Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics

MATHEMATICS SPECIAL A2
MATS102 / MATA102 / MATX102
Study Guide: Semester 2
 CONTENTS
PREFACE 3
Chapter 1: LINEAR ALGEBRA 4
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Matrices
1.3 Types of Matrices
1.4 Operations with matrices
1.5 Determinants
1.6 Properties of determinants
1.7 Cramer’s Rule
1.8 Systems of linear equations
1.9 Gaussian Elimination and the Augmented matrix
1.10 The Inverse Matrix
1.11 Terminology
1.12 Exercise

Chapter 2: EXPONENTIALS and LOGARITHMS 38

2.1 Exponential functions
2.2 Logarithmic functions
2.3 Differentiation of Logarithmic functions
2.4 Differentiation of Exponential functions
2.5 Logarithmic Differentiation
2.6 Terminology
2.7 Exercise

Chapter 3: DERIVATIVES of TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

3.1 Radian Measure
3.2 Trigonometric functions
3.3 Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
3.4 Terminology
3.5 Exercise

Chapter 4: INTEGRAL CALCULUS 67

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Anti-derivatives and the Indefinite Integral
4.3 Basic Integration formulae
4.4 Substitution principle in Integration
4.5 Integrals of Trigonometric and Exponential functions
4.6 The Definite Integral
4.7 Definite Integrals involving Trigonometric and Exponential Functions
4.8 Area and the Definite Integral
4.9 Terminology
4.10 Exercise

Appendix 101

2
 PREFACE
In this Mathematics Special module, we will continue our study of Calculus. We shall investigate
differentiation of exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions as well as the important
technique of logarithmic differentiation. A brief introduction to multivariable functions will also be done.
The course will end with an introduction to Integral Calculus.

The following will be taken as known for this course and can be used at any stage:

1. The Function concept

2. Domain of a function

3. Definition and interpretation of the derivative of a function

4. The following Differentiation Rules (no proofs required):

a) 𝐷 [𝑐] = 0 ∀𝑐 ∈ ℝ

b) D x  f (x )  g (x )   D x  f (x )   D x  g (x ) 

c) 𝐷 [𝑐. 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐. 𝐷 ] ∀𝑐 ∈ ℝ

d) Product Rule: D x  f (x )  g (x )   f (x ) D x  g (x )   g (x )D x  f ( x ) 

g ( x )D x  f ( x )   f ( x )D x  g ( x ) 
e) Quotient Rule: D x  fg (( xx ))   g(x)  0
 g ( x )2

f) Chain rule: y  f (u ); u  g (r ); r  h (x ) dy
dx  dy
du  dr  dx
du dr

g) Power Rule: 𝐷 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑛. [𝑓(𝑥)] . 𝐷 [𝑓(𝑥)] ∀𝑛 ∈ ℝ

h) Implicit differentiation

3
 CHAPTER 1
LINEAR ALGEBRA
After working through this chapter you should be able to:

 Determine the size of a given matrix and its entries

 Recognise different types of matrices such as, square, rectangular, triangular, diagonal and
symmetric
 Add, subtract and multiply matrices
 Find scalar multiples, the transpose, the trace and the inverse of a matrix
 Use the matrix inverse to solve certain types of linear equations
 Identify systems of linear equations and form their augmented matrices
 Transform a matrix to a reduced row-echelon form
 Solve systems of linear equations using the Gauss-Jordan Elimination procedure
 Calculate the determinant of a square matrix of any order
 Use elementary row (and column) operations to reduce the work involved in finding a
determinant
 Determine if a matrix is invertible by knowing the value of its determinant
 Use determinants (in Cramer’s rule) to solve certain systems of linear equations

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this chapter is the development of various techniques that can be
employed to solve a system of simultaneous equations such as :

2x  3y  2z = 9
8x  5y  z = 5

You might recognize the notion of simultaneous equations from your school years or possibly from
a previous course in Algebra.

Before progressing to the techniques we first discuss the concept of a matrix and the
determinant of a matrix.

1.2 MATRICES
A matrix can be thought of as an ordered rectangular arrangement of numbers into horizontal
rows and vertical columns. To indicate that we are working with a matrix the numbers are
enclosed by square brackets - […….]

Examples of matrices:

𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓
; 𝟒 𝟓 ; ; 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 ; 𝟒 ; [𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟑 − 𝟒 𝟎 ]
𝟏 𝟔 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟑
𝟐 𝟖 𝟓 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐

4
Matrices are classified according to the size, i.e. the number of rows and columns. The first matix
above has size “2 by 3”, writen as 2  3 , as it has 2 rows and 3 columns. The number of rows
(horizontal) is always stated first and the number of columns (vertical) second. The sizes of the
other matrices above are: 3 × 2; 2 × 2; 3 × 3; 3 × 1 and 1 × 5 respectively.

