UNIVERSITY OF BUEA

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERING 1

by
Dr DJOB Roger

in the
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
EEF and CEF 200

November 2024
Contents

List of Figures iii

List of Tables iv

1 Electric Force and Electric Field 2

1.1 Electric Force: Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Electric Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Point Charge in E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Dipole in E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Electric Flux and Gauss’Law 16

2.1 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Gauss’Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 Infinite line of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Infinite sheet of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Uniformly charged sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Isolated conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Conductor with a charge inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.3 Charge sprayed on a conductor sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.4 Conductor sphere with hole inside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.5 A long hollow cylindrical conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.6 Large sheets of charge: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Electric Potential 27
3.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Work done by an electric force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.2 Example: Moving charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.3 Potential Energy of A System of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.1 DEFINITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.3.2 Potential For A System of Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.3 Potential of an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.4 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . 31

i
Contents ii

3.3.4.1 Uniformly-charged ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.3.4.2 Uniformly-charged disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.1 To get V from E-field vector: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4.2 To get E-field vector from V: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4 Ohm’s Law and Resistance 38

4.1 Electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.1 Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.2 Drift Velocity and current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.3 Conductivity and resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Resistivity and resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2.1 Definition of resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2.2 Types of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 OHM’S LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.1 Statement of Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.2 Vector form of Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.3 Ohm’s law Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.4 Applications of Ohm’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.4 ENERGY IN CURRENT: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5 Mechanics of a single particle 46

5.1 Kinematics of a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1.2 Constant acceleration on a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1.3 Constant acceleration in three dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.2 Newtonian mechanics of a single Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.1 Newton’s laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2.2 Frames of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.3 Conservation Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.3.1 Conservation of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2.3.2 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
List of Figures

1.1 An electric dipole. (Direction of d⃗ from negative to positive charge) . . . . 6

1.2 E-field due to an infinite sheet of charge, charge density = σ . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Some electric field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Deflection produced by E-field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
q
3.1 Examples of equipotential surfaces. (a): V = 4πε0 r and (b): V = V0 − 2εσ0 |z| 37

iii
List of Tables

iv
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 1

Course content

Objectives

Develop the capacity to apply Physics principles to electrical engineering problems.

Content

1. Mechanics:

• Mechanics of a single particle

• Mechamics of Rigid Bodies
• Statics of single particles and rigid bodies

2. Electricity

• Electric Force and Electric Field

• Electric Flux and Gauss’Law
• Electric Potential
• Ohm’s Law and Resistance

Outcome

At the end of this course, students will be able to:

• Explain the operation of many electrical systems in terms of the Physical principles
governing their behaviour.

• Explain the behaviour of many semiconductor devices in terms of the physical

principles used in designing them.
Chapter 1

Electric Force and Electric Field

1.1 Electric Force: Coulomb’s law

The repulsive or attractive interaction between any two charged bodies is called an
electric force. A body which possess charge is called charged body. But this charge
may be either positive or negative. Depending upon the nature of charge, a charged
body may be classified as follow : positively Charged Body : A body with more number
of proton is known as positively charged body.

• positively Charged Body : A body with more number of proton is known as

positively charged body;

• negatively Charged Body : A body with more number of electron is known as

negatively charged body.

Statement of Coulomb’s law:

The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is directly proportional
to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. It acts along the line joining the two charges considered to be point
charges.
Real life example of Coulomb’s law is the comb and small pieces of paper. When a
comb is rubbed against the hair, it gets charged. This charged comb can attract small
pieces of paper that have opposite charges. Mixing substances in the water also follow
Coulomb’s law.

2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 3

SYSTEM WITH TWO CHARGES:

The electric force between two charges q1 and q2 can be described by Coulomb’s Law.

1 q1 q2
F⃗12 = 2 r̂12 (1.1)
4πε0 r12

F⃗12 = Force on q1 exerted by q2

⃗
r12
r̂12 = r12 is the unit vector which locates particle 1 relative to particle 2.
i.e ⃗r12 = r̂1 − r̂2

• q1 , q2 are electric charges in units of Coulomb(C)

• Charge is quantized. Recall 1 electron carries 1.602 × 10−19 C

• ε0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2

• Like any force, the magnitude of the electric force is expressed in Newtons (N)

(1) q1 , q2 can be either positive or negative.

(2) If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then the force experienced by q1 is in direction away from
q2 , that is, repulsive.
(3) Force on q2 exerted by q1 :

1 q1 q2
F⃗21 = 2 r̂21 (1.2)
4πε0 r21

BUT:
r21 =r12 =distance between charges q1 and q2
⃗r21 = −⃗r12 , hence:
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 4

F⃗21 =−F⃗12 Newton’s 3rd law.

SYSTEM WITH MANY CHARGES:

The total force experienced by charge q1 is the vector sum of the forces on q1 exerted
by other charges.
F⃗1 = F⃗1,2 + F⃗1,3 + ... + F⃗1,N (1.3)

Principle of superposition
N
X
F⃗1 = F⃗1,j (1.4)
2

1.2 The Electric Field

While we need two charges to quantify the electric force, we define the electric field for
any single charge distribution to describe its elect on other charges.
Total force F⃗ = F⃗1 + F⃗2 + ... + F⃗N
The electric field is defined as
F⃗ ⃗
lim =E (1.5)
q0 →0 q0

(a) E-field due to a single charge qi :

From the definitions of Coulomb’s Law, the force experienced at location of q0 (point P)

1 q0 qi
F⃗0i = 2 r̂0i (1.6)
4πε0 r12
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 5

where r̂0i is the unit vector along the direction from charge qi to q0 ,
r̂0i = Unit vector from charge qi to point P = r̂i (radial unit vector from qi )
Recall E⃗ = limq →0 F⃗ E-field due to qi at point P:
0 q0

⃗i = 1 qi
E r̂i (1.7)
4πε0 ri2
where ⃗ri = Vector pointing from qi to point P, thus
r̂i = Unit vector pointing from qi to point P
Note:
(1) E-field is a vector.
(2) Direction of E-field depends on both position of P and sign of qi .
(3) Positive charge produce centrifugal E-field whereas negative charge pro-
duce centripetal E-field.
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 6

(b) E-field due to system of charges: Principle of Superposition:

In a system with N charges, the total E-field due to all charges is the vector sum of
E-field due to individual charges.

N N
⃗ =
X
⃗i = 1 X qi
E E r̂i (1.8)
1
4πε0
1
ri2

(c) Electric Dipole

Electric Dipole is a system of equal and opposite charges separated by a distance d.

