GRADE XII – PHYSICS : MUST STUDY

PORTIONS

CHAPTER 1: ELECTRIC CHARGES AND

FIELDS
 Electric Flux 𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆
 Coulomb’s Law
 Gauss’s Law
 Statement
1 𝑞1 𝑞2  Statement
 Equation 𝐹= 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2  Equation 𝜙𝐸 =
𝜀0
 Electric Field
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
 Definition, Direction
1 𝑄
 Electric field due to a charged
 Equation 𝐸= long wire
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
 E= F/q 𝜆
𝐸 = (Derivation)
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 Electric Dipole
 Electric field due to a charged
 Definition
sheet
 Dipole moment 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎 𝜎
𝐸 = (Derivation)
 Electric field due to a dipole along 2𝜀0

its axis  Electric field due a charged Sphere

1 𝑄
 𝐸⃗𝑎 =
1 2𝑝
(Derivation)  Outside 𝐸 = (Derivation)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
1 𝑄
 Electric field due to a dipole along  On the Surface 𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
its equatorial plane (Derivation)
1 𝑝  Inside 𝐸 = 0 (Derivation)
 𝐸⃗𝑒𝑞 = − (Derivation)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
 Torque acting on the dipole
 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 or 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗
(Derivation)
 Charge Densities
𝑄
 Linear Charge Density 𝜆 =
𝑙
𝑄
 Surface Charge Density 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝑄
 Linear Charge Density 𝜌 =
𝑉
 Electric field Lines and its Properties
CHAPTER 2: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL  Parallel 𝑐 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 (Derivation)
AND CAPACITANCE  Energy Stored in Capacitor
𝑄2
 Electrostatic Potential  𝑈 = = 1⁄2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 1⁄2 𝑄𝑉
2𝐶
 Definition (Derivation)
 Potential Due to a point charge  Energy density of Capacitor 𝑢 =
1 𝑄
𝑉= (Derivation) 𝑈
= 1⁄2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 (Derivation)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
 Potential Due to a Dipole
1 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉 = (Derivation)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
 Equi-potential Surface
 Definition, Diagrams
 Properties
 Electrostatic Potential energy
 Definition, 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉
 Potential energy of a system of two
charges
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
 Potential Due to a Dipole
 𝑈 = −𝑝. 𝐸⃗ = −𝑝𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(Derivation)
 Condition for Stable and Unstable
equilibrium
 Capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor
𝜀0 𝐴
 Air filled, 𝐶 = (Derivation)
𝑑
 If Dielectric is placed b/w the plates,
Then
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝐾 (Derivation)
𝑑
 Combination of capacitors
1 1 1
 Series = + (Derivation)
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
CHAPTER 3: CURRENT ELECTRICITY  Variation of Resistivity with
temperature
 Ohm’s Law 𝑚
𝜌 = ( Derivation)
 Statement, Graph 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏

 Equation V= IR
𝜌𝑙
 Resistance 𝑅 =
𝐴
 Current Density , j=I/A
 Ohm’s Law in terms of current
density
 𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸 (Derivation)
 Limitations of Ohms Law-
Statements

 Combination of Resistors
⃗⃗
𝒆𝑬
 Series 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 Drift Velocity, 𝒗
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒅 = − 𝝉 1 1 1
𝒎  Parallel = +
|𝑣𝑑 | 𝑒 𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Mobility, 𝜇 = = 𝜏
𝐸 𝑚  Emf and Internal resistance of Cell
 Current, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑  𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
 𝜀
 𝐼 = 𝑅+𝑟
 𝜀𝑆 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 𝑟𝑆 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝜀𝑝 𝜀1 𝜀 1 1 1
 = + 𝑟2 =𝑟 +𝑟
𝑟𝑝 𝑟1 2 𝑟𝑝 1 2

