mini)

10
UNDERGROUND MINING:
UNSUPPORTED METHODS

10.1 CLASSIFICATIONOF METHODS

Mineral exploitation in which allextraction is carried out beneath the earth's

surface is termed undergyround mining. Underground methods are employed
when the depth of the deposi, the stripping ratio of overburden to ore (or coal
or stone), or both become exCessive)ior surface exploitation. Once èconomic
analysis points to underground methods, the choice of a proper mining
5 T procedure hinges mainly on (1) deterrmining the appropriate form of ground
Support, if necessary, or its absence; and (2) esigning the openings and their
sequence of extraction to conform to the spatial characteristics of the minerai
deposit
Choice of an underground mining method is often closely related to the geology
of the deposit and the degree of ground support necessary to make the methods
productive and safe. Generally, three classes of methods are recognized
unsupported, supported, and caving-- based on the extent of support utilized (see
Table 4.1). The unsupported class, the subject of this chapter, consists of the
methods in which the rock is essentially self-supporting and for which no major
artificialsupport (such as artificially placed pillars or fill) is necessary to carry the
load of the overlying rock. The weight of the overlying rock plus any tectonic orces
1S generally called the superincumbent loud. This load will be too high in many rock
masses, but for the unsupported methods, we assume that the geologic materials
can sustain the load. The definition of unsupported methods does not preclude the
use of roofboltsor light structural supports of timber or steel, provided that such
Support does not alter the load-carrying capacity of the natural rock.
I heoretically, the unsupported class of methods can be used in any type of
hineral deposit (except placers, unless frozen in place) by varying the ratio of

323
 324 UNDERGROUND MINING UNSUPPORTED METHODs

span of opening to the width of pillar. However, on a

practical
ratherbasiqis,cklsuchy.
practice would ordinarily rcach its imit on an economic basis
Hence. the ratio of span to width of pillar is limited to
also result in favorable productivity. The unsupported those values
methods thal wil
are
are still the most widely used underground, accounting for methods,,there•ore
applicable to deposits with favorable characteristics.
These
U.S. subsurlace mineral production.
There is some disagreenent on the best way to
nearly 80%% of
thehowever,
classify

classification, under
emplgoryoundthe
nethods, as discussed in Section 4.8.3. For our purpose, we wil
classification scheme outlined in Table 4.1. In that the
are considered unsupported methods:
fol owing
1. Room-and-pillar mining
2 Stope-and-pillar mining
3. Shrinkage stoping
4. Sublevel stoping

in underground mining, unlike surface mining. there is little

distinction
cycle of operations for the various underground methods (except inincoalthe
mining), the differences occurring in the direction of mining (vertical or
horizontal), the ratio of opening-to-pillar dimensions, and the nature of th
artificial support used, if any. Of the unsupported methods, room-and-pillat
mining and stope-and-pillar mining employ horizontal openings, low opening-
to-pillar ratios, and light-to-moderate support in all openings. Shrinkage and
sublevel stoping utilize vertical or steepiy inclined openings (and gravity for
the flow of bulk materials), high opening-to-pillar ratios, and light support
mainly in the development openings. We now turn to specific descriptions of
the four unsupported methods.

10.2 ROOM-AND-PILLAR MINING

Room-und-pillar mining is a very old metihod applied to horizontal or nearly

horizontal deposits that has been adapted and refined over the years. As
indicated in Table 4.1, the method is widely used in both coal and noncoal
mining. in room-and-pillar mining, openings are driven orthogonally and at
regular intervals in a mineral deposit-forming rectangular or square pillars
rather uniform,
for natural support. When the deposit and method are both checkerboard or the
the appearance of the mine in plan yiew is not unlike a and 9.4,
intersecting strcets and avenues of a çity. As discussed in Sections 9.3
developrnent openings generally called entries) and. production openings
parallel and in
(called rooms) closely resemble each other; both are driven Driving several
multiple, and when connected by crosscuts, pillars are formed.
providing muliple
openings t(onétime jncreases production and efficiency by
 HOCMANO PLAP MINING 325

working places) In addition,faces

it provides for better
ventilation and transportä-
tion roufes at the working
nite yery nature, r00m-and-pillar mining is
of coal, potash, sodium chloride. trona,
idealily suited to the produc
tion
imestone.
deposits that occur in horizontal seams) At the time of the first and any metalic
book in 1987 room-and-pillar mining produced about 85% ofedition of this
mined underground in the Unitcd States. That all the coal
percentage
1998 (Energy Information Administration, 2000) because dropped to 52%in
longwall at the expense of the of the growth of
room-and-pillar method. For other commodities.
m-and-pillar rermains strong, as it is an ideal horizontal mining method that
can be adapted to productive
lavout of a room-and-p1llarpractices
in many
situations.
mine used in the mining of
..chown in Figure 10.]. In this case, a set of fve main bituminous coal
a nroduction panel entries allows access to
through panel
limited to 20 ft (6 m) in w1dth and areentries. The entries in coal mining are
205 m) apart, center to center. Ihe panelgenerally driven 60 to 100 ft (18.3 to
120 m) in width, limited prinar1ly by theitselif is normally 400 to 600 ft (60 to
ttle cars. The length of the panel cable reach capability of electnc
varies, with 2000 to 4000 ft (600 to 1200 m)