Figure 1.1: An electric dipole. (Direction of d⃗ from negative to positive charge)

Electric Dipole Moment reads

p⃗ = q d⃗ = qddˆ
(1.9)
p = qd

Example: E-field due to dipole along x-axis.

Consider point P at distance x along the perpendicular axis of the dipole

p:
⃗ =E
E ⃗+ + E
⃗− (1.10)
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 7

where E⃗ + is the E-field due to +q and E

⃗ − is the E-field due to -q
Notice: Horizontal E-field components of E ⃗ + and E ⃗ − cancel out. Net E-field points

along the axis opposite to the dipole moment vector.

Magnitude of E-field = 2E+ cos θ

1 q
E = 2( ) cos θ (1.11)
4πε0 r2
q
d/2
But: r = ( d2 )2 + x2 and cos = r

1 p
E=2 d
(1.12)
4πε0 (( 2 )2 + x2 )3/2

p = qd
Special case: When x ≫ d
(( d2 )2 + x2 )3/2 = x3 [1 + ( 2x
d 2 3/2
) ]

• Binomial Approximation: (1 + y)n ≈ 1 + ny if y ≪ 1

1 p 1
E-field of dipole ≃ 4πε0 x3 ∼ x3

• Compare with 1
r2
E-field for single charge

• Result also valid for point P along any axis with respect to dipole
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 8

1.3 Continuous Charge Distribution

E-field at point P due to dq:

⃗ = 1 dq
dE r̂ (1.13)
4πε0 r2
E-field due to charge distribution:
Z Z
⃗ = ⃗ = 1 dq
E dE r̂ (1.14)
volume volume 4πε0 r2

(1) In many cases, we can take advantage of the symmetry of the system to simplify the
integral.
(2) To write down the small charge element dq
1-D dq = λds, λ = linear charge density, ds = small length element
2-D dq = σdA, σ = surface charge density, dA = small area element
3-D dq = ρdV , ρ = volume charge density, dV = small volume element

Example1: Uniform line of charge

charge per unit length = λ

(1) Symmetry considered: The E-field from +z and -z directions cancel along z-direction.
Only horizontal E-field components need to be considered.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = λdz. Horizontal E-field at point P due
to element dz equals

⃗ cos θ = dEz cos θ = 1 λdz

d|E| cos θ (1.15)
4πε0 r2

E-field due to entire line charge at point P

Z L Z L
2 1 λdz 2 λ dz
E= cos θ = 2 cos θ (1.16)
−L 4πε0 r2 0 4πε0 r2
2

To calculate this integral:

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 9

• First, notice that x is fixed, but z, r, θ all varies.

• Change of variable (from z to θ)

(1) z = x tan θ ⇒ dz = x sec2 θdθ
x = r cos θ ⇒ r2 = x2 sec2 θ
(2) When z = 0 , θ = 00
L/2
z = L/2, θ = θ0 where tan θ0 = x

θ0 θ0
λ x sec2 θdθ
Z Z
λ 1 λ 1
E=2 2 2
cos θ = 2 dθ cos θ = 2 sin θ0
0 4πε0 x sec θ 4πε0 x 0 4πε0 x

1 λL
E= q (1.17)
4πε0 x x2 + ( L )2
2

along x-direction

Important limiting cases:

1 λL
1. x ≫ L : E ≃ 4πε0 x2
But λL = Total charge on rod.
System behave like a point charge
1 λL λ
2. L ≫ x : E ≃ 4πε0 x L = 2πε0 x
2
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITELY LONG LINE OF CHARGE

Example 2: Ring of Charge

E-field at a height z above a ring of charge of radius R

′
(1) Symmetry considered: For every charge element dq considered, there exists dq where
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 10

⃗ field components cancel. ⇒ Overall E-field lies along z-direction.

the horizontal E
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = λds where λ is the linear charge density
and ds circular length element dq = λRdΦ, where Φ is the angle measured on the ring

plane
Net E-field along z-axis due to dq:

1 dq
dE = cos θ (1.18)
4πε0 r2

Total E-field Z Z 2π
1 λRdΦ z
E= dE = cos θ (cos θ = ) (1.19)
4πε0 0 r2 r
Note: Here in this case, θ, R and r are fixed as Φ varies! BUT we want to convert r, θ
to R, z. Z 2π
1 λRz
E= dΦ
4πε0 r3 0
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 11

Z
1 λ(2πR)z Q z
E= dE = 3/2
= (1.20)
2 2
4πε0 (z + R ) 4πε0 (z + R2 )3/2
2

along z-axis
BUT: Q=λ(2πR) = total charge on the ring

Example 3: E-field from a disk of surface charge density σ

We find the E-field of a disk by integrating concentric rings of charges. Total charge of

ring dq = σ(2πrdr)
2πrdr: area of the ring
1 zdq
Recall from Example 2: E-field from ring: dE = 4πε0 (z 2 +R2 )3/2

R R
2πσrdr · z
Z Z Z
1 1 rdr
E= dE = 3/2
= 2πσz (1.21)
4πε0 0
2 2
(z + r ) 4πε0 0 (z 2 + r2 )3/2

• Change of variable: u = z 2 + r2 ⇒ (z 2 + r2 )3/2 = u3/2

du = 2rdr ⇒ rdr = 12 du

• Change of integration limit:

r = 0 , u = z2
r = R , u = z 2 + R2
1
R z 2 +R2 1
E = 4πε 2πσz 2

−3/2
0
Rz −3/22
u du BUT: u du = −2u−1/2
Thus:
σ z
E= [1 − 2 ] (1.22)
2ε0 (z + R2 )1/2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 12

VERY IMPORTANT LIMITING CASE:

If R ≫ z, that is if we have an infinite sheet of charge with charge density σ:

σ z σ z
E= [1 − 2 2 1/2
]≈ [1 − ]
2ε0 (z + R ) 2ε0 R

σ
E≈ (1.23)
2ε0
E-field is normal to the charged surface

Figure 1.2: E-field due to an infinite sheet of charge, charge density = σ

1.4 Electric Field Lines

To visualize the electric field, we can use a graphical tool called the electric field lines.

Figure 1.3: Some electric field lines

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 13

Conventions:

1. The start on positive charges and end on negative charges.

2. Direction of E-field at any point is given by tangent of E-field line.
3. Magnitude of E-field at any point is proportional to number of E-field lines per unit
area perpendicular to the lines.

1.5 Point Charge in E-field

⃗ the force experienced by the charge is

When we place a charge q in an E-field E,
F⃗ = q E
⃗ = m⃗a
Applications: Ink-jet printer, TV cathoderay tube.
Example: Ink particle has mass m, charge q (q < 0 here). Assume that mass of inkdrop

Figure 1.4: Deflection produced by E-field

is small, what’s the deflection y of the charge?

