether the degree is even or odd), because when 𝑥𝑥 is
large, the other terms are relatively insignificant in size. Because the power of the leading term
is the highest, that term will grow significantly faster than the other terms as 𝑥𝑥 gets very large
or very small, so its behavior will dominate the graph. Therefore, for any polynomial, the end
behavior of the polynomial will match the end behavior of the term of highest degree. To
describe the end behavior, we use the following notation:

 𝑥𝑥 → ∞ means 𝑥𝑥 goes to infinity; that is, 𝑥𝑥 increases without bound.

 𝑥𝑥 → −∞ means 𝑥𝑥 goes to negative infinity; that is, 𝑥𝑥 decreases without bound.

42
For example, the monomial 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 has the following end behavior.

as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → ∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → ∞

The monomial 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 has the following end behavior.

as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → ∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → −∞

In words, we could say that as 𝑥𝑥 values approach infinity, the function values approach infinity,
and as 𝑥𝑥 values approach negative infinity, the function values approach negative infinity.

Example 1.20 End Behavior of a Polynomial

1. Describe the end behavior of the graph of each of the following polynomials.

1.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑥 3

Solution:

Since the polynomial 𝑓𝑓 has an odd degree (3) and a negative leading coefficient (−5), it has
the following end behavior.
as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → −∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → ∞

1.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 4 −3𝑥𝑥 8 − 3𝑥𝑥 5 − 8

Solution:

The polynomial 𝑓𝑓 has degree 8 and leading coefficient −3. Thus, 𝑓𝑓 has even degree and
negative leading coefficient, so it has the following end behavior.
as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → −∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → −∞

2. For the polynomial 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 5 − 5𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥,

2.1 Determine its end behavior.

Solution:

Since 𝑃𝑃 has odd degree and positive leading coefficient, it has the following end behavior.
as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) → ∞ and as 𝑥𝑥 → −∞, 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) → −∞

43
2.2 Confirm (algebraically) that 𝑃𝑃 and its leading term 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 5 have the same end
behavior.

Solution:

To show algebraically that 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 have the same end behavior, we factor 𝑃𝑃 as follows and
compare with 𝑄𝑄.
5𝑥𝑥 3 2𝑥𝑥
𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 5 �1 − + �
3𝑥𝑥 5 3𝑥𝑥 5

5 2
= 3𝑥𝑥 5 �1 − 2
+ 4�
3𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥

As 𝑥𝑥 gets large, the terms 5⁄(3𝑥𝑥 2 ) and 2⁄(3𝑥𝑥 4 ) get very close to zero. That is

𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) ≈ 3𝑥𝑥 5 (1 − 0 + 0) = 3𝑥𝑥 5 = 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥)

Therefore, when 𝑥𝑥 is large, 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 have approximately the same values. We can also see
this numerically by making a table like the one shown below.

𝒙𝒙 𝑷𝑷(𝒙𝒙) 𝑸𝑸(𝒙𝒙)
50 936875100 937500000
80 9827840160 9830400000
100 29995000200 30000000000

By the same reasoning, we can subsequently show that the end behavior of any polynomial
is determined by its leading term.

1.7.3 Dividing Polynomials

In this section, we will look at two procedures for dividing polynomials. These procedures are
especially valuable in factoring and finding the zeros of polynomial functions.

1.7.3.1 Using Long Division to Divide Polynomials

Dividing polynomials is much like the familiar process of dividing numbers. We begin by
dividing into the digits of the dividend that have the greatest place value. Using long division,
we divide, multiply, subtract, include the digit in the next place value position, and repeat. For
example, let us divide 179 by 3 using long division.