MAINS
TO PROPÉRTY NE

PANEL 3

RETREAT
UU
|
-2000-4000
C60-220m)
BLEEDER
ENTRIES

D001
DO
ON
ROOMS
BEEEE BARRIER
PILLAR
80
(24
a)

r40t112 m
-0(Jm)
401 2m,
0006 -20t1m)
|001!!
0011101 PANEL nn
8ARRIER PILLAR

FIGURE 10.1.
(After Stelanko Room-and-pillar
and Bise, 1983. mining, driving rooms on
By permission from the the retreat without plar recovery.
Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO.) Society for Mining, Metallurgy. and
326 UNDERGROUNO NINING UNSUPORTED METHODS

being common. In the cuse of Figure 10.1, note that the panel pillars
mined. This is called pllariny or caviny. The normal practicc in are being
drive the rooms and crosscuts on advance (first mining) and to pillar
(second mining). The caved area then becomes known as the yob.
pil aring
on
is to
retrcat
not removed if the surface must be supported; pillaring is olten
other reasons as well.
Pillars for
are
omitted
Note that in rooM-and-pillar mining of coal and other soft
cOmmon variations are practiced. So-called conrentional miisnerals, two
mining
employing mobile nechanized equipment to carry out the cyclical,
production unit
operations. In underground coal mining, only about 5% of the coal is
in this fashion (Energy Information Administration, 2000). With mined
mining, separate unit operations of drilling. cutting, blasting, continuousare
and loading
replaced by a singie high-performance continuous miner. Approximately 48
of all underground coal in the United States is produccd by continuous
(Energy Information Administration, 2000). Where room-and-pillar mining
mining is
practiced in hard-rock formations, only conventional mining is utilized
cause of the inability of a contiauous miner to cut harder minera! deposits
Productivity in room-and-pillar mining has been interesting to follow. Priar
to the enactment of the Coal Mine Health and Safety Actof 1969,
had risen steadily since World War I. it then declined rather produclivity
(below 200 tons/shift or 180 tonnes,/shift), following which it began precipitously
rising again
Because of better equipment and management, productivity continues ite
upward ascent. Stefanko and Bise (1983) reported that productivity was about
500 tons/shift (460 tonnes/shift) during the last decade before their publication
but today most room-and-pillar mines produce 1000to 2000 tons/shift (900 to
1800 tonnes/shift). In stone and metal mining, productivity also continues to
increase. In thiscase, the improvements are due to better and larger equipment.
more automation. and improved management practices.
Rock mechanics in room-and-pillar mining is another topic of great con
cern. Fortunately, much is known, and excellent tools are available to the
mining engineer to contro! the roof and ribs in this method. Of particular
interest, Stefanko and Bise (1983) and Farmer (1992) provide much in the way
of background on the application of rock mechanics to room-and-pillar
mining.

10.2.1 Sequence of Development

Chapter 9 covered general underground development in some detail. The
procedure for development of Aat-bedded deposits, to which room-and-pillar
mining is applicable, can be found in Sections 9.2 to 9.4. A complete mine
layout with all the major development openings is shown in Figure 9.4.
Additional insights into the process of development can be gaincd fron study
of Figure 10.2.
The plan view shown in Figure 10.2 represents the section entries, room
entries. and rooms associated with a production panel within the mine. The
 327

LEGENO
- PEAMANENT STOPPING CONVEYOR PELT SPr PACK
-BRATTICE OR CHECK CURTAIN
X 0VEACAST
A- AEGULATOR aARRIEA
DIAECTION OP AIR FLOW
PILLAR

PREVIOus PANEL
(GAVED)

SECTION
ENTRIES
8ARR1ER
GO8 PILLAR
(CAVED
AREA)

ROOM ENTRIES

-PILLAR LINE

LOCATION OF NEXT PANEL

ENTRY NUMBE RS

FIGURE 10.2. Room-and-pilar mining system showing ail openings and the section pilar irne

room entries, room, and the associated crosscuts are mined on advance and
the pillars are mined on the retreat. This mining plan is what was once called
the Pittsburgh block section, common when room-and-pillar mining with
electric shuttle cars was practiced in the Pittsburgh seam. This or similar
systems are still utilized using continuous miners. but only ii a longwalI
operation is not feasible. Note also the numbering on the entries in the section
entry set. In coal mining, the entries in any set are numbered from left to righ:
as one looks inby (toward the faces and away from the outside of the mine).
Also note that if someone is looking at the face, that person is looking inby,
but if turned in the opposite direction and facing toward the outside of the
mine, that person is looking outby.

10.2.2 Cycle of Operations

10.2.2.1 Conventional Mining. The cycie of operations in room-and-pillar
mining of coal with conventional equipment is modified from the basic cycle
by insertion of the cutting operation to improve coal breakage during light
blasting. This is accomplished as shown in Figure 10.3. The cui at the bottom
of the face shown in Figure 10.3(a) is the most common. The general
 METOOS
328 UNDERGRQUNO MNING UNSUPpOATED

2"

"2

(C)

4 "3

(c)
numberedin.
AGURE 10.3. Dringand cutting patterms tor coal breakage. Holes are
frina. (a) Undercutting. (b) Center cutting. (c) Undercutung and center shearing. (d) Ton
and center shearing. (Ater Chironis, 1983.Copyrgnt (c) i303, MCGr§w-Hill, Inc., New Yore

production cycle then becomes

Production cycle = cut + drill + blast + load + haul
Several auxiliary operations (roof control, ventilation, and cleanup) must also
be accomplished at the sarme time as these production tasks. To use this
method effectively in coal mining. the mining section must have a multitude of
faces so that the cutting machine operator, the drnller, the blaster, and the
loader can all work on separate faces without undue delays. To accomplish
this, the mining scction may be laid out as shoWn in Figure 10.4, where a
seven-entry development section is illustrated. The numbers represent the
To
sequence of faces that each crew member visits to perform his or her job.
often used to
improve efficiency of the operations, computer simulation is
optimize the system. Note that this method of coal mining is not used much
 34