Solution: First, the charge carried by the inkdrop is negative, i.e. q < 0.
Note: q E⃗ points in opposite direction of E.
⃗
Horizontal motion: Net force = 0

L = vt (1.24)

⃗ ≫ |m⃗g |,
Vertical motion: |q E|
q is negative, Net force =-qE = ma (Newton’s 2nd Law)

qE
a=− (1.25)
m
Vertical distance travelled:
1
y = at2 (1.26)
2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 14

1.6 Dipole in E-field

Consider the force exerted on the dipole in an external E-field:

Assumption: E-field from dipole doesn’t affect the external E-field.

• Dipole moment: p⃗ = q d⃗

• Force due to the E-field on +q and −q charges are equal and opposite in direction.
Total external force on dipole = 0.
BUT: There is an external torque on the center of the dipole.

Reminder: Force F⃗ exerts at point P. The force exerts a torque ⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗ on point P

with respect to point O.

Direction of the torque vector ⃗τ is determined from the right-hand rule.

Net torque τ

• direction: clockwise torque

• magnitude: τ = t+q + t−q = F d2 sin θ + F d2 sin θ = pE sin θ

⃗
τ = p⃗ × E
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 15

Energy Consideration:

When the dipole p⃗ rotates of dθ, the E-field does work.

Work done by external E-field on the dipole:

dW = −τ dθ (1.27)

Negative sign here because torque by E-field acts to decrease θ.

BUT: Because E-field is a conservative force field, we can define a potential energy (U)
for the system, so that
dU = −dW (1.28)

For the dipole in external E-field:

dU = −dW = pE sin θdθ (1.29)

Z Z
U (θ) = dU = pE sin θdθ = −pE cos θ + U0 (1.30)

set U (θ = 90) = 0,
0 = −pE cos 90 + U0 ⇒ U0 = 0
Potential energy:
U = −pE cos θ = −⃗ ⃗
p·E (1.31)
Chapter 2

Electric Flux and Gauss’Law

2.1 Electric Flux

Graphically: Electric flux represents the number of E-field lines crossing a surface.
⃗ is perpendicular to the area A. For non-uniform E-field
Reminder: Vector of the area A

⃗ is not uniform. dA
and surface, direction of the area vector A ⃗ = Area vector for small
area element dA
Electric flux
⃗ · dA
dΦE = E ⃗ (2.1)

⃗ through surface S:
Electric flux of E
Z
ΦE = ⃗ · dA
E ⃗ (2.2)
S

16
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 17

R
S= Surface integral over surface S = Integration of integral over all area elements on
surface S

⃗ = 1 −2q 1 q
E 2
r̂ = − r̂
4πε0 R 2πε0 R2
⃗ = dAr̂
For a hemisphere, dA
Z Z
q q q
ΦE = − 2
r̂ · (dAr̂) = − 2
dA = −
S 2πε0 R 2πε0R S ε0

⃗ goes from inside to outside of closed surface S.

Recall: Direction of area vector dA
Electric flux over closed surface S:
I
ΦE = ⃗ · dA
E ⃗ (2.3)
S
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 18

ΦE = Surface integral over closed surface S

Example: Electric flux of charge q over closed spherical surface of radius R.

⃗ = 1 q 1 q
E 2
r̂ = r̂
4πε0 r 4πε0 R2

at the surface
Again, dA⃗ = dA⃗r
Z Z
q q
ΦE = 2
r̂ · (dA⃗r) = dA
S 4πε0 R 4πε0 R2 S

Total surface area of S = 4πR2

q
ΦE =
ε0
IMPORTANT POINT: If we remove the spherical symmetry of closed surface S, the
total number of E-field lines crossing the surface remains the same.
The electric flux ΦE

I I
ΦE = ⃗ · dA
E ⃗= E ⃗= q
⃗ · dA (2.4)
S S′ ε0
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 19

2.2 Gauss’Law

Satement of Gauss’Law

Gauss’s law for electricity states that the electric flux ΦE across any closed surface is
proportional to the net electric charge qencl enclosed by the surface;
I
ΦE = E ⃗ = qencl
⃗ · dA (2.5)
S ε0

for any closed surface S

And qencl is the net electric charge enclosed in closed surface S.

• Gauss’Law is valid for all charge distributions and all closed surfaces. (Gaussian
surfaces)

• Coulomb’s Law can be derived from Gauss’Law.

• For system with high order of symmetry, E-field can be easily determined if we
construct Gaussian surfaces with the same symmetry and applies Gauss’Law

2.3 E-field Calculation with Gauss’Law

2.3.1 Infinite line of charge

Linear charge density: λ

Cylindrical symmetry.
E-field directs radially outward from the rod.
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 20

Construct a Gaussian surface S in the shape of a cylinder, making up of a curved surface

S1 , and the top and bottom circles S2 , S3 . Gauss’Law:
I
⃗ = T otal
⃗ · dA
E
charge
=
λL
S ε0 ε0
I Z Z Z
⃗ · dA
E ⃗= ⃗ · dA
E ⃗+ ⃗ · dA
E ⃗+ ⃗ · dA
E ⃗
S S1 S2 S3

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ · dA
⃗=0
R R
S2 E · dA = S3 E
Z
λL
E dA =
S1 ε0
R
knowing that S1 dA = 2πrL, finally we find

λ
E=
2πrε0

2.3.2 Infinite sheet of charge

Uniform surface charge density: σ

Planar symmetry.
E-field directs perpendicular to the sheet of charge.
Construct Gaussian surface S in the shape of a cylinder (pill box) of cross-sectional area
A.
Gauss’Law: I
⃗ ⃗= Aσ
E dA
S ε0
Z
⃗
E ⃗=0 E
dA ⃗ ⊥ dA
⃗ over whole surfaceS1
S1
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 21

Z Z
E dA + E dA = 2EA
S2 S3

⃗ A⃗2 and E∥d

E∥d ⃗ A⃗3
Note:
⃗ and dA
For S2 , both E ⃗ 2 point up
⃗ and dA
For S3 , both E ⃗ 3 point down

Aσ σ
2EA = ⇒E=
ε0 2ε0

2.3.3 Uniformly charged sphere

Total charge = Q
Spherical symmetry.