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

44
When dividing two numbers, we get 59 and remain with 2. The number 179 is called the
dividend, 3 is called the divisor, 59 is called the quotient and 2 is called the remainder. This
is normally written as:
179 2
= 59 +
3 3

Another way to look at the solution is as a sum of parts. That is

179 = (3 . 59) + 2
Dividend = (Divisor . Quotient) + Remainder
We call this the division algorithm and will formalize if after looking at an example. For
instance, if we were to divide 𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 by 𝑥𝑥 + 1 using long division, it would look like this:

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

In fractional form, we can write this result as

𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 6
= 𝑥𝑥 − 4 +
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1
This implies that
𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 4) + 6

We can then identify the dividend, the divisor, the quotient, and the remainder.
𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 = (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (𝑥𝑥 − 4) + 6

Dividend Divisor Quotient Remainder

Writing the result in this manner illustrates the division algorithm. More formally, the algorithm
states that if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) are polynomials such that 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0, and the degree of 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) is less
than or equal to the degree of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), there exist unique polynomials 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) such that
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥). 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥)
where 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) = 0 or the degree of 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) is strictly less than the degree of 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥). If the
remainder 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) is zero, then 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) divides evenly into 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). This means that, in this case, both
𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) are factors of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

The division algorithm can also be written as

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) +
𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥)

In this algorithm, the rational expression 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)/𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) is improper because the degree of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
is greater than or equal to the degree of 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥). In contrast, the rational expression 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥)/𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) is
proper because the degree 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) of is less than the degree of 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥).

45
Before applying the division algorithm, these steps must be followed.
1. Write the dividend and divisor in descending powers of the variable.
2. Insert placeholders with zero coefficients for missing powers of the variable.

Example 1.21 Long Division of Polynomials

1. Divide the following polynomials.

1.1 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 3 by 𝑥𝑥 − 1

Solution:
Using long division, the quotient is 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 and the remainder is 0. Thus, we write the result as:
2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 3
= 2𝑥𝑥 + 3
𝑥𝑥 − 1

1.2 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 5 + 2𝑥𝑥 4 − 𝑥𝑥 by 2 + 𝑥𝑥

Solution:
After rewriting the dividend in descending powers of 𝑥𝑥, inserting 0 as the coefficient for any
missing terms of degree less than 4, and rewriting the divisor in the form 𝑥𝑥 + 2, we get:
2𝑥𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 − 5 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5) + 5

1.3 8𝑥𝑥 4 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 by 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Solution:
We use long division after first inserting the term 0𝑥𝑥 3 into the dividend to ensure that the
columns line up correctly. Therefore,
8𝑥𝑥 4 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 = (2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 2)(4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥) + (−7𝑥𝑥 + 1)

1.4 What must be subtracted from 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 21 to make it divisible
by 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 ?
Solution:
Since 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥). 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥), the right hand side is clearly divisible by the divisor. Therefore,
the left hand side is also divisible by the divisor. Thus, if we subtract the remainder from the
dividend, then it will be exactly divisible by the divisor.

Using long division, dividing 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 21 by 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 results
in the quotient 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 and remainder 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 − 6. Thus, subtracting 6𝑥𝑥 − 6 from
𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 21 will make it divisible by 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3.

46
1.7.3.2 Using Synthetic Division to Divide Polynomials

As we have seen, long division of polynomials can involve many steps and be quite
cumbersome. Synthetic division is a shorthand method of dividing polynomials for the special
case of dividing by a linear factor whose leading coefficient is 1. To divide 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 by
𝑥𝑥 − 3 using synthetic division, we first write the coefficients of the dividend and the negative
of the constant term of the divisor in the format/pattern shown below.

Note that in synthetic division we abbreviate 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 by writing only the coefficients:
⌊2 − 7 0 5, and 3 instead of 𝑥𝑥 − 3. Writing 3 instead of −3 allows us to add instead of
subtracting, but this changes the sign of all the numbers that appear in the gold boxes. We
can summarise synthetic division as follows.

Example 1.22 Using Synthetic Division

Use synthetic division to divide the following polynomials:

1. 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 by 𝑥𝑥 − 3.

Solution:
We begin by writing the appropriate coefficients to represent the divisor and the dividend:

47
We bring down the 2, multiply 3 × 2 = 6, and write the result in the middle row. Then we add.

We repeat this process of multiplying and then adding until the table is complete.

Therefore, we have:
2𝑥𝑥 3 − 7𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 4
= 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 3 −
𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

2. 𝑥𝑥 4 − 10𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 by 𝑥𝑥 + 3.