FIGURE 10.4. Cut sequence of continuous miner in

seven-entry
echelon pattern advances the belt conveyor entry first. (Ater Builock,room-and-ollar
1982
maing The
By pemission from
the Society for Mining. Metallurgy, and Explorabion, Inc.,
Lteton, CO)
330 UNDERGROUND NMINING UNSUEPORTED METHODS

today; only about 45% of U.S. underground coal is

manne.
The use of convenlional mining in noncoal
exploited In this
with many mines using the method in limestone, operations quite is
uranium, lead.
chloride, and other mineral commodities. The basic ZinC,cOmmon,
the same, with no cutting performed. The following operations are sodium
information
typical kinds of equipment used:
comparpriemsarithely
Operation Coal Mining
Noncoal Mining
Cutting Cutting machine Not performed
Drling Drag-bit rotary drill
Permissible explosive
Hydraulic
ANFO percussion drill jumbo
Blasting
Loading Gathering-arm loader Diesel front-end loader
Hauing Shuttle car Diesel truck or LHD

Room-and-pillar practice in noncoal mining iS more variable than in

mining is more often attempted in dipping seams (called pitch coal. The
mining)
also be performed in a coordinated manner in multiple seams. An and may
review of variations and the equipment used can be found in
Bullock and excellent
Mann (1982) and Hustrulid and Bullock (2001).

10.2.2.2 Continuous Mining. Continuous mining is a method

been practiced, primarily in coal, since about 1950. The methodthat hass
simplified cycie of operations, as follows:
Production cycle = mine + haul

As in conventional mining, the auxiliary operations of roof control, ventilation

and cleanup must also be performed. The method depends heavily on the
ruggedness and reliability of the continuous miner. The continuous miper
breaks and loads the coal mechanically and simultaneously eliminates the stenDs
of cutting. blasting, and loading. It is not, however, truly a "continuously"
operating machine. Maintenance, moving from face to face, and waiting for
other production and auxiliary operations contribute to its ineficiency. Al.
though more efñcient than conventional mining, the method is also subjected
to simulation studies to improve its productivity.
Continuous mining is practiced in coal, salt, potash, trona, and other
soft-rock applications. It is not normally effective in mining hard-rock forma
tions. However, if a road header is employed in place of a continuous miner,
the method can be used in harder rocks. The road header is a powerful
continuous miner with a sImaller cutterhead designed to attack tougher
materials. Its capabilities (Copur et al. 1998) allow for additional use of
room-and-pillar mining where the geologic conditions are unsuitable for a
traditional rotating-drum continuous miner.
 Auxiliary Operations. Auxiliary operations in room-and-p1liar
and with all production
10.2.2.3 similar for all mineral commodities
very
mining are The following auxiliary opcrations (listei in
Table 5.12) are
cquipment
gencrally rcquired
coal.
control (cg. methanc drainage in
, Loalth nd sufety strata gas ventilation (lme
control (rock dusting. wa tcr sprays, dust collector),
dust
tubing). nOise abatement
brattice or vent lan and
water trcatment. subsidence
Enuironmental control fHocd protection.
afmosphernc contam1nation
control. remote monitor to sense arch
control scaling of roof. roof control (roof bolts. tumber,
2 Ground
caving
crib. hydraulic jack), controlled service station
suostation, diesel
APower supply and distribution: ciectric
drainage system (ditches. pipe
s Water und flood control: pump station.
lines. sumps)
storage. hotsting. dumping
6 Cleanup und wuste disposal scoop. waste
7. Materiel supply: storage, delivery
parts warchouse
8. Maintenunce und repuir: shop lacil1ties,
equipment-mounted lights
9. Lightiny: stationary lights (where necded).
10. Communications: radio, phone
1L. Construction: haulage, stoppings, overcasts
cages
12. Personnel transport: mantrips, shuttle jeeps,
considered essent:al to safety.
As mentioned earlier, those auxiliary operations
integral part of the production
such as ventilation and roof support, are an
cycle in coal mining.
conditions of a mineral
10.2.2.4 Conditions. The natural and geologc
mining are the ioilow:ng
deposit that are well suited for room-and-pilar
1982: Hamrin. 1982: and
(Boshkov and Wright, 1973: Bullock and Mann,
White, 1992):
not limit the method)
1. Ore strength: weak to hard (generally does
2. Rock strength moderate to strong
3. Deposit shupe: tabular
4. Deposit dip: low (<15), prefer tat
with less than 15it (4.5m)
5. Deposit size: large areal extent, prefer seams
thickness
6. Ore grade: moderate
7. Ore uniformity: fairly unilorm, particularly in thickness coal, < 2000 ft or
8. Depth: shallow to moderate (<i500ft or 450 m or
600 m for noncoal, <3000 ît or 900 un for potasb)
 332 UNDERGAOUND MINNG: UNSUPPORTED METHODS

10.2.2.5 Characteristics. The following advantages and

summarized from more detailed information in Stefanko and B
Bullock and Mann (1982), Hamrin (1982), White (1992), andBise disadvantages(198
Hargrove (1992). Bibb an

Advantages
1. Moderately high productivity:; 3.5 tons (3.2 tonnes) per employee
average for U.S. mines using room-and-pillar continuous mining; hour
(2.6 tonnes) per employee hour is typical for conventional 2.9 ton
pillar mining (Energy Information Administration, 2000). room-and
2. Moderate mining cost (relative cost about 10 to 25%, depending
commodity; average is 20%).
3. Moderately high production rate.
4. Fair to good recovery with pillar extraction (70 to 90%).
5. Low to moderate dilution (0 to 40%).
6. Suitable to mechanization.
7. Concentrated operations (although multiple faces needed to make i
work).
8. Versatile for variety of roof conditions.
9. Ventilation enhanced with multiple openings.