(a) Gauss’Law: I
⃗= Q
⃗ · dA
E
S ε0
I
Q
E dA =
S ε0
surface area of S = 4πr2
Q
E=
4πε0 r2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 22

q volume enclosed by S’
(b) Q = Total volume of S
4
q πr3 r3
= 43 3 ⇒ q = 3 Q
Q 3 πR
R
Gauss’Law: I 3
⃗ = q = Qr
⃗ · dA
E
S ε0 ε0 R 3
surface area of S ′ = 4πr2
Qr
E= f or r≤R
4πε0 R3

2.4 Gauss’Law and Conductors

2.4.1 Isolated conductor

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 23

For isolated conductors, charges are free to move until all charges lie outside the surface
of the conductor. Also, the E-field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to its
surface. (Why?)
Consider Gaussian surface S of shape of cylinder:
I
⃗ = σA
⃗ · dA
E
S ε0

BUT Z
⃗ · dA
E ⃗=0 ⃗ ⊥ dA)
(E ⃗
S1
Z
⃗ · dA
E ⃗=0 ⃗ = ⃗0
(E inside conductor)
S3
Z Z
⃗ · dA
E ⃗=E ⃗ ∥ dA)
dA(E ⃗ = EA
S2 S2

σA
Gauss’Law ⇒ EA = ε0
σ
On conductor’s surface E = ε0
BUT, there’s no charge inside conductors.
Inside conductors E = 0 Always!
Notice: Surface charge density on a conductor’s surface is not uniform.

2.4.2 Conductor with a charge inside

Note: This is not an isolated system (because of the charge inside).

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 24

2.4.3 Charge sprayed on a conductor sphere

First, we know that charges all move to the surface of conductors.

(i) For r < R: Consider Gaussian surface S2

Z
⃗ · dA
E ⃗=0 no charge inside
S2

⇒E=0 everywhere

(ii) For r > R: Consider Gaussian surface S1 :

Z Z
⃗ · dA
⃗=E Q
E dA =
S1 S1 ε0

Q
⇒E=
4πε0 r2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 25

2.4.4 Conductor sphere with hole inside

Consider Gaussian surface S1 : Total charge included = 0

E-field= 0 inside
The E-field is identical to the case of a solid conductor!!

2.4.5 A long hollow cylindrical conductor

Inside hollow cylinder ( +2q ): inner radius a outer radius b

Outside hollow cylinder ( -3q ): inner radius c outer radius d
Question: Find the charge on each surface of the conductor.
For the inside hollow cylinder, charges distribute only on the surface.
Inner radius a, charge = 0 and outer radius b, charge = +2q
For the outside hollow cylinder, charges do not distribute only on outside.
It’s not an isolated system. (There are charges inside!)
Consider Gaussian surface S ′ inside the conductor: E-field always = 0
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 26

Need charge -2q on radius c surface to balance the charge of inner cylinder.
So charge on radius d surface = -q. (Why?)

2.4.6 Large sheets of charge:

Total charge Q on sheet of area A,

Q
Surface charge density σ = A By principle of superposition

Region A: E = 0 (on insulator) E= 0 (on conductor)

Q Q
Region B: E= ε0 A (on insulator) E= ε0 A (on conductor)
Region C: E = 0 (on insulator) E = 0 (on conductor)
Chapter 3

Electric Potential

3.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces

The electric potential (also called the electric field potential, potential drop, the elec-
trostatic potential) is defined as the amount of work energy needed per unit of electric
charge to move this charge from a reference point to the specific point in an electric
field. More precisely, it is the energy per unit charge for a test charge that is so small
that the disturbance of the field under consideration is negligible. Hence, in this chapter
we will first describe the work done (energy) by an electric force. From this state the
potential energy and derive the expression of the electric

3.2 Work done by an electric force

Electric force is a conservative force. Work done by the electric force F⃗ as a charge

moves an infinitesimal distance d⃗s along Path A = dW

Note: d⃗s is in the tangent direction of the curve of Path A.

dW = F⃗ · d⃗s (3.1)

Total work done W by force F⃗ in moving the particle from Point 1 to Point 2
Z 2
W = F⃗ · d⃗s (3.2)
1

R2
1 = Path Integral= Integration over Path A from Point 1 to Point 2.

27
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 28

3.2.1 Convention

We define potential energy U such that

Z Z 2
dU = −W = − F⃗ · d⃗s (3.3)
1

For particle moving from 1 to 2

Z 2 Z 2
dU = U2 − U1 = − F⃗ · d⃗s (3.4)
1 1

where U1 , U2 are potential energy at position 1, 2.

3.2.2 Example: Moving charge

Suppose charge q2 moves from point 1 to 2. From definition:

Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
1 q1 q2
U2 − U1 = − F⃗ · d⃗r = − F dr = − dr
1 1 1 4πε0 r2
Z 2
q1 q2 1 q1 q2 1 1
−∆W = ∆U = 2
dr = ( − )
4πε0 1 r 4πε0 r2 r1
Note:
(1) This result is generally true for 2-D or 3-D motion.
(2) If q2 moves away from q1 , then r2 > r1 , we have

• If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then ∆U < 0, ∆W > 0 (∆W = Work done by electric
repulsive force)

• If q1 , q2 are of different sign, then ∆U > 0, ∆W < 0 (∆W = Work done by

electric attractive force)

(3) If q2 moves towards q1 , then r2 < r1 , we have

• If q1 , q2 are of same sign, then ∆U > 0, ∆W < 0

• If q1 , q2 are of different sign, then ∆U < 0, ∆W > 0

(4) Note: It is the difference in potential energy that is important.

Note: By definition, the electric potential at the reference point is zero units. Typically,
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 29

the reference point is earth or a point at infinity, although any point can be used.
REFERENCE POINT: U (r = ∞) = 0

q1 q2 1 1
U (r2 = ∞) − U 1 = ( − )
4πε0 ∞ r1
q1 q2
U (r) = (3.5)
4πε0 r
If q1 , q2 same sign, then U(r)¿ 0 for all r
If q1 , q2 opposite signs, then U(r)¡ 0 for all r
(5) Conservation of Mechanical Energy: For a system of charges with no external force,

E = K + U = Constant

where U is the potential energy and K the Kinetic Energy

∆E = ∆K + ∆U = 0 (3.6)

3.2.3 Potential Energy of A System of Charges

Example: P.E. of 3 charges q1 , q2 , q3

Start: q1 , q2 , q3 all at r = ∞,U=0
Step1: Move q1 from ∞ to its position ⇒ U = 0
q1 q2
Step2: Move q2 from ∞ to new position ⇒ U = 4πε0 r12 , r12 being the distance between
the two charges
1 q1 q2 q1 q3 q3 q2
Step3: Move q3 from ∞ to new position ⇒ Total P.E. U = 4πε0 ( r12 + r13 + r23 )
Step4: What if there are 4 charges?