 Kirchhoff’s Rules
 Statement, Applications in
Numerical
 Wheatstone’s Bridge
 Circuit diagram, Balancing
condition
CHAPTER 4: MOVING CHARGES AND  Total force in combined electric and
MAGNETISM magnetic field, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐸 + 𝐹𝐵 =
𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
 Magnetic Lorentz Force, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞(𝑣 ×
 Force acting on a current carrying
⃗)
𝐵
conductor placed in a magnetic field
 Magnetic force is maximum when
 Magnitude of force, 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
the charge is moving
 Direction of force : Fleming’s Left
perpendicular to the magnetic
hand rule
field
 Biot- Savart Law- Statement
 Magnetic Force is zero when the 𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
charged particle moves along the  Equation 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
magnetic field.  Magnetic field due to a circular loop
 Direction of force is 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝑅2
 Along the axis, 𝐵 = 3
perpendicular to v and B 2(𝑅2 +𝑥 2 )2
 If 𝑣 ⊥ 𝐵, then charge moves in a (Derivation)
circle  At the centre of the loop,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵= 2𝑅
 Ampere’s Circuital Law- Statement
 Equation ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
 Applications: Magnetic field due
to a Straight conductor carrying
 If v has a component along B, then current
𝜇0 𝐼
charge moves in helical Path 𝐵 = (Derivation)
2𝜋𝑟
 Magnetic field due to a solenoid
 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
 Magnetic field due to a Toroid
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟
 Force between Two parallel
conductors
𝜇0 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏 𝑙
 𝐹=
2𝜋𝑑
  Definition of 1 ampere
 Magnetic dipole moment, 𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴
 Torque on a current loop ( Torque
on a magnetic dipole),
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗ =𝒎
𝝉 ⃗ (Derivation)
 Moving Coil Galvanometer
 Principle, Diagram, Working
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵
 Current sensitivity =
𝐼 𝐾
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵
 Voltage sensitivity =
𝑉 𝐾𝑅
 Conversion of galvanometer to
ammeter
 Diagram
𝐼𝑔 𝐺
 Shunt resistance 𝑟𝑠 =
𝐼−𝐼𝑔
 Conversion of galvanometer to
Voltmeter
 Diagram
𝑉
 Resistance 𝑅 = − 𝐺
𝐼
CHAPTER 5: MAGNETISM AND MATTER

 Magnetic field due to a Bar magnet

is similar to that of a solenoid
 Magnetic field along the axis of a
bar magnet(magnetic dipole)  Ferromagnetic material
⃗⃗⃗
𝜇0 2𝑚
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎 =
𝐵  𝜒 ≫ 0, 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1, 𝜇 ≫ 𝜇0
4𝜋 𝑟 3
 Magnetic field along the equatorial  Properties in magnetic field
plane of a bar magnet(magnetic  Domain theory
𝜇 𝑚⃗⃗⃗  Examples: Fe, Co , Ni
dipole) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝑒𝑞 = − 0 3
4𝜋 𝑟  Curie’s Temperature: Above this
 Diamagnetic materials temperature, Ferromagnetic
 𝜒 < 0, 𝜇𝑟 < 1, 𝜇 < 𝜇0 material become Paramagnetic.
 Properties in magnetic field
 Examples: Au, Ag, Hg, Pb, Cu

 Meissner Effect
 Paramagnetic material
 𝜒 > 0, 𝜇𝑟 > 1, 𝜇 > 𝜇0
 Properties in magnetic field
 Examples: Al, Ca, Cr, Li, Mg, Pt
1
 Curie’s Law: Statement, 𝜒 ∝
𝑇
CHAPTER 6: ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

 Electromagnetic Induction:
Definition
𝑑𝜙
 Faraday’s Law: statement, 𝜀 = 𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 Lenz’s Law- Statement, Based on
Law of conservation of energy,
𝑑𝜙
𝜀 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 Motional emf 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
1
 Rotational emf 𝜀 = 𝐵𝜔𝑅 2
2
 Mutual Induction: statement
 Mutual Inductance 𝑀 =
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 (Derivation
 Self Induction: statement
 Self Inductance 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
(Derivation)
1
 Energy Stored 𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼2
2
 AC Generator: Diagram, Principle,
Working
 Induced emf 𝜀 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
 Maximum emf 𝜀0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
CHAPTER 7: ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Average Power in LCR Series circuit
 AC Voltage 𝑣 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜔𝑡
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (Derivation)
 AC Current 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑅
 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 =
 Pure resistor 𝜙 = 0 𝑍

 Pure inductor 𝜙 = −
𝜋  𝐴𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑍 = 𝑅, 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 1
2
𝜋 Maximum power is dissipated in
 Pure Capacitor 𝜙 =
2 a circuit at resonance
 RMS Value of Voltage  Resonance in LCR Series circuit
𝑣0
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =  Definition, Condition, Graph
√2
𝑖0
 RMS Value of Current 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
 Inductive Reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐿𝜔
1
 Capacitive Reactance 𝑋𝐶 =
𝐶𝜔
 Impedance in LCR series Circuit
 Phasor diagram

 Transformer
 Principle, Diagram, Working
𝑉1 𝑛 𝐼
 = 𝑛1 = 𝐼2
𝑉2 2 1
𝑍= √𝑅 2
+ (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2  Power loss in transformer
 Impedance triangle  Flux Leakage
 Resistance of the windings
 Eddy current
 Hysteresis
CHAPTER 8: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 Displacement Current: Situation,