Solution:

Use the pattern by adding terms in columns and multiplying the results by −3, as follows

Therefore, we have:

𝑥𝑥 4 − 10𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 1
= 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 1 +
𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑥𝑥 + 3

48
1.7.4 Rational Functions

A rational function can be written in the form

𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥)
where 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥) and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) are polynomials and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) is not the zero polynomial. For example, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) in the following equations are rational functions while ℎ(𝑥𝑥) is not a rational function
since √2𝑥𝑥 + 5 is not a polynomial.
2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 − 3

3𝑥𝑥 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 4
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) =
2𝑥𝑥 − 1

√2𝑥𝑥 + 5
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) =
3𝑥𝑥 − 2

Our goal will be to produce hand sketches that clearly show all of the important features of the
graph. These important features or characteristics are the:
 Domain
 General shape and asymptotes (including the presence of a hole or discontinuity)
 Intercepts

1.7.4.1 The Domain of a Rational Function

Much of the discussion of rational functions will focus on their graphical behavior near the 𝑥𝑥-
values excluded from the domain. In general, the domain of a rational function consists of all
real numbers 𝑥𝑥 except those for which the denominator is zero.

1.7.4.2 Rational Functions and Asymptotes

We will begin by graphing a very simple rational function. As a basis for our discussion, let us
1
find the domain of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = and discuss the behavior of 𝑓𝑓 near any excluded 𝑥𝑥-values.
𝑥𝑥

Solution

Since the denominator is zero when 𝑥𝑥 = 0, the domain of 𝑓𝑓 is all real numbers except 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
To determine the behavior of 𝑓𝑓 near this excluded value, evaluate 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) to the left and right of
𝑥𝑥 = 0. As the input values approach zero from the left side (becoming very small, negative
values), the function values decrease without bound (in other words, they approach negative
infinity). We can see this behavior in the table below.

49
 𝑥𝑥 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 −0.0001 ⟶ 0−
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1/𝑥𝑥 −10 −100 −1000 −10 000 ⟶ −∞

In symbols, we write:
as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 0− , 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ⟶ −∞

As the input values approach zero from the right side (becoming very small, positive values),
the function values increase without bound (approaching infinity), as seen in the table below.

𝑥𝑥 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 ⟶ 0+

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1/𝑥𝑥 10 100 1000 10 000 ⟶∞

In arrow notation, we write:

as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 0+ , 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ⟶ ∞

We can also use similar tables to show that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ⟶ ∞ as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ ±∞. Thus, the graph of 𝑓𝑓 is
shown in the figure below.

In this example/discission, we used the following arrow notation.

Symbol Meaning
𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 0− 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎 from the left. In this case, 𝑎𝑎 = 0
𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 0+ 𝑥𝑥 approaches 𝑎𝑎 from the right. In this case, 𝑎𝑎 = 0
𝑥𝑥 ⟶ −∞ 𝑥𝑥 goes to negative infinity; that is, 𝑥𝑥 decreases without bound
𝑥𝑥 ⟶ −∞ 𝑥𝑥 goes to infinity; that is, 𝑥𝑥 increases without bound

From the figure above, the line 𝑥𝑥 = 0 is called a vertical asymptote, and the line 𝑦𝑦 = 0 is a
horizontal asymptote.

50
Informally speaking, an asymptote of a function is a line to which the graph of the function gets
closer and closer as one travels along that line.

𝟏𝟏
Transformations of 𝒇𝒇(𝒙𝒙) =
𝒙𝒙

A rational function of the form

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑
can be graphed by shifting, stretching, and/or reflecting the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1/𝑥𝑥, using the
transformations studied earlier. To graph these slightly complicated rational functions, we
need to take a closer look at the behavior of these functions near the vertical and horizontal
asymptotes. Generally, there are three possible types of asymptotes:
1) Vertical asymptote (a vertical line with the equation 𝑥𝑥 = #).
2) Horizontal asymptote (a horizontal line with the equation 𝑦𝑦 = #).
3) Oblique asymptote (a slant line with the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏).

 Vertical Asymptotes

A rational function has vertical asymptotes where the function is undefined, that is, where the
denominator is zero.

Example 1.23 Finding the Vertical Asymptotes

Determine the domain, and vertical asymptotes (VA), or hole discontinuities for:
5𝑥𝑥
1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥−6

Solution:
5𝑥𝑥 5𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = =
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6 (𝑥𝑥 − 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

No hole discontinuity
VA at 𝑥𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥𝑥 = −2
Domain: {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ≠ −2, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3}. You may alternatively write this in interval notation.