3.3 Electric Potential

Consider a charge q at center, we consider its effect on test charge q0

3.3.1 DEFINITION

We define electric potential V so that

∆U ∆W
∆V = =− (3.7)
q0 q0

(∆V is the P.E. per unit charge)

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 30

• Similarly, we take V(r =∞) = 0

• Electric Potential is a scalar

• Unit: Volt(V) = Joules/Coulomb

1 q
• For a single point charge: V(r) = 4πε0 r

• Energy Unit: ∆U = q∆V

electron-Volt(eV) = 1.6 × 10−19 J

3.3.2 Potential For A System of Charges

For a total of N point charges, the potential V at any point P can be derived from the
principle of superposition.
1 q1
Recall that potential due to q1 at point P: V1 = 4πε0 r1
Total potential at point P due to N charges:

V =V1 + V2 + + VN (principle of superposition)

1 q1 q2 qN
V = ( + + ... + )
4πε0 r1 r2 rN
N
1 X qi
V = (3.8)
4πε0 ri
i=1

⃗ F⃗ , we have a sum of vectors

Note: For E,
For V,U, we have a sum of scalars
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 31

3.3.3 Potential of an electric dipole

d
Consider the potential of point P at distance x > 2 from dipole.

1 +q −q
V = [ + ]
4πε0 x − d2 x + d2

Special Limiting Case: x ≫ d

1 1 1 1 d
d
= d
≃ [1 ∓ ]
x± 2
x 1 ± 2x x 2x

1 q d d p
V = [1 + − (1 − )] = (Recall p = qd) (3.9)
4πε0 x 2x 2x 4πε0 x2
1
For a point charge E ∝ r2
, V ∝ 1r
1
For a dipole E ∝ r3
, V ∝ r12
1
For a quadrupole E ∝ r4
, V ∝ r13

3.3.4 Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distribution

Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 32

For any charge distribution, we write the electrical potential dV due to infinitesimal
charge dq:
1 dq
dV = (3.10)
4πε0 r
Z
1 dq
V = (3.11)
charge distribution 4πε0 r
Similar to the previous examples on E-field, for the case of uniform charge distribution:
1-D ⇒ long rod ⇒ dq = λdx
2-D ⇒ charge sheet ⇒ dq = σdA
3-D ⇒ uniformly charged body ⇒ dq = ρdV

3.3.4.1 Uniformly-charged ring

Length of the infinitesimal ring element = ds = Rdθ

charge dq = λds = λRdθ

1 dq 1 λRdθ
dV = = √
4πε0 r 4πε0 R2 + z 2

The integration is around the entire ring.

Z Z 2π Z 2π
1 λRdθ 1 λR
V = dV = √ = √ dθ
ring 0 4πε0 R2 + z 2 4πε0 R2 + z 2 0

Total charge on the ring = λ(2πR)

1 Q
V = √
4πε0 R + z 2
2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 33

Q
LIMITING CASE: z ≫ R ⇒ V = 4πε0 |z|

3.3.4.2 Uniformly-charged disk

Using the principle of superposition, we will find the potential of a disk of uniform charge
density by integrating the potential of concentric rings.
Z Z 2π
1 dq
V = dV =
disk 0 4πε0 r

Ring of radius x: dq = σdA = σ(2πxdx)

R R
d(x2 + z 2 )
Z Z Z
1 σ(2πxdx) σ σ p 2
V = dV = √ = √ dx = ( R + z 2 − |z|)
disk 0 4πε0 x + z
2 2 4ε0 0 x2 + z 2 2ε0

Limiting Case:

1. If |z| ≫ R
p R2 1 R2
R2 + z 2 = |z|(1 + 2 )1/2 ≃ |z|(1 + )
z 2 z2
At large z,
σ R2 Q
V ≃ = (like a point charge)
2ε0 2|z| 4πε0 |z|
where Q = total charge on disk = σπR2

2. If |z| ≪ R
p z2 1 z2
R2 + z 2 = R(1 + 2 )1/2 ≃ R(1 + )
R 2 R2
σ z2
V ≃ (R − |z| − )
2ε0 2R
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 34

σR
At z = 0,V = 2ε0 ; Let’s call this V0

σ z2 σR |z| z2
V (z) = (R − |z| + 2 ) = (1 − − )
2ε0 R 2ε0 R 2R2

The key here is that it is the difference between potentials of two points that is
important.
⇒ A convenience reference point to compare in this example is the potential of
the charged disk.
The important quantity here is

|z| z2
V (z) − V0 = − V0 − V0
R 2R2

Since z ≪ R, V (z) − V0 is approximated as

|z|
V (z) − V0 = − V0
R

3.4 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Poten-

tial V

3.4.1 To get V from E-field vector:

Recall our definition of the potential V:

∆U ∆W12
∆V = =− (3.12)
q0 q0
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 35

where ∆U is the change in P.E.; W12 is the work done in bringing charge q0 from point
1 to 2. R2
1 F⃗ · d⃗s
∆V = V2 − V1 = −
q0

However, the definition of E-field: F⃗ = q0 E

⃗

Z 2
∆V = V2 − V1 = − ⃗ · d⃗s
E
1

Note: The integral on the right hand side of the above can be calculated along any path
from point 1 to 2. (Path-Independent)
Convention: V∞ = 0 Z P
VP = − ⃗ · d⃗s
E (3.13)
∞

3.4.2 To get E-field vector from V:

Again, use the definition of V:

∆U = q0 ∆V = −W

W is the work done.

⃗ s
However, W = q0 E∆⃗
W = q0 Es ∆s

where Es is the E-field component along the path ∆s.

q0 ∆V = −q0 Es ∆s (3.14)

∆V
Es = − (3.15)
∆s
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 36

For infinitesimal ∆s,

dV
Es = − (3.16)
ds
Note:
(1) Therefore the E-field component along any direction is the negative derivative of the
potential along the same direction.
⃗ then ∆V = 0
(2) If d⃗s ⊥ E,
⃗
(3) ∆V is biggest/smallest if d⃗s ∥ E
Generally, for a potential V(x,y,z), the relation between E(x,y,z) and V is

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − Ey = − Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂
∂x , ∂y , ∂z are partial derivatives
∂
For ∂x V (x, y, z), everything y, z are treated like a constant and we only take derivative
with respect to x.
Example: If V (x, y, z) = x2 y − z
∂V
∂x = 2xy
∂V
∂y = x2
∂V
∂z = −1
Example: Uniformly charged disk
σ
√
From potential calculations: V (z) = 2ε0 ( R2 + z 2 − |z|) for a point along the z-axis
For z > 0, |z| = z
∂V σ z
Ez = − =− [1 − √ ]
∂z 2ε0 R + z2
2

Example: Uniform electric field (e.g. Uniformly charged +ve and −ve plates)
Consider a path going from the −ve plate to the +ve plate
Potential at point P, VP can be deduced from definition. i.e.
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 37

Z s
VP − V− = − ⃗ · d⃗s (V− = P otential
E of − ve plate)
0
Z s Z s
VP − V− = − (−Eds) = E ds = Es
0 0

⃗ d⃗s pointing opposite directions

E,
Convenient reference: V− = 0
VP = Es (3.17)

3.5 Equipotential Surfaces

Equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential is constant.