Equation
 Electromagnetic Waves: properties

 Electromagnetic Spectrum: 7 waves,

their range of wavelength and uses.
CHAPTER 9: RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL CHAPTER 10: WAVE OPTICS
INSTRUMENTS
Huygen’s principle
Mirror equation (derivation, Diagram)
Wavefront
Snell’s Law
Reflection and refraction using Huygens’s
Total internal reflection and its principle (Diagram and Derivation)
application
Condition for constructive and destructive
Refraction at a Spherical surface interference

Lens Maker’s formula (derivation, Young’s double slit experiment (Diagram,

Diagram) Graph and equation for fringe width).

Lens equation (derivation, Diagram) Single slit diffraction (Explanation,

Intensity pattern, Expression for central
Refraction through Prism (derivation,
maximum, Condition for maximum and
Diagram, Graph)
minimum)
Magnifying power of Simple microscope
(derivation, Diagram)

Magnifying power of Compound

microscope (derivation, Diagram)

Magnifying power of telescope

(Refracting type and reflecting type)
CHAPTER 11: DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
AND RADIATION

Electron emission

Photo electric effect

Stopping potential, Threshold frequency

Variation of photo current with intensity

(Graph)

Variation of photo current with frequency

(Graph).

Stopping potential Vs frequency graph

Failure of wave theory

Einstein’s Photo electric equation

De-Broglie wave and expression for

wavelength.
 ATOMS
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0
Radius of electron orbit 𝑟𝑛 =
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∝ 𝑛2
𝑒
Orbital Velocity 𝑣𝑛 = =
√4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟𝑛
𝑒2
2𝜀0 𝑛ℎ
1
𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑛

Total Energy of electrons 𝐸𝑛 =

𝑚𝑒 4 13.6 Observations
− =− 𝑒𝑉
8𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0 2 𝑛2 1. Most of the alpha particles pass
1 through the foil without any
Total energy ∝ 𝑛2 deviation. This indicates that most
of the space inside the atom is
empty
2. A very few alpha particles suffered
large angle deflections and some of
them retraced their path (𝜃 =
ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING 1800 ) . This indicates that most of
the mass and entire positive charge
EXPERIMENT
of the atom is located in a small
A beam of alpha particles was allowed to region at the centre of the atom.
fall on a thin foil of gold and the scattered This centre is called nucleus.
alpha particles were observed with the
help of the following arrangement. Rutherford Atom Model
Atoms consists of a central heavy
nucleus containing positive charge and
negatively charged electrons circulating 1. Couldn’t explain the stability of an
around it in circular orbits. atom
2. Couldn’t explain the observed line
Important terms: spectrum of atom.
1. Scattering angle (𝜃): The angle Bohr Atom model
by which alpha particle is
1. An atom consists of central
deviated from its original
positively charged nucleus and
direction. negatively charged electrons revolve
2. Impact parameter (b): The around the nucleus in certain orbits
perpendicular distance of initial called stationary orbits.
velocity of alpha particles from 2. The angular momentum of electrons
the nucleus. Impact parameter in stationary orbits is an integral
ℎ
is inversely proportional to multiple of
2𝜋
scattering angle 𝑳=
𝒏𝒉
This is called Bohr
𝟐𝝅
quantization condition
3. The electron emits radiation
when it de-excite from a higher
energy level to the lower energy
level. The energy of radiation is
equal to the energy difference
between the two levels.
𝒉𝝂 = 𝑬𝒊 − 𝑬𝒇
Trajectory of alpha particles

3. Distance of closest approach: The

smallest distance of approach of
alpha particle near heavy nucleus. Important Derivations
Failures of Rutherford atom model.
Radius of electron orbits:
 The centripetal force is given by 𝑚𝑒 4 𝑚𝑒 4
electrostatic force. 𝐸= +−
8𝜀0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2 4𝜀0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2 𝑚𝑒 4 13.6
= 4𝜋𝜀
𝑟 0 𝑟2 =− =− 2
8𝜀0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑛
𝑒2
Or 𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
0 𝑚𝑣

Bohr quantization condition 𝑳=

𝒏𝒉
𝒎𝒗𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅

𝒏𝒉
𝒗=
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒓

𝑒2 4𝜋2 𝑚2 𝑟 2 𝑒 2
So, 𝑟𝑛 = 2 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 ℎ2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚(
𝒏𝒉
) 0 𝑚𝑛
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒓

2
𝑛2ℎ 𝜀0 Energy Levels and atomic
∴ 𝑟𝑛 = 𝜋𝑚𝑒2 spectra
ℎ2 𝜀0
Bohr radius 𝑟0 = 𝜋𝑚𝑒 2 = 0.529 𝐴0

Energy of electron in nth orbit

1
Kinetic Energy 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 =
1 𝑒2 2 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑚(2𝜀 ) = 8𝜀 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
2 0 𝑛ℎ 0

1 𝑒2
Potential Energy 𝑈𝐸 = =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 𝑒2 𝑚𝑒 4
− =−
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑛2ℎ2𝜀0 4𝜀0 2 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝜋𝑚𝑒2

Total Energy 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑈𝐸
Lyman series
Final level (nf) = 1
Ultraviolet
Balmer series
Final level (nf) = 2
Visible light
Paschen series
Final level (nf) = 3
Infra red
Brackett series
Final level (nf) = 4
Infra red NUCLEI
Pfund series Size and density of Nucleus
Final level (nf) = 5 1
Radius of nucleus 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴
3

Infra red 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 A- mass

Wavelength of the radiation is number
inversely proportional to the energy Density of nucleus is constant
difference between the initial and (Density, 𝜌 = 2.3 × 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
final level.
Atomic number (Z) – Number of
protons
Mass Number (A) – Total number of Binding energy per nucleon (Ebn):
protons and neutrons (Total number 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸𝑏
𝐸𝑏𝑛 = =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴
of nucleons)
Binding energy per nucleon is a
Isotope: Same Z but different A
measure of stability of nucleus
Isobar: Same A but different Z
Binding energy per nucleon Graph
Isotone: Different Z and A but same
number of neutrons
Mass Defect (∆M): The difference in
mass of a nucleus and its
constituents is called the mass
defect.

∆𝑀 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ]
− 𝑀(𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠)
mp- Mass of proton= 1.00727 u
mn- Mass of neutron= 1.00866 u Main features of the graph
1. Ebn is almost constant for
Binding Energy (Eb): Energy 30 < 𝐴 < 170. This indicates
equivalent of mass defect. that nuclear force is short range
force
𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑀𝑐 2 𝑐 =3×
2. Ebn is of the order of MeV. This
108 𝑚/𝑠
indicates that nuclear force is
If ∆𝑴 is in atomic mass unit (u), attractive and very strong.
then 3. Ebn is lower for nuclei with
𝑬𝒃 = ∆𝑴 × 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽 A<30. This indicates that
combining two lighter nuclei to
 form a heavy nucleus will 1
0𝑛 + 235
92𝑈 ⟶ 92𝑈
236

release energy ( Nuclear fusion) ⟶ 144 89

56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟
4. Ebn is lower for nuclei with + 3 10𝑛
A>170. This indicates that The energy released during the
splitting a heavy nucleus into fission of each uranium nucleus
two lighter nuclei will release is around 216 MeV.
energy ( Nuclear fission) The uncontrolled nuclear fission