Disadvantages
1. Caving and subsidence occur with pillar recovery.
2. Method inflexible and rigid in layout, not
selective without waste
disposal.
3. Poor recovery (40 to 60%) without pillar extraction.
4. Ground stress and support loads increase with depth.
5. Fairly high capital investment associated with mechanization.
6. Extensive development required in coal because of
7. Potential health and safety hazards exist,
multiple openings.
especially in coal mines.
10.2.2.6 Applications and Variations.
dominantly used in coal mining but finds someRoom-and-pillar mining is pre
use in many other commodities.
Descriptions of the method as used in coal can be
(1983) and Farmer (1992). In noncoal mining, therefound
are a
in Stefanko and Bise
of the room-and-pillar method. Bullock number of variations
and Mann (1982) and Hustrulid and
Bullock (2001) outline its application to a number of
commodities. Other authors outline the use of different mineral
(Suttill, 199la; Walker, 1992), trona (Brown, room-and-pillar
1995), and
mining in zinc
Watters, 1996). gold (Pease and
 ETOPE-aNG-PILLAH teirti92 333

10.3 STOPE-AND-PILLAR MINING

Strikingly similar to room-and-pillar mining, the stope-and-pillar method is the

most widely used of all underground hard-rock mining procedures. Stope-und
pillar mining is the unsupported method in which openings are d:iven horizorn
tally in regular or random pattern to form pillars for ground support. This is
onc of thc large-scale mining methods, accounting for about 50% of US.
underground noncoal production.
The stope-and-pillar mining process is similar to room-and-pillar mining in
several ways. However, most references (Stewart, 1981: Hustrulid, 1982, and
Haycocks, 1992) generally differentiate stope-and-pillar mining if it meets a!
least two of the following qualifications:
1. The pillars are irregularly shaped and sized and either randomly located
or located in low-grade ore.
2. The mineral deposit is < 20 ft (6 m) in thickness, the openings are higher
than they are wide, or a benching or slabbing technique must be utilized
3. The commodity being exploited is a mineral other than coa!. Although
some noncoal deposits are mined by the room-and-pillar method, no coal
deposits are mined by the stope-and-pillar mthod.

It is not surprising that there is confusion between the two methods, in that
they are rather similar. Adding to the confusion is the fact that three other
terms have been used over the years for stope-and-pillar mining: open stoping.
breast stoping, and bord-and-pillar mining. For students of mining engineering,
we suggest that the simplest rule is to use the term room-and-pillar when
referring to coal and stope-and-pillar when referring to noncoal mining. The
only exception would be noncoal mines with a very regular layout of openings
and a single level of mining within the deposit. These would be termed
room-and-pillar mines.
Stope-and-pillar mining has followed a number of mining plans, depending
on the shape and thickness of the deposit, the types of equipment used, and the
need for productivity. Figure 10.5 shows a stope-and-pillar mine using two
benches. The first level of mining is the upper level, which is mined using a
conventional cycle of operations. The first level of mining allows the crew close
inspection of the back for roof control purposes. When the second level of
mining is completed, the roof has been -carefully stabilized, reducing the
possibility of a roof fall from far above.
There are a number of variations of stope-and-pillarmining. In Figure 10.6,
three variations are shown, each utilizing two benches to mine the seam. In
thíck seams where the benches are greater in depth, it is common for the
blastholes to be drilled from above. Putting in vertical holes in this ashion
generally allows for larger-diameter holes and better blasting economics. This
method is shown in Figure 10.6(c). The stope-and-pillar mining method
334 INDERGROUND MI
CUPPORTED METHODS

Benching d tleeparts of ore body Froat bnchg

FIGURE 10.5. Stope-and-pillar mining by benching. Large-scale method for flat deposit using
dril! igs, front-end loaders, and trucks. (After Hamrin, 1982. By permission from the Society for
Mining. Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO.)

provides many faces and method variations. For mining on a pitch, stope-and
pillar mining can be conducted using slushers for stope haulage. However, the
method is lacking in productivity and is avoided unless no other alternatives
exist.
There are several reasons that the anmount of development in stope-and
pillar mining is less than that in room-and-pillar. First, the strict laws requiring
multipie openings do not apply to hard-rock mining unless strata gases are
present. Second. the development openings must often be driven through
barren rock, increasing the cost of development and the desire to avoid
unnecessary openings. Consequently, fewer development openings are driven
and mining on the advance is both common and cost-elfective.
There isless tendency to recover any pillars in stope-and-pillar mining.
There are three reasons for this practice: (1) The pillars are relatively small and
more difficult to recover safely, (2) the pillars are irregular in size and do not
lend themselves to a systematic recovery operation, and (3) caving to the
surface would produce much in the way of damaging subsidence (Morrison
and Russell, 1973; Hamrin, 1982). Partial extraction of pillars (sometimes
 DRILL JUMBO

BROKEN ORE
100

FEET
SCALE
(a)

-DRILL JUMBO
I00

FEET
SCALE
(b.