Consider the system given above.

The coefficients of x , y and z can be described by the matrix:
 2 3 2 
A= 
8 5 1
in which the coefficients of x appear in the first column, the coefficients of y in the second
column and the coefficients of z in the third column. This matrix is called the coefficient matrix
of the system. This matrix will be used later on in the solving of systems of linear equations.
Because A consists of two rows and three columns, we say A has size “2 by 3”, and write 2  3
for the size of A .

At this point we formally define what is meant by the term matrix.

DEFINITION

Let 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
An ordered rectangular arrangement of real numbers into m rows and n columns

𝑎, ∈ℝ

is called an m  n (read as “m by n”) matrix over 

The aij appearing in the matrix are referred to as the entries of the matrix. Specifically, aij refers

to the entry appearing in the i th row and j th column of A.

Remarks

 We use “matrix over ℝ” to express the fact that the entries of the matrix are real numbers.
 Matrices are usually denoted with capital letters and the entries by small letters (lower case
letters).

Referring back to the coefficient matrix A,

 2 3 2 
A = a i j  
23
8 5 1

5
 the entries a11 = 2 , a12 = 3 , a13 = 2 , etc.

DEFINITION

Two matrices A = ai j    
and B = bi j are equal if they have the same size and entries in
corresponding positions are equal.

Example 1.1
2 3  2 3
Matrix A =   and Matrix B =   are different because although they have the same
 5 2   2 5 
size, not all the entries in corresponding positions are equal.

Specifically,
a21 = 5 but b21 = 2
a22 = 2 but b22 = 5
Therefore, A  B .

1.3 TYPES OF MATRICES

Various important types of matrices exist and we consider a few types.

1. If a matrix has the same number of rows as columns, we call it a square matrix. Thus
an m  m matrix is a square matrix for all values m   .

2. If A =  a i j  is an m  n matrix for which all the entries ai j = 0 , then A is called the m  n

m n

zero matrix.

3. A matrix with precisely one row is called a row matrix.

Thus A =  a i j  = a11 a12  a1n  is a row matrix.
1n

4. A matrix with precisely one column is called a column matrix.

 b 11 
b 
Thus B = b i j  =  21  is a column matrix.
n 1   
 
 bn1 

5. A diagonal matrix is a square matrix A = ai j  where ai j = 0 if i  j .

m m

6
  a11 0  0 
0 a22  0 
A diagonal matrix is thus of the form 
   
 
0 0  amm 
The diagonal from the upper left to bottom right, is called the main diagonal of the
matrix.
Note. If a matrix is not square, then we cannot speak of a diagonal.

6. An identity matrix I n is an n  n diagonal matrix in which all the entries along the
main diagonal equals 1. Thus aii = 1 for all i = 1, 2,..., n and aij = 0 for i  j .
 1 0 0
The 3  3 identity matrix I 3 is, therefore, I3  0 1 0 
 
0 0 1

7. An m  m matrix A =  aij  is symmetric if aij = a ji for all i = 1, 2,..., m and all

mm

j = 1, 2,..., m .
 1 1 5 
 0 1  1 4 3  are symmetric.
For example, the 2  2 matrix   and the 3 x 3 matrix  
1 3  5 3 2 
8. An m  m matrix A =  aij  is said to be upper triangular if aij = 0 for i > j and
mm

lower triangular if aij = 0 for i < j . Also, A is said to be triangular if it is either

upper triangular or lower triangular. For example, the 3  3 matrices:

3 2 1 1 0 0 
0 1 2 and 1 2 0 
   
0 0 1  1 1 1 

are both triangular. The first is upper triangular and the second is lower triangular

DEFINITION

The transpose of an m  n matrix A = aij   m n

, denoted by A
T
, is the n  m matrix
B =  b ji nm defined by b ji = aij for j =1,..., n and i =1,..., m.

T
Thus the jth row of A has the same entries, respectively, as the jth column of A
T
and the ith. column of A has the same entries, respectively ,as the i th row of A .

7
 Example 1.2
1 4
1 2 3
If A =   , then A =  2
T
5  .
4 5 6 
 3 6 

DEFINITION

The sum of all the diagonal entries of an m m matrix A = aij   mm

is called the trace of A

and is denoted by tr  A .