⇒ ∆V = 0

q
Figure 3.1: Examples of equipotential surfaces. (a): V = 4πε0 r and (b): V =
V0 − 2εσ0 |z|
Chapter 4

Ohm’s Law and Resistance

4.1 Electric current

Electric current is defined as the flow of electric charge through a cross-sectional area.

dQ
i= (4.1)
dt

Unit: Ampere (A) = C/second

4.1.1 Convention

(1) Direction of current is the direction of flow of positive charge.

(2) Current is NOT a vector, but the current density is a vector.
⃗j = charge flow per unit time per unit area
Z
i= ⃗
⃗j · dA (4.2)

4.1.2 Drift Velocity and current density

Consider a current i flowing through a cross-sectional area A. In time ∆t, total charges
passing through segment:
∆Q = qA(Vd ∆t)n (4.3)

where q is charge of the current carrier, n is density of charge carrier per unit volume
Current:
dQ
= nqAvd
dt

38
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 39

Current Density:
⃗j = nq v⃗d (4.4)

Note : For metal, the charge carriers are the free electrons inside.

⃗j = −nev⃗d (4.5)

for metals
Inside metals, ⃗j and v⃗d are in opposite directions.

4.1.3 Conductivity and resistivity

We define a general property, conductivity (σ), of a material as:

⃗
⃗j = σ E (4.6)

Note : In general, σ is NOT a constant number, but rather a function of position and
applied E-field. A more commonly used property, resistivity (ρ), is defined as

1
ρ= (4.7)
σ

⃗ = ρ⃗j
E (4.8)

Unit of ρ : Ohm-meter (Ωm) where Ohm (Ω) = Volt/Ampere

4.2 Resistivity and resistance

Ohmic materials have resistivity that are independent of the applied electric field. i.e.
metals (in not too high E-field)
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 40

4.2.1 Definition of resistivity

The resistivity is the resistance of a conductor with 1m length and 1m2 area. The
resistivity of a conductor is dependent on the nature of its material and certain external
factors, such as heat. Example : Consider a resistor (ohmic material) of length L and
cross-sectional area A. Electric field inside conductor:

Z
∆V = ⃗ · d⃗s = EL ⇒ E = ∆V
E
L

i
Current density: j = A
E ∆V 1 ∆V A
ρ= = =
j L i/A i L
ρL
R= (4.9)
A
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
Note: ∆V = iR is NOT a statement of Ohm’s Law. It’s just a definition for resistance.
Note: For some materials, resistivity is a linear function of temperature

ρ = ρ0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] (4.10)
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 41

where α is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity, T0 is a fixed reference temper-

ature (usually room temperature), and ρ0 is the resistivity at temperature T0 .

4.2.2 Types of Resistors

In addition to internal resistance within conductors, we can also place resistors in a

circuit. Two main categories of resistors are fixed and variable. Fixed resistors have
an essentially constant value of resistance. Variable resistors have an adjustable value
of resistance. Variable resistors can be used to adjust voltage (in which case they are
called potentiometers) or to adjust current (in which case they are called rheostats).

Resistor Color Coding

Resistors usually have 4, 5 or 6 color bands.

4 color bands:
Band 1: First Digit
Band 2: Second Digit
Band 3: Multiplier (i.e., number of zeros after second digit)
Band 4: Tolerance
5 color bands:
Band 1: First Digit
Band 2: Second Digit
Band 3: Third Digit
Band 4: Multiplier
Band 5: Tolerance
6 color bands:
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 42

Band 1: First Digit

Band 2: Second Digit
Band 3: Third Digit
Band 4: Multiplier
Band 5: Tolerance
Band 6: Temperature coefficient
Note that if there is no fourth band, the tolerance is ±20%.

4.3 OHM’S LAW

4.3.1 Statement of Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Therefore, V = RI
where R is a constant called resistance. R depends on the dimensions of the
conductor and also on the material of the conductor. Its SI unit is Ohm (Ω).
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 43

4.3.2 Vector form of Ohm’s law

The vector form of Ohm’s law is used in electromagnetics and material science. The
vector form is given as,
⃗
⃗j = σ E (4.11)

⃗ the electric field.

Where, σ is the conductivity, ⃗j the current density vector and E
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.

4.3.3 Ohm’s law Limitations

There are some limitations to Ohm’s law. They are as follows:

• Ohm’s law is an empirical law which is found true for maximum experiments but
not for all.

• Some materials are non-ohmic under a weak electric field.

• Ohm’s law holds true only for a conductor at a constant temperature. Resistivity
changes with temperature.
Joules heat is given by H = RI 2 t where I is current, R is resistance and t is time.
As long as the current flows, greater will be the temperature of the conductor.

• Ohm’s law is not applicable to in-network circuits.

• Ohm’s law does not apply directly to capacitor circuits and inductor circuits.

• The V-I characteristics of diodes are different.

Note: V-I graph of ohmic conductors is not really a straight graph. It does show some
variation.
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 44

4.3.4 Applications of Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is very useful and has several applications. A few are listed below:

• It is widely used in circuit analysis.

• It is used in ammeter, multimeter, etc.

• It is used to design resistors.

• It is used to get the desired circuit drop in circuit design.

• Advanced laws such as Kirchhoff’s Norton’s law, Thevenin’s law are based on
Ohm’s law.

• Electric heaters, kettles and other types of equipment working principle follow
Ohm’s law.

• A laptop and mobile charger using DC power supply in operation and working
principle of DC power supply depend on Ohm’s law.

Ohm’s law also has many other uses as well.

4.4 ENERGY IN CURRENT:

Assuming a charge ∆Q enters with potential V1 and leaves with potential V2 . Potential
energy lost in the wire:

∆U = ∆QV2 − ∆QV1 = ∆Q(V2 − V1 )

Rate of energy lost per unit time

∆U ∆Q
= (V2 − V1 )
∆t ∆t
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 45

Joule’s heating
P = i∆V = power dissipated in conductor

For a resistor R,
(∆V )2
P = i2 R =
R
Chapter 5

Mechanics of a single particle

5.1 Kinematics of a particle

Kinematics is the study of particle motion without reference to mass or force. In some
ways, studying kinematics is rather artificial: in almost all realistic situations, the motion
would have been produced by forces and the problem can only be solved by investigating
the equations of motion appropriate to the forces acting. The study of motion produced
by forces is called Dynamics. Note that we deal with particles, which, by definition, are
point-like; they can have mass (though that is not needed in kinematics) but they have
no internal structure, so they cannot, for example, spin.