FIRST PASS
FULL FACE

BENCH

(c)
by stope-and-pillar mining. (a) Breast
FIGURE 10.6. Methods of exploiting thick deposits
stoping foilowed by benching: horizontal
stoping followed by overhand slabbing. (b) Breastpermission from the Society for Mining.
drilling. (After Lucas and Haycocks, 1973. By benching, vertica
stoping followed by
Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO.) (c) Breast
driling (Dravo Corporation, 1974).

some mines, especially i

called pillar robbing or pillar slabbing) is practiced in
support.
the pillars are larger than necessary to provide good
support of the back is very important in
Design of the pillars for proper
pillars will make the task
stope-and-pillar mining. The use of standard-sized followed. However, design
easier, and it is recommended that this practice be
discussion of this topic
of the pillars must be conducted in either case. Further
is beyond the scope of this book. Students may refer to complete discussions
in Jeramic (1987) and Brady and Brown (1993).
336 LNDERGROUND MINING UNSUPPORTED ME THODS

10.3.1 Sequence of Development

The cho1ces of main access openings for stope-and-pillar mining, a
method
resticted to relatively shallow or moderate depths, are sinmilar for those
for
room-and-pillar mines. If the depth is relatively shallow, a belt conveyor ma
be planned and the primary opening may be a slope. For greater depths.
hoist may be used and the primary openings will likely be vertical shafts T
used of diesel-powered equipment may require that a ramp be used instea
Add1t:onal openings associated with the belt slope or ramp may be vertical
shafts in many cases.
Depending on the geometry and attitude of the ore body, secondary
openings are constructed on levels connecting the shaft with the productin
openings. If required by regulations or good mining practice, paralleldrifts and
connecting crosscuts may be driven. If the deposits are discontinuous and
occur on different horizons, then truck haulage and ramps may be selected to
provide maximum fexibility.

10.3.2 Cycle of Operations

Neariy all stope-and-pillar mines use conventional mining practice, with the
production cycle involving:

Production cycle = drill + blast + load + haul

The production equipment used in stope-and-pillar operations is much like

that used for noncoal room-and-pillar mining. Generally, the trend is toward
larger and automated equipment powered with diesel engines. The cycle of
operations consists of the following:

Drilling Hydraulic or pneumatic drill jumbos are heavily favored; rotary

drillrigs can be used in softer rocks.
Blasting Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO), gels, or emulsions;
charging by hand or by pneumatic loader; firing by electric, nonelectric,
or detonating fuse.
Secondary blasting: Drill and blast; impact hammer; drop ball.
Louding: A load-haul-dump (LHD) device and front-end loader are very
common; shovel, overhead mucker, and slusher occasionally used.
Haulage: Truck, LHD, belt conveyor, shuttle car.

Continuous mining equipment is not ordinarily used in stope-and-pillar

operations. When it is necessary to employ continuous miners, the cycle of
operations is essentially identical to that for room-and-pillar mining described
in Section 10.2.2.2. The auxiliary operations that are
performed are also very
 310PE ANO-PILAR MING

Similar to those for room-and-pillar mines. The most important functions are
hcalth and safcty (dust control, ventilation, nO15e abatement), ground control
power supply and distribution. water handling. and Hood control

10.3.3 Conditions
The conditions listed here are derived from a number of sources, particularly
Morrison and Russcll (1973), Bullock (1982), Hartman (1987). and Haycocks
(1992):

1. Ore strength: moderate to strong

2. Rock strength: moderate to strong
3. Deposit shape tabular, lens-type deposit
4. Deposit dip: preferably flat; dips < 30 mineabie
5. Deposi! size: any, preferably large areal extent, moderate thick ness or
bench if greater (maximum of 300 ft or 90 m)
6. Ore grade: low to moderate, most commonly
7. Ore uniformity: variabie: lean ore or waste left in pillars if possible
8. Depth: up to 2000ft (900 m) in competent rock, up to 3000 it (1450 m) in
very strong rock

10.3.4 Characteristics

The information on stope-and-pillar mining in this sectior is derived predom

nantly from Morrison and Russell(1973). Hamrin (1982). Lyman (1982). and
Haycocks (1992).

Advantages
X. Moderate to high productivity (30 to 70 tons per employee-shift or 27
to 64 tonnes per employee-shift).
Moderate mining cost (relative mining cost about 10%).
Moderate to high production rate
4. High degree of flexibility. method easily modihed. operate several levels
at one time.

8. Lends itself readily to mechanization, suitable for large

equipment
B. Not labor-intensive; extensive skills not required
7. Selective method: permits lean ore or waste to be left in the
pillars.
8. Multiple working places easy to arrange
9. Early development not extensive.
o. Fair to good recovery (60 to 80%) without p1llaring.
Low dilution (10 to 20%).
 338 NLERGROUNE MIN:NG UNSUPPORTEC ME THC0S

Disadvantages
1. Ground control requires continuous maintenance of back if
rock is not
strong: high buck difficult to scale and support; ground stress on pillars
and openings increases with depth.
2. Largc capital expenditure required for extensive mechanization.
3 Duicult to provide good ventilation because of large openings.
4 Some ore lost in pillars.
5. Recovery of pillars difhcult or impossible.