𝑥𝑥+3
2. ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 −9

Solution:
𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑥𝑥 + 3 1
ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = 2
= =
𝑥𝑥 − 9 (𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) 𝑥𝑥 − 3

51
Hole at 𝑥𝑥 = −3 because it disappeared.
VA at 𝑥𝑥 = 3
Domain: {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ≠ −3, 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3}

 Horizontal Asymptotes

We are now concerned with the end behaviour of a rational function. That is, given a rational
function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)/𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥), we want to know how 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) behaves as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ ±∞. Now, since 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)
and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) are both polynomials, they have an order (degree). Therefore, the horizontal
asymptote is determined by the leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator since
after dividing each term by the highest power of 𝑥𝑥, all other terms will approach zero as
𝑥𝑥 ⟶ ±∞. Below is a summary of the procedure for finding the horizontal asymptotes.

Let 𝑓𝑓 be the rational function given by:

𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥) 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = =
𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏0

The graph of 𝑓𝑓 has one or no horizontal asymptote determined by comparing the degrees of
𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥) and 𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥). We must consider three possible situations regarding their degrees:
i) If 𝑛𝑛 < 𝑚𝑚, the graph of 𝑓𝑓 has the line 𝑦𝑦 = 0 (the 𝑥𝑥-axis) as a horizontal asymptote.
ii) If 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚, the graph of 𝑓𝑓 has the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 /𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 (ratio of the leading coefficients) as a
horizontal asymptote.
iii) If 𝑛𝑛 > 𝑚𝑚, the graph of 𝑓𝑓 has no horizontal asymptote.

Example 1.24 Finding the Horizontal Asymptotes

Determine the horizontal asymptotes (HA) for:

𝑥𝑥 2 −5𝑥𝑥+6
1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 5 +5

Solution:

HA: 𝑦𝑦 = 0

2𝑥𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑥+1
2. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
3𝑥𝑥 2 +4𝑥𝑥−5

Solution:

HA: 𝑦𝑦 = 2⁄3

52
 3𝑥𝑥−4𝑥𝑥 5
3. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥5 +2𝑥𝑥−1

Solution:

HA: 𝑦𝑦 = − 4⁄5

𝑥𝑥 3 −2
4. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 +1

Solution:

No horizontal asymptote.

 Slant or Oblique Asymptotes

These occur when the degree on the numerator is exactly one greater than the degree of the
denominator. That is, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)/𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) is a rational function in which the degree of the
numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator, we can use the Division Algorithm
to express the function in the form
𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 +
𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥)
where the degree of 𝑅𝑅 is less than the degree of 𝐷𝐷 and 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0. This means that as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ ±∞,
𝑅𝑅(𝑥𝑥)/𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) ⟶ 0, so for large values of |𝑥𝑥|, the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) approaches the graph of the
line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏. In this situation, we say that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 is a slant (or an oblique) asymptote.

Example 1.25 Finding the Equation of the Slant Asymptote

Determine the slant asymptote for:

3𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+1
1. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−1

Solution:
3𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+1
To find the equation of the slant asymptote, we divide . The quotient 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 and the
𝑥𝑥−1

remainder is 2. Therefore, the slant asymptote is the graph of the line 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 1.

𝑥𝑥 2 −4𝑥𝑥−5
2. 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−3

Solution:
𝑥𝑥 2 −4𝑥𝑥−5
To find the equation of the slant asymptote, we divide . The quotient 𝑥𝑥 − 1 and the
𝑥𝑥−3

remainder is −8. Therefore, the slant asymptote is the graph of the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1.

53
1.7.4.3 Using Transformations to Graph Rational Functions

Example 1.26 Using Transformations to Graph Rational Functions

NUMBER 1: common factors in numerator and denominator

Before discussing the asymptotes, let us look at what happens when there is a common factor
in the numerator and denominator. Generally, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑥𝑥)/𝐷𝐷(𝑥𝑥) and if 𝑁𝑁 and 𝐷𝐷 do have a
factor in common, then we may cancel that factor, but only for those values of 𝑥𝑥 for which that
factor is not zero (since division by zero is not defined). Since 𝑓𝑓 is not defined at those values
of 𝑥𝑥, its graph has a “hole or removable discontinuity” at those points. For example, let us
graph the following functions:

𝑥𝑥−3
1.1 𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑥

Solution:

We factor the numerator and denominator:

𝑥𝑥−3 𝑥𝑥−3 1
𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 −3𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥−3) = 𝑥𝑥 for 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 3

Therefore, 𝑠𝑠 has the same graph as the rational function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1/𝑥𝑥 but with a “hole” when 𝑥𝑥
is 3, as shown in the figure below.