5.1.1 Notation

Motion on a line

In one (spatial) dimension, the variables are time, position or distance or displacement
from a fixed point, speed or velocity, and acceleration. We make a distinction between
speed and velocity even in one dimension: velocity may be positive or negative, cor-
responding to the particle moving (say) to the right or left; speed is the magnitude of
velocity and is therefore always positive or zero. Acceleration can also be either positive
or negative. We denote time by t, position by x, velocity by u or v and acceleration by
a. Sometimes, displacement from the original position of the particle is denoted by s.
We might write, for example, x(t) to emphasise that x is a function of time. Velocity,
by definition, is rate of change of position, so

dx
v= = ẋ (5.1)
dt

46
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 47

The overdot always denotes differentiation with respect to time. Acceleration, by defi-
nition, is rate of change of velocity, so

dv d2 x
a= = v̇ = 2 = ẍ (5.2)
dt dt

Motion in space

In two or three dimensions, time is still t, and the other variables are vector quantities.
We denote position by ⃗r, or sometimes x; we might write ⃗r(t) to emphasise that the
position is a function of time. Velocity is denoted by ⃗u or ⃗v and acceleration by ⃗a, both
vector quantities having magnitude and direction (of course).
With respect to an origin and in standard Cartesian axes, we write
 
x
 
⃗r = y 

 (5.3)
z

or, to save space, just (x,y,z). Velocity, by definition, is rate of change of position, so
 
ẋ
d⃗r
= ⃗r˙ = 
 
⃗v = ẏ 
 (5.4)
dt
ż

This last equality (equivalence), obvious though it seems, actually needs proving. Is
differentiating a vector the same as differentiating its components? The answer is yes,
provided that the axes are fixed (for example, provided you are not in a train accelerating
or going round a bend). Speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector |⃗v |, which is non-
negative. As in one dimension, acceleration is rate of change of velocity, so
 
ẍ
d⃗v d2⃗r
= ⃗v˙ = ⃗r¨ = 2 = 
 
⃗a = ÿ 
 (5.5)
dt dt
z̈

5.1.2 Constant acceleration on a line

We can obtain standard results for constant acceleration by (as is often the case) writing
down the definitions and integrating the resulting differential equations. We have ẍ = a,
where a is constant, so integrating once gives

ẋ = v = at + u (5.6)
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 48

where u is a constant of integration corresponding to the velocity at t = 0. Integrating

again gives
1
x = at2 + ut + x0 (5.7)
2
where x0 is a constant of integration corresponding to the position at t = 0. Sometimes,
this is written as
1
s = at2 + ut (5.8)
2
where s is displacement from the initial position. It is worth checking dimensions at
each stage as a quality control check. The dimension of s is length (L), the dimension
of u is L/T and the dimension of a is L/T 2 ; substituting these into this last equation
reveals it is dimensionally consistent. Equation 5.7 gives distance as a function of time.
We can find distance as a function of velocity by using 5.6 to eliminate time from 5.7:

v−u 1 v−u 2 v−u

t= ⇒ s = a( ) + u( ) (5.9)
a 2 a a

which simplifies to
2as = v 2 − u2 (5.10)

We will see later that this formula relates the change in kinetic energy to the work
done by the accelerating force. This formula could have been obtained directly from the
equations of motion by means of the following very important idea. Essentially, it is a
method of changing variable in the differential equation itself using the chain rule rather
than changing variable in the solution

dv dx dv dv
= =v (5.11)
dt dt dx dx

so
dv dv 1 2
=a ⇒ v =a ⇒ (v − u2 ) = a(x − x0 ) = as (5.12)
dt dx 2
The three formulae 5.6, 5.8 and 5.10 provide everything you need for constant accelera-
tion problems.

5.1.3 Constant acceleration in three dimensions

We can integrate the vector equations for constant acceleration more or less as we did
in the one dimensional case. We have

ẍ = a (5.13)

so
ẋ = at + u (5.14)
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 49

gives
1
x = at2 + ut + x0 (5.15)
2
where x0 is the position at t = 0. There is no easy formula corresponding to 5.10.

5.2 Newtonian mechanics of a single Particle

5.2.1 Newton’s laws

Newton’s laws are usually simply stated as:

1. A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a force.

2. A body acted upon by a force moves in such a manner that the time rate of change
of the momentum equals the force.

3. If two bodies exert forces on each other, these forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

The First law is meaningless without the concept of force, but conveys a precise meaning
for the concept of zero force.
The Second law is very explicit: Force is the time rate of change of the momentum. But
what is the momentum p⃗
p⃗ = m⃗v (5.16)

with m the mass, and ⃗v the velocity of the particle. We, therefore, re-write the Second
law as
d⃗
p d
F⃗ = = (m⃗v ) (5.17)
dt dt
However, we still don’t have a definition for the concept of mass. This is made clear
with the Third law, which can be rewritten as follows to incorporate the appropriate
definition of mass:
If two bodies constitute an ideal, isolated system, then the accelerations of these bodies
are always in opposite direction, and the ratio of the magnitudes of the accelerations is
constant. This constant ratio is the inverse ratio of the masses of the bodies.
If we have two isolated bodies, 1 and 2, then the Third law states that

F⃗2 = −F⃗1 (5.18)

and from the Second law, we have

dp⃗2 dp⃗1
=− (5.19)
dt dt
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 50

Hence
d
(p⃗1 + p⃗2 ) = ⃗0 (5.20)
dt
Incidentally, we can use equation 5.19 to provide a different interpretation of Newton’s
Second Law
p⃗1 + p⃗2 = constant (5.21)

The momentum is conserved in the interaction of two isolated particles. This is a special
case of the conservation of linear momentum.
One should note that the third law is not a general law of nature. It applies when
dealing with central forces (e.g., gravitation (in the non-relativistic limit), electrostatic,
etc.), but not necessarily to other types of forces (e.g., velocity-dependent forces such as
between to moving electric charges).

5.2.2 Frames of reference

A reference frame is called an inertial frame if Newton’s laws are valid in that frame.
More precisely,

• If a body subject to no external forces moves in a straight line with constant

velocity, or remains at rest in a reference frame, then this frame is inertial.

• If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference frame, they are also valid in any other
reference frame in uniform motion (or not accelerated) with respect to the first
one.