10.3.5 Applications and Variations

Stope-and-p1llar mining finds many uses in the exploitation of metallic and
nonmetallic mineraldeposits. As previously stated, it is the most popular of the
underground noncoal methods in the United States. Is has been used exter
sively in limestone in Pennsylvania, marble in Georgia, copper in Michiean
(Anderson. 1981), zinc in Tennessee (White, 1979), lead in Missouri (Haycocke
1992). oil shale in Colorado, uranium in Utah and Canada, and iron in France
(Hoppe, 1978). It is used widely throughout the world.
In addition to its wide application to different minerals, stope-and-pillar
mining allows much in the way of variation in its exploitation plan. The
variations shown in Figures 10.5 and 10.6 are only a few of lhe many ways the
method can be applied. It also adapts very well to moderately dipping seams.
Pitch mining is carried out if the deposit dip exceeds the gradeability of the
mobile equipment in use (Hamrin, 1982). Generally, this variation applies
between dips of 15° to 30°. When the thickness of the deposit is greater than
20 ft (6 m), then the mine often applies the concept of bench mining, in
the ore is removed in multiple lifts or benches (Bullock, 1982). It is this
which
to adapt to a multitude of conditions that makes ability
cost-effective and popular with mining companies dealing stope-and-pillar mining
with horizontal or
nearly horizontal mineral deposits.

10.4 SHRINKAGE STOPING

We now encounter the first of the so-called

vertical stoping
carried on essentially in a vertical or near-vertical plane at anmethods, those
than the angle of repose of the broken ore. Shrinkage angle greater
method in which the ore is mined in horizontal slices from stoping is an overhand
bottom to
remains in the stope as temporary support to the walls and to top anda
working platform for the miners. Because the ore provide
about 30 to 40% of the broken ore in each stopeswells when breakage occurs,
must be
m1ning to provide sufficient working space in the stope. This drawn ofl during
70% of the ore must be left in the stope as u means that 60 to
working platform for mining
 ticd up in the remaininz
activities. As a result, a significant amount of cupital is
broken ore in the stope.
tormeriy
Because of its simplicity and small scale, shrinkage stoping wasRising COst:
size.
very popular mcthod of noncoal mining for veins of modest displaced
largely
of labor and the trend toward dieseis and mechanization have
shrinkagc stoping (Lucas and Haycocks, 1973). However, shrinkage stopiny i
still utilized as a small- to moderate-scale method in lead.trona, potasn.
Iimestone, salt, and uranium (White, 1992). The tonnage produced, however. is
less than 1% of U.S. mineral production. shrinkagc
Some authors (Boshkov and Wright, 1973: White. 1992) classify
provide
as a supported method bccause broken ore is left in the stope to
ground Support. This is, however, a temporary method and Coes not provide
much in the way of support to the hanging wal. Consequently, we designate
the method as an unsupported method.
The key design parameters in shrinkage stoping are the dimensions of the
stope, largely governed by the size and shapc of the deposit. In a relatively
narrow ore body, the stopes are placed longitudinally with respect to the vein.
in a wide or large ore body, the stopes are placed transversely. Stope w.dths
vary from 3to 100ft (1 to 30 m), lengths from 150 to 300 ft (43 to 90 m), aud
heights from 200 to 300ft (60 to 90 m) (Lucas and Haycocks, 1973: Lyman
1982; and Haptonstall, 1992). Although rock mechanics will enter the picture
in determining size of the stope, the openings used are generally relativeiy small
and are not excessively stressed. Therefore, the major concern is to maintain
manageable-sized stope that ensures a smooth low of ore by gravity and
cffective draw control.

10.4.1 Sequence of Development

The nature of vertica! stoping methods is that production is oflen carred ou!
over a considerable variation in elevation. Consequently, several levels are
required in most mines, with the levels being spaced 200 to 600 ft (60 to 180 m)
apart (see Section 9.2). Normally, each level wil! have a haulage drift driven
parallel to the vein. If the stope height is less than the level interval, then
sublevels may be constructed, connected by ore passes. Shrinkage stopes may
be driven transverse to the vein if the vein is quite thick. Then haulage laterals
or loading crosscuts are driven to the drawpoints below the stopes.
Development of shrinkage stopes is outined by Lyman (1982), Hamna
(1982), and Haptonstall (1992). The two main Lusks in preparing the stope lor
production are to () construct a means of drawing ore in which muck lows
by gravity to the bottom of the stope and (2) provide a horizontal undercut at
the sill level into which the ore initially breaks and subsequently Hows.
Normally, either tinger raises or boxholes are used at the bottom of the stope
to allow flow to the haulage level.
Over the years, three methods were employed to draw ore out of the
stopes.
The tirst is the use of chutes, as shown in Figure 10.7. This methd was
widely
 UNSUPPOATED METHODS
340 UNDERGROUNO MINi

Unbroken
S t r o nO
g re

Broken
ore
RoiMonswe ay
CooWalnmgpinlelgent C o m p e t eF
ntootwall

Chutes

Drift

and chutes to load cars, (After Lewis and

FIGURE 10.7. Shrinkage stoping using gravity draw York.)
New
Clark, 1964. Copyright John Wiley & Sons,

costs and low

used in the past, but has been all but eliminated because of high is utilized in
productivity. The second is shown in Figure 10.8, where a slusher stope to the
conjunction with boxholes to move ore from the bottom of the
disappearing because
haulage drift. This is another version of shrinkage that is
the bottom
of economic issues. The third method is to use loader crosscuts at
not
of the stope, as shown in Figure 10.9. This figure illustrates a track system,
employed
widely applied today. Instead, diesel loaders or LHDs are ususally
to perform the loading operation. Haulage is also likely to be diesel-powered
cquipment.