Nuclear force
1. It is the strongest force which
binds the nucleons inside the
nucleus.
2. It is a short range force
3. It is attractive in nature when
the particles are separated by a
distance more than 0.8 fm. causes chain reaction and it
4. It is repulsive in nature when leads to the explosion. This is
they are closer than 0.8 fm. the working principle of atom
5. Nuclear force is charge bomb.
independent. Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device
Nuclear fission used to initiate and control
The splitting of a heavy nucleus a nuclear fission chain reaction.
into two or more fragments Nuclear reactors are used
with an enormous release of at nuclear power
energy. plants for electricity generation.
Example: fission of Uranium The average number of
( 235 neutrons released in fission of
92𝑈 )
Uranium is 2.5. The average
energy of neutrons produced in 4 11𝐻 + 2𝑒̅
fission is 2 MeV. ⟶ 42𝐻𝑒 + 2𝜈 + 6𝛾
The chain reaction is controlled + 26.7 𝑀𝑒𝑉
by absorbing the extra neutrons
using control rods and slowing
SEMICONDUCTOR
down them using moderators.
The energy released by fission is ELECTRONICS
removed by a coolant and this
heat is used to produce Energy gap ( Band gap energy)
electricity. [Eg]
The difference in energy
Nuclear Fusion between the upper level of
When two light nuclei fuse to valance band and lower level of
form a larger nucleus, energy is conduction band.
released. This process is called Conductor, Semiconductor and
nuclear fusion. Insulator based on energy gap
Very high temperature is
required to start the fusion
reaction as the coulomb
repulsion between them must
be overcome by their thermal
energy. As it occurs at very high Metals
temperature, it is called thermo Insulators
nuclear reaction. Semiconductors
Nuclear fusion occurs in
multiple steps. For metals, the valance band and
Nuclear fusion is the source of conduction bands overlaps and
energy production in stars
Example: Fusion of Hydrogen
 hence the band gap energy is Doping: The process of adding
zero. suitable impurities to a pure
For semiconductors, the band gap semiconductor to increase its
energy is less than 3 eV. conductivity is called doping
For insulators, the band gap
energy is more than 3 eV. Extrinsic semiconductors:
N- Type semiconductor:
Impurity added- 15th group
Intrinsic semiconductor: elements [pentavalent impurity].
They are pure semiconductors. No Example: As, P, Sb.
impurities are added to it. As each impurity atom donates an
Example: Germanium (Eg=0.72 electron to the semiconductor,
eV), Silicon(Eg=1.1 eV) they are called donor.
The electrons from valance band Majority charge carriers-
moves to conduction band by electrons
absorbing thermal energy. Minority charge carriers- holes
Number of holes = number of
electrons
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ
Energy level diagram of n-type
semiconductor
The
donor
energy
level
𝑇 =0𝐾 ED is
𝑇 >0𝐾 slightly
below
the bottom EC of the conduction
band and electrons from this Minority charge carriers-
level move into the conduction electrons
band with very small supply of
energy Energy level diagram of p-type
semiconductor
In N-type semiconductor the
total number of conduction The acceptor energy level EA is
electrons ne is due to the slightly above the top EV of the
electrons contributed by donors valence band. With very small
and those generated intrinsically, supply of energy an electron
while the total number of holes from the valence band can jump
nh is only due to the holes from to the level EA and create a hole
the intrinsic source. in the valance band.

P- Type semiconductor:
Impurity added- 13th group
elements [trivalent impurity].
Example: In. p-n junction Diode
As each impurity atom creates a Two important processes occur
vacancy of electron (hole) to the during the formation
𝒏 𝒉 ≫ 𝒏𝒆 of a p-n
semiconductor, they are called junction: 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 × 𝒏
𝒊 𝒆 𝒉
acceptor.
Majority charge carriers- holes
1. Diffusion: Due to the difference
in concentration, the holes from p
region moves to n and electrons
from n region moves to p. This
process in called diffusion and the
current developed by this is called
diffusion current.[Diffusion
current is due to majority charge The barrier potential prevents the
carriers] further flow of charges across the
2. Drift: Due to the electric field junction.
produced by the immobile
charges at the junction, the holes Semiconductor diode [p-n
from n side moves to p and junction diode]
electrons from p side moves to n.
The current developed due to
drift is called drift current. [Drift
current is due to minority charge Diode in forward bias
carriers] P-side of
At equilibrium drift current= the
diffusion current. So in a p-n diode is
junction under equilibrium there
is no net current.

Depletion layer: the layer formed

at the junction where there are
only immobile ions present.
Barrier potential: The potential
difference developed across the
junction due to immobile ions.
connected to positive of the side is connected to positive of
battery and N- side is connected the battery.
to negative of the battery.

In reverse bias, the width of

depletion region increases and
height of barrier potential
In forward bias, the width of
increases.
depletion region decreases and
Resistance of diode in reverse bias
height of barrier potential
is very high.
decreases.
The current is due to minority
Diode conducts in forward bias
charge carriers and it is of the
when the biasing voltage is more
order of µA
than threshold voltage (0.2 V for
Ge and 0.7 V for Si). V-I characteristics of p-n
Resistance of diode in forward junction diode
bias is very low.
The current is due to majority
charge carriers and it is of the
order of mA

Diode in reverse bias

P-side of the diode is connected
to negative of the battery and N-
 Thus output will be obtained in both
Application of P-N junction diode
as a rectifier
Rectifier: A device that converts
ac to d c.
The process of converting ac to dc
is called rectification
Half wave rectifier
It consists of a single diode. The positive and negative half cycles.
diode become forward bias in
positive half cycle and become
reverse bias in negative half cycle.
Thus the output will be obtained
only for positive half cycle.

Full wave rectifier

It consists of two diodes. During
positive half cycle, Diode D1 becomes
forward biased and conducts
whereas diode D2 becomes reverse
biased. During negative half cycle,
Diode D2 becomes forward biased
and conducts whereas diode D1
becomes reverse biased.
Filter circuit is used to remove the
ripple (ac components from a
rectified output)