The last point can be expressed mathematically like this. If the position of a free particle
of mass m is represented by ⃗r in a first inertial frame, and that a second frame is moving
at a constant velocity V⃗2 relative to the first frame, then we can write the position r⃗′ of
the particle in the second frame by

r⃗′ = ⃗r + V⃗2 t (5.22)

The particle’s velocity v⃗′ in that same frame is

d d⃗r ⃗
v⃗′ = (⃗r + V⃗2 t) = ⃗2 ,
+ V2 = ⃗v + V (5.23)
dt dt

where ⃗v is the velocity of the particle in the first frame. Similarly, we can calculate the
particle’s acceleration in the second frame (⃗a′ ) as a function of its acceleration (⃗a) in the
first one
dv⃗′ d ⃗2 ) = d⃗v = ⃗a,
a⃗′ = = (⃗v + V (5.24)
dt dt dt
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 51

We conclude that the second reference frame is inertial since Newton’s laws are still
valid in it (F⃗ ′ = m⃗a′ = m⃗a). This result is called Galilean invariance, or the principle
of Newtonian relativity.
Newton’s equations do not describe the motion of bodies in non-inertial reference frame
(e.g., rotating frames). That is to say, in such frames Newton’s second law, or the
equation of motion, does not have the simple form F⃗ = m⃗a.

5.2.3 Conservation Theorems

We now derive three conservation theorems that are consequences of Newton’s laws of
dynamics.

Conservation of linear momentum

This theorem was derived above for the case of two interacting isolated particles (see
equations 5.20 and 5.21). We now re-write it more generally from Newton’s second law
(equation 5.17) for cases where no forces are acting on a (free) particle.

p⃗˙ = ⃗0, (5.25)

where p⃗˙ is the time derivative of p⃗, the linear momentum. Note that equation 5.25 is
a vector equation, and, therefore, applies for each component of the linear momentum.
In cases where a force is applied in a well-defined direction, a component of the linear
momentum vector may be conserved while another is not. For example, if we consider
a constant vector ⃗s such that F⃗ · ⃗s = 0 (the force F⃗ is in a direction perpendicular to s),
then
p⃗˙ · ⃗s = F⃗ · ⃗s = 0 (5.26)

If we integrate with respect to time, we find

p⃗ · ⃗s = constant (5.27)

Equation 5.27 states that the component of linear momentum in a direction in which
the forces vanishes is constant in time.
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 52

5.2.3.1 Conservation of angular momentum

⃗ of a particle with respect to an origin from which its position

The angular momentum L
vector ⃗r is being measured is given by

⃗ = ⃗r × p⃗
L (5.28)

⃗ with respect to the same origin is given by

The torque or moment of force N

⃗ = ⃗r × F⃗
N (5.29)

where the force F⃗ is being applied at the position ⃗r. Because the force is the time
derivative of the linear momentum, we can write

⃗
⃗˙ = dL = d (⃗r × p⃗) = ⃗r˙ × p⃗ + ⃗r × p⃗˙
L (5.30)
dt dt

but ⃗r˙ × p⃗ = ⃗0, since ⃗r˙ = ⃗v and p⃗ = m⃗v . We, therefore, find that

⃗˙ = ⃗r × p⃗˙ = N
L ⃗ (5.31)

It follows that the angular momentum vector L ⃗˙ = ⃗0) if no

⃗ will be constant in time ( L
⃗ = ⃗0). That is, the angular momentum of a
torques are applied to the particle (N
particle subject to no torque is conserved.

5.2.3.2 Conservation of energy

If we consider the resultant of all forces (i.e., the total force) applied F⃗ to a particle
of mass m between two points 1 and 2, we define the work done by this force on the
particle by Z 2
W12 = ⃗
F⃗ · dr (5.32)
1

We can rewrite the integrand as

⃗ 2
⃗ = m d⃗v · dr dt = m d⃗v · ⃗v dt = m d⃗v = d ( m ⃗v 2 )
F⃗ · dr (5.33)
dt dt dt 2 dt dt 2

Since equation 5.32 is an exact differential, we can integrate equation 5.33 and find the
work done on the particle by the total force

1 1
W12 = [ mv 2 ]21 = m(v22 − v12 ) = T2 − T1 (5.34)
2 2
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 53

1 2
where T = 2 mv is the kinetic energy of the particle. The particle has done work
when W12 < 0.
Similarly, we can also define the potential energy of a particle as the work required, from
the force F⃗ , to transport the particle from point 1 to point 2 when there is no change
in its kinetic energy. We call this type of forces conservative (e.g., gravity). That is
Z 2
⃗ = U1 − U2
F⃗ · dr (5.35)
1

Where Ui is the potential energy at point i. The work done in moving the particle is
simply the difference in the potential energy at the two end points. Equation 5.35 can
be expressed differently if we consider F⃗ as being the gradient of the scalar function U
(i.e., the potential energy)
F⃗ = −∇U
⃗ (5.36)

The potential energy is, therefore, defined only within an additive constant. Further-
more, in most systems of interest the potential energy is a function of position and time,
i.e., U = U (⃗r, t), not the velocity ⃗r˙ .
We now define the total energy E of a particle as the sum of its kinetic and potential
energies
E =T +U (5.37)

The total derivative of E is

dE dT dU
= + (5.38)
dt dt dt
⃗ then
Since we know from equation 5.33 that dT = F⃗ · dr,

dT ⃗
dr
= F⃗ · = F⃗ · ⃗r˙ (5.39)
dt dt

On the other hand

dU X ∂U ∂xi ∂U
= + (5.40)
dt ∂xi dt ∂t
i

Inserting equations 5.39 and 5.40 in equation 5.38, we find

dE ⃗ · ⃗r˙ + ∂U = (F⃗ + ∇U
⃗ ) · ⃗r˙ + ∂U = ∂U
= F⃗ · ⃗r˙ + ∇U (5.41)
dt ∂t ∂t ∂t

The last step is justified because we are assuming that F⃗ is a conservative force (i.e.,F⃗ =
⃗ ). Furthermore, for cases where U is not an explicit function of time, we have
−∇U
∂U
∂t = 0 and
dE
=0 (5.42)
dt
Physics for Engineering 1 2024/2025 54

We can now state the energy conservation theorem as: the total energy of a par-
ticle in a conservative field is a constant in time. Finally, we group the three
conservation theorems that we derived from Newton’s equations:

1. The total linear momentum p⃗ of a particle is conserved when the total force on it
is zero.

2. The angular momentum of a particle subject to no torque is constant.

3. The total energy of a particle in a conservative field is a constant in time