10.4.2 Cycle of Operations

10.4.2.1 Production Cycle. Production in a shrinkage stope must revolve
around working on an uneven floor that is periodically disturbed and lowered
by drawing operations in the haulage drift below. It is important to maintain
a safe and adequate plat•orm for work, neither too high nor too low, so that
rock breakage operations can be conducted properly.
 Crown pillar

Rib pillar

Ore
Access
crosscut

Broken cre
Sil!
pillar

Drift LONGITUDINAL SECTION Boxholes

TRANSVERSE SECTION

Siushertrench -4

Haulage PLAN
drift

FIGURE 10.8. Shrinkage stoping using a scraper and siusher drift. (After Henderson, 1982. By
permission from the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, inc., Litleton, CO)

The crew must work in the stope between the back and the broken muck.
In narrow stopes, this may require that they perform all drilling using handheld
drills, which willincrease the costs. In stopes with more space, the driling wil
preferably be completed by hydraulic drilling equipment for eficiency reaSOns.
After the holes are charged but prior to blasting, drawing of ore from the stope
should occur. Before reentering the stope area, any necessary ground control
operations are carried out. This usually consists of bolting or bolting with wire
mesh to increase the holding ability of the bolts.
Oporations in shrinkago stupes employ the following steps in tbe production
cycle:
Drilling: pneumatic airleg drill or stoper: small hydraulic drill jumbo
Blasting: ANFO, gels, or emulsions, charging by hand, pneumatic loader, or
pumping system; firing electrically or by dctonating cord
 CACNOAINE UNSUPPORTED METHO0s

Ti(alsomberventilation)
ed maway
Ore le stoo

Crosscuts for loading

Drawonts

Haulage drif

FIGURE 10.9. Shrinkage stoping using drawpoints and loaders. (After Hamrin, 1982. By
and Exploration, Inc., Littleton., Co,
pemission from the Society for Mining, Metallurgy,

impact
Secondary breakage: drill and blast, packaged boulder charge,
hammer
overhead loader, slusber
Loaaina: gravity fiow, front-end loader, LHD,
Haulage: LHD, truck, rail

bottomn of the stope. one

Although most of the ore is drawn out at the
slushing the excess off the
operation (Kral, 1997) provides for ore removal by
extraction is not normally a part of
top of the broken ore mass. Continuous
operations and the hardness of
shrinkage stoping, because of the nature of the
development
the rock. The only opportunity for this type of operation is in the
Stages of the method.

operations lor
10.4.2.2 Auxiliary Operations. The usual list of auxiliaryroom-and-pillar
underground mining pertains-see the complete list for
stope-and-pillar in Section
mining in Section 10.2 and the abbreviated list for
103
 SHANKAGE STCPNG 343

10.4.3 Conditions
The following list is based pr1mar1ly on descriptions of shrinkage stoping
opcrations in Lyman (1982). Haptonstali (1992), and White (1992)

1. Ore strength: strong (other characteristiCs: should not pack, oxidize. or be

subject to spontaneous combustion)
2. Rock strength lairly strong to strong
3. Deposit shape tabular to lenticular, regular dip and boundaries
4. Deposit dip: lairly steep (> 45, prefer 60 to 90° to facilitate ore fow)
5. Deposit size: narrow to moderate width (3 to 100 ft or 1 to 30 m). fairly
large extent
6. Ore grade: fairly high
7. Ore uniformity: uniform, blending not casily perforned
8. Depth: shallow to moderate (<2500ft or 730 m)

10.4.4 Characteristics
The following summary is based on general knowledge of shrinkage stoping
operations and specific information found in Hamrin (1982), Lyman (1982),
White (1992), and Haptonstall (1992).
Advantages
1. Small-l0-moderate-scale operation.
2. Ore is drawn down by gravity.
3. Method conceptualy simple, can be used for asmallmine.
4. Low capital investment, little equipment required for the basic method.
5. Little ground support is required in stope.
6. Stope development is moderate.
7. Works very well in veins with widths of <8ft (2.4 m).
8. Fairly good recovery (75 to 85%).
9. Low dilution (10 to 20%).
Disadvantages
1. Low to moderate productivity range.
2. Moderate to fairly high mining cost (relative cost about 45%).
3. Labor intensive; not easy to mechanize.
4. Rough footing in stope, dangerous working conditions.
5. Most of the ore (>60%) tied up in stope.
6. Ore is subject to oxidation, packing, and spontaneous combustion.
7. Selectivity is only fair.
344 UNDERGROUND MINING: UNSUPpORTED METHODS

One of these disadvantages requires more discussion. The oxidation of metl.

Ores can be of great concern, particulariy with sulfides. The
oxidation
process
is exothermic, resulting in heat buildup in packed ore material. Although the
ore itself cun burn under some conditions, thc real danger is any combustible
material that may be found in the mine. In addition, sulfide ore dusts have be
known to explode (McPherson, 1993, pp. 874-875), which is therefore
concern whenever an operation is dealing with sulfide ores, particularly whu
the ore is left in a packed mass of broken material. This applies to any mining
method in which ore is kept for some time in broken form.