𝑥𝑥 3 −2𝑥𝑥 2
1.2 𝑡𝑡(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥−2

Solution:

We factor the numerator and denominator:

𝑥𝑥 3 −2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 (𝑥𝑥−2)
𝑡𝑡(𝑥𝑥) = = = 𝑥𝑥 2 for 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 2
𝑥𝑥−2 𝑥𝑥−2

Therefore, the graph of 𝑡𝑡 is the same as the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 but with a “hole” when 𝑥𝑥 is 2,
as shown in the figure below.

54
Consequently, look out for any hole discontinuity when plotting rational functions.

NUMBER 2: degree of the numerator less than that of the denominator

2
2.1 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−3

Solution:
VA: 𝑥𝑥 = 3
HA: 𝑦𝑦 = 0 (no vertical shift) and an<bm
Xint: N/A
Yint: 𝑦𝑦 = −2/3

10
2.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
5𝑥𝑥+2

Solution:

The graph will be drawn in class.

NUMBER 3: degree of the numerator equal to that of the denominator

3𝑥𝑥+5 1
3.1 ℎ(𝑥𝑥) = =3−
𝑥𝑥+2 𝑥𝑥+2

Solution:

VA: 𝑥𝑥 = −2
HA: 𝑦𝑦 = 3 (there is a vertical shift) and an/bm=3
Xint: 𝑥𝑥 = −5/3
Yint: 𝑦𝑦 = 5/2

55
 𝑥𝑥 2 −1
3.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥−3

Solution:

We factor the numerator and denominator, find the intercepts and asymptotes, and sketch
the graph, as follows:

(𝑥𝑥+1)(𝑥𝑥−1)
Factor: 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥+1)(𝑥𝑥−3)

Notice that 𝑥𝑥 + 1 is a common factor to the numerator and the denominator. The zero of this
factor, 𝑥𝑥 = −1, is the location of the hole. Also notice that 𝑥𝑥 − 3 is not a factor in both the
numerator and denominator. The zero of this factor, 𝑥𝑥 = 3, is the vertical asymptote.

2𝑥𝑥 2 +7𝑥𝑥−4
3.3 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−2

Solution:

We factor the numerator and denominator, find the intercepts and asymptotes, and sketch
the graph, as follows:
(2𝑥𝑥−1)(𝑥𝑥+4)
Factor: 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥−1)(𝑥𝑥+2)

1
x-Intercepts: The 𝑥𝑥-intercepts are the zeros of the numerator, 𝑥𝑥 = and 𝑥𝑥 = −4.
2

56
y-Intercept: 𝑓𝑓(0) = 2
2
HA: 𝑦𝑦 = = 2
1

VA: 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥𝑥 = −2.

Behavior near vertical asymptotes: we need to know whether 𝑦𝑦 → ∞ or 𝑦𝑦 → −∞ on each

side of each vertical asymptote. To determine the sign of 𝑦𝑦 for 𝑥𝑥-values near the vertical
asymptotes, we use test values. For instance, as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 1− , we use a test value close to and to
the left of 1 (𝑥𝑥 = 0.9, say) to check whether 𝑦𝑦 is positive or negative to the left of 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

(2(0.9)−1)�(0.9)+4� (+)(+)
𝑦𝑦 = whose sign is (−)(+)
(negative)
�(0.9)−1��(0.9)+2�

So 𝑦𝑦 → −∞ as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 1− . On the other hand, as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 1+ , we use a test value close to and to

the right of 1 (𝑥𝑥 = 1.1, say) to get:

(2(1.1)−1)�(1.1)+4� (+)(+)
𝑦𝑦 = whose sign is (+)(+)
(positive)
�(1.1)−1��(1.1)+2�

So 𝑦𝑦 → ∞ as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 1+ . The other entries in the following table are calculated similarly.

Graph: we use the information we have found to sketch the graph as shown below.