Example 1.3
1 2
If A =  , then tr  A  = 1  4 = 5.
3 4 

1.4 OPERATIONS WITH MATRICES

DEFINITION

Let A and B both be m  n matrices. The sum of A and B is the matrix

defined by :
AB  a ij    bij 
m n m n

 a ij  bij 
m n

 a11  b11 a 12  b12  a 1n  b1n 

 a b a 22  b 22  a 2n  b2n 
  21 21

  
 
a m 1  bm 1 a m 2  bm 2  a mn  bmn 

Note: We can only add matrices of the same size and the sum is found by adding the entries
appearing in corresponding positions. If A and B are matrices with differing sizes, then A  B is
not defined.

8
 Example 1.4
2 3 1   5 1 8  2  5 3   1 1  8  7 2 9 
a). 5 1 2   2 1 0 =   = 7 2 2 
  23   23 5  2 11 2  0  23  

 2 1  2 5 1
b).  0 1   8 9 7  is not defined because the matrices have different sizes.
  22   23

DEFINITION
Let A be a m  n matrix and let k be any scalar (i.e. real number).
The scalar multiple kA is an m  n matrix, given by :
kA = k a ij m n

= k a 
ij m n

 k a11 k a12  k a1n 

 ka k a 22  k a 2n 
=  21 
  
 
k a m 1 k am 2  k amn 
Note: Clearly A and kA are of the same size and kA is found by simply multiplying every entry
of A by k .

Example 1.5
 1 2   3 5 
Let A =   and B =  .
 5 0  7 6
Determine 2 A  3B .

Solution

Since A and B are of the same size, viz 2  2 , 2A and 3B will also be of the size 2  2 .
Therefore, 2 A  3B is defined and
 1 2   3 5
 2  A  3B =  2     3 
 5 0  7 6
 2 4   9 15
=     21 18
 10 0  
 7 11
=  
 11 18

9
 Example 1.6

 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0   1 2
Let r    s   t   u  =  .
0 0  0 0  1 0  1 1 3 2 
Determine the value of r , s , t and u.

Solution

From the Definition of scalar multiple, we have :

r r  0 s  0 0  0 0  1 2
 0 0    0 0    t 0  u u  = 3 2 .
         

From the Definition of matrix addition, we obtain :

 r r s 1 2
t  u = 3 2  .
 u   

Using the Definition of equality of matrices, we deduce :

r = 1,  r  s = 2, u =2 t  u = 3
1 s = 2 t 2=3
s =1 t =1
r  1, s  1, u  2, t  1

The following THEOREM lists some important algebraic properties of matrix addition and scalar
multiples.

THEOREM

Let A , B and C be m  n matrices and let 0 denote the zero m  n matrix. For any scalar k
we have :

• A0 = A = 0 A ( 0 is the additive identity)

• A B = B A (matrix addition is commutative)

•  A  B  C = A  B C  (matrix addition is associative)

• k  A  B  = kA  kB

• 1 A = A 1   
• 0A = 0 (0 on the left hand side is the number zero)

10
 DEFINITION

The additive inverse of an m  n matrix A is the matrix A =  aij 

m n

Remark: Clearly, if A is an m  n matrix, then A    A  = 0 mn.

DEFINITION

Let A and B be m  n matrices. The difference , A from B is the matrix

B    A = b 
ij m  n   aij 
m n
= bij  aij 
m n
= BA

Example 1.7
Use the various algebraic properties of matrices to solve for the unknown matrix X appearing
in the matrix equation 2 X  3 A = B where X , A and B are of the same size.

Solution
2X  3A = B
  2X  3A    3 A = B   3 A
 2X   3A   3 A  = B  3A
 2X  0A = B  3A
 2X  0 = B  3A
 2X = B  3A
 1
2  2X  = 1
2  B  3A 
2  B  3A 
1X = 1

2  B  3A 
X = 1

Before defining the product of two matrices, we first define what is called the inner product of a
row matrix with a column matrix.

11
 DEFINITION

Let A =  aij  be a row matrix with n entries, and B =  bij  a column matrix with n entries.
1n n1

The inner product of A with B is given by:

 b11 
b 
A B = a11 a12 ... a1n    21  = a11b11  a12 b21  ...  a1n bn1
 
 
bn1 
which is a real number  .

Note: The row and column matrix in the inner product must have the same number of entries,
otherwise the inner product is not defined.