10.4.5 Applications and Variations

Application of shrinkage stoping in the United States is decreasing because of
economic forces. However, under the right set of conditions, it may stillbe the
best choice for a particular mineral deposit. Two publications have recently
described its application in the Gold Road Mine in Arizona (Silver, 1997) and
the Nixen Fork Mine in Alaska (Kral, 1997). At the Nixen Fork Mine,
shrinkage is used for veins less than 8 ft (2.4 m) wide. Slushers are used in this
mine tO remove the excess ore from the top of the stope. At the Gold Road
Mine, the method was established to reduce dilution resulting from sublevel
stoping and to increase ore grade to the mill. This mine uses diesel equipment
below the stopes to load the ore and a 15° ramp to provide main haulage.
Marchand et al. (2001) and Norquist (2001) outline shrinkage stoping practices
at two additional mines in North America.
Although U.S. production from shrinkage stoping is quite low overall, other
countries use the method more frequently, and numerous articles in the mining
literature have summaries of these operations. The Las Cuevas Mine in
Mexico, which mines a large fluorspar deposit, has been described by Walker
(1991a). This mine divides a large orebody into blocks, mines shrinkage stopes
in each block, and then systematically caves the pillars using longhole drilling
techniques.
In other parts of the world, shrinkage stoping has been used by the Snip
Mine in British Columbia to mine gold (Carter, 1992), the Porco Mine in
Bolivia to mine zinc (Suttill, 1993), and the Colonial Gold Project in Ireland
(Meiklejohn and Meikiejohn, 1997), In addition, Phelps (1994) describes the
method being used in Peru at the Casapalca Mine, the Morococha Mine, the
San Cristobal mine, and the Yauricocha Mine. This makes ecornomic sense in
countries where the veins are sma!l and labor is relatively inexpensive.

10.5 SUBLEVEL STOPING

Sublevel st oping is a vertical mining method in which a large open stope 5

created within the vein. This open stope is not meant to be occupied by the
miners; therefore, a!! work of driling and blasting must be performed from
 #.ngdrillina Grift

Subievel

Ringdriling. longholes
Ore

Mamway

Stope Sublevel

Blasted ore

Haulage drit

Lcading cross cuts

Drawpoint
Draw drft

FIGURE 10.10. Sublevel stoping (blasthole method) using ning drilling and biasting into a siot.
(After Hamin, 1982. By permission frem the Scciety for Mining, Metalurgy, and Expioraton,
Inc., Littleton, CO.)

sublevels within the ore block. Three different variations of sublevel stoping are
practiced. The irst and most traditional method, often called the blasthole
method, is shown in Figure 10.10. Using this variation, the miners must create
a vertical slot at one end of the stope. They then work in the subievels to drill
a radial pattern of drillholes. After a set of these holes are loaded, blocks of the
ore body are blasted into the open stope. The blast should be carefully planned,
as it is virtually impossible for miners to go into the stope to correct problems.
The second method of sublevel stoping, illustrated in Figure 10.!1, is often
referred to as the open-ending method. As in the blasthole method, a slot must
be developed at one end of the stope. Production is then achieved by driling
parallel holes from top to bottom of the designated stope using a sublevel at
the top of the stope that is the width of the stope. As in the blasthole method,
vertical slices of the ore are blasted into the open stope. This method generally
permits larger drillholes to be used and may be more efficient in terms of
explosives consumption.
 METHODS
346 UNDERGROUNO MINING. UNSUPPORTED

Sublevel
Large hole
drilling
parallel
holes

Stope

Menway
Blasted ore

Draw Haulage drift

poit
Draw drift

FiGURE 10.11. Sublevel stoping using parallel drilling and blasting into a slot. (After Hamrin
1982. By permission from the Society for Mining. Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Litteton
CO.)

The third variation of sublevel stoping is a patented method known as the

vertical crater retreat (VCR) method. The procedure, shown in Figure 10.12
uses a drill pattern similar to that of the open-ending method. However, the
ore is blasted in horizontal slices using loading and blasting from the sublevel
at the top of the stope. This requires that the drillholes first be sealed with
plugs that can be put in place from above. The holes are then loaded to afxed
height of charge and blasted. Typically, the horizontal slices blasted are about
15 ft (5 m) in thickness until the blasting horizon approaches the top of the
stope. The last blast at the top of the stope is sized to be at least twice the
normal blasting thickness so that the working fioor of the sublevel is not
weakened by blasting until the workers are out of the sublevel for the last time.
The VCR method was patented by a Canadian explosives firm that developed
the crater testing method that ensures that the blasting procedure is adequate
for the rock mass in the stope.
The stopes in sublevel operations vary significantly in size. Some are roughly
the size of shrinkage stopes, but stopes up to 100 ft (30 m) by 130 ft (40 m) by
1200 ft (370 m) high have been used at the Mt. Isa Mine in Australia (Suttill,
 SUBLE/E. STUPING 34/

Sublevel Resin bolting

drift

Blast -
holes

Slice

Undercut
Haulage drift
FIGURE 10.12. Vertical crater retreat (VCR) version of sublevel stoping. Large parallel hoBes
are loaded with near-spherical explosive charges, and horizontal slices of ore are blasted into
the undercut. (After Green, 1976. By permission from National Mining Association, Washington,
DC.)

1991b). The sizes of the stopes that are possible are obviously dependent on
the strength of the rock. It should also be noted that many sublevel stoping
operations utilize pillar recovery nethods, often using cemented fil and
cut-and-fill methods to extract the pillars.

10.5.1 Sequence of Development

The general sequence of development in subleve! stoping parallels that in
shrinkage stoping and other vertical methods. A haulage drift, crosscuts, and
drawpoints are developed below the stope for materials handling, together with
interlevel raises for access and ventilation. Either an undercut for VCR stoping
or a slot for blasthole or longhole stoping is then developed.
If an undercut is developed (Figure 10.12), the sill development
that for shrinkage. If a slot is necessary (Figures 10.10 and 10.11),proceeds like
crosscuts are developed across the stope and a raise driven at sublevel
the boundary.
This raise is then enlarged to form the slot. In the blasthole method, the
sublevel drifts are driven to
givethe drilling crewS access to the entire deposit.
In the other two versions of sublevel stoping, a
horizontal sublevel the full
width of the stope must be driven at periodic intervals to
stations. provide room for drill