57
NUMBER 4: degree of the numerator greater than that of the denominator

𝑥𝑥 2 −4𝑥𝑥−5
4.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−3

Solution:

(𝑥𝑥+1)(𝑥𝑥−5)
Factor: 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥−3

x-Intercepts: 𝑥𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥𝑥 = 5
5
y-Intercept: 𝑓𝑓(0) =
3

VA: 𝑥𝑥 = 3

Behavior near vertical asymptote: 𝑦𝑦 → ∞ as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 3− and 𝑦𝑦 → −∞ as 𝑥𝑥 ⟶ 3+

HA: None since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator.

Slant asymptote: Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the
denominator, the function has a slant asymptote. Dividing, we obtain:
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 5 8
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 −
𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

Thus, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 is the slant asymptote.

Graph: We use the information we have found to sketch the graph as shown below.

𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥
4.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥+1

Solution:

Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator, the
function has a slant asymptote.
𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 +
𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1

The graph will be drawn in class.

58
 ACTIVITY 6

1. A baseball is hit at a point 3 meters above the ground at a velocity of 100 meters per
second and at an angle of 45° with respect to the ground. The path of the baseball is
given by the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −0.0032𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 3, where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is the height of the baseball
(in meters) and 𝑥𝑥 is the horizontal distance from home plate (in meters).
1.1 What is the maximum height reached by the baseball? [81.125 m]

2. A rock is thrown upward from the top of a 124 meters cliff overlooking the ocean at a
speed of 82 meters per second. The rock’s height above ocean can be modeled by the
equation 𝐻𝐻(𝑡𝑡) = −16𝑡𝑡 2 + 82𝑡𝑡 + 124.
2.1 When does the rock reach the maximum height? [2.563 seconds]
2.2 What is the maximum height of the rock? [229.063 m]
2.3 When does the rock hit the ocean? [6.35 seconds]

3. A rocket is fired vertically and travelled according to the equation ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = −2𝑡𝑡 2 + 4𝑡𝑡 +
16, where ℎ is the height (in metres) and 𝑡𝑡 is the time (in seconds).
3.1 Re-write ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = −2𝑡𝑡 2 + 4𝑡𝑡 + 16 in the form ℎ(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑝𝑝)2 + 𝑞𝑞.
3.2 What is the possible maximum height the rocket can reach? [18 m]

4. Determine the end behavior of the following polynomials.

4.1 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 10
4.2 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = −2𝑥𝑥 4 + 5𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 7
4.3 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 5 − 8
4.4 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)3 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)2

5. For the following, use long division to divide. Specify the quotient and the remainder.
3𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥−5
5.1
𝑥𝑥+2
9𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥+5
5.2
3𝑥𝑥 2 −7𝑥𝑥
6𝑥𝑥 3 +2𝑥𝑥 2 +22𝑥𝑥
5.3
2𝑥𝑥 2 +5
2𝑥𝑥 4 −𝑥𝑥 3 +9𝑥𝑥 2
5.4 𝑥𝑥 2 +4
2𝑥𝑥 5 −7𝑥𝑥 4 −13
5.5
4𝑥𝑥 2 −6𝑥𝑥+8

59
6. For the following exercises, use synthetic division to find the quotient.
9𝑥𝑥 3 −𝑥𝑥+2
6.1
3𝑥𝑥−1
𝑥𝑥 4 −16
6.2
𝑥𝑥+2
2𝑥𝑥 3 +3𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+1
6.3 1
𝑥𝑥−
2

−6𝑥𝑥 3 +𝑥𝑥 2 −4
6.4
2𝑥𝑥−3
6𝑥𝑥 4 +10𝑥𝑥 3 +5𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑥𝑥+1
6.5 2
𝑥𝑥+
3

7. For the following exercises, find the asymptotes and intercepts of the functions, where
applicable. Use that information to sketch a graph.
2
7.1 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
5𝑥𝑥+2
3𝑥𝑥
7.2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−5
4−2𝑥𝑥
7.3 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
3𝑥𝑥−1
𝑥𝑥 2 −25
7.4 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 3 −6𝑥𝑥 2 +5𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 2 −𝑥𝑥−6
7.5 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 −4
3𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+1
7.6 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥−1
4𝑥𝑥+2
7.7 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) =
𝑥𝑥 2 +4𝑥𝑥−5

60