Example 1.8
 2
 1
Let A =  2 3 4 5 and B =   . Determine A   2 B  .
 2 
 
 5

Solution: A and B have the same number of entries, thus:

 4
 2
A  2B = A   2B  =  2 3 4 5    =  2  4    3 2    4  4   5 10  = 48
 4 
 
 10

Example 1.9
 3
Let A =  2 3 7  and B =  2  . Determine  A  B  A
 
 1
Solution
3
A  B   2 3 7    2   2  3  3  2   7 1  19
 
1 
Thus  A  B  A  19 A  19  2 3 7   38 57 133

12
 DEFINITION

Let A be an m  n matrix and B an n  p matrix. The matrix product of A and B is an

m  p matrix C =  cij  m p , where cij is the inner product of the i th row of A and the j th

column of B . That is :
Amn  Bn p = C m p = c 
ij m  p

 b1 j 
b 
where cij = [ai 1 ai 2 ... ain ]    = ai 1b1 j  ai 2 b2 j  ...  ain bnj
2j

 
 
 bnj 

Note: For the product AB to be defined, the number of columns of A must equal the number of
rows of B.

Example 1.10
 2
Let A =   and B =  7 3 . Determine AB if this product is defined.
 1

Solution: First consider AB . Because the number of columns of A is the same as the number
of rows of B , the produce AB = C exists. Now :
c c 
A 21  B 12 = C 22 = c ij  =  11 12 
c 21 c 22 
2 2

where cij is the inner product of the i th row of A with the j th column of B . Thus :
c11   2   7   2  7   14
c12   2  3  2  3  6
c21  1  7   1 7   7
c22  1  3  1 3  3

2 14 6 
    7 312 =  
 1 21  7 3 22

Example 1.11
 2 1  1 3 2
Let A =   and B =   . Determine AB and BA if these products exist and
 5 8 4 2 0
comment on whether AB = BA .

Solution: Since the number of columns of A and the number of rows of B are the same, the
product A22 B23 =  cij  = C exists. From the definition of matrix multiplication cij is the inner
23

product of the i th row of A with the j th column of B , thus:

13
 1  1 
c11   2 1      2 1  1 4   2 c21   5 8     5 1  8  4   37
4  4
 3 3
c12   2 1      2  3  1 2   4 c22  5 8     5  3  8  2   31
 2 2
2 2
c13   2 1      2  2   1 0   4 c23  5 8     5  2   8  0   10
0 0

 2 1 1 3 2  2 4 4 
Therefore, AB     
 5 8  4 2 0  37 31 10 

The product  bij    aij  does not exist because the number of columns of B differs from
23 2 2

the number of rows of A . Therefore, AB  BA .

In fact, in general AB  BA and we say matrix multiplication is not commutative. Just in case
you thought this was the only surprising property the next example shows it is possible that AB = 0
where A  0 and B  0 .

Example 1.12

1 1  1 1
Let A =   and B =   . Calculate AB .
1 1  1 1

Solution
1 1  1 1 0 0 
AB =   =  =0.
1 1  1 1 0 0 

Example 1.13
 2 1 0 3
 2 1 6  
Let C = 
 3 5 0  and D =  4 1 5 2  . Determine CD if it exists.
   5 1 0 6 
 30 9 5 44 
Solution: The product CD = A will exist and CD = 
 26 2 25 1

14
 Example 1.14
2 x  3 y  2z = 8
Describe the system of equations : 5x  y = 3 by means of a matrix equation.
2 y  7z = 10

 2 3 2  x  8
Solution: Let A = 5 1 0 , X = y , B =  3 .
   
     
 0 2 7   z  10 

2 3 2 x 
AX =  5 1 0    y 
 
 0 2 7  33  z  31
Then:
 2x  3 y  2 z   2x  3y  2z   8
=  5x  y  0z  =  5x  y  =  3 = B
     
 0x  2 y  7 z  31  2y  7 z  10 

Therefore the equation AX = B represents the system.

THEOREM
For matrices A , B and C of the appropriate sizes, so that the products are defined, and scalars
k and c we have :

1. 0 A = 0, A0 = 0
2. IA = A , AI = A where I = I n is an identity matrix of suitable size

3.  AB C = A  BC  (associative law of multiplication)

4. A  B  C  = AB  AC ,  A  B C = AC  BC are the distributive laws

5.  kA cB  =  kc  AB 
6. A 
T T
=A

7.  kA  T = kAT
8.  A  B  T = AT  BT

9.  AB  T = B T A T

1.5 DETERMINANTS
With every square matrix we can associate a real number, referred to as the determinant of the
matrix. We start with square matrices of size 2  2 .

15
 DEFINITION
a a 
Let A =  11 12  be a 2  2 matrix. The determinant of A is denoted by det  A  or A ,
 a21 a22 
a11 a12
and is defined to be: det  A  = = a11a 22  a 21a12
a 21 a 22

Example 1.15
 2 3
a) Find det  A  if A =  .
 5 1
2 3
Solution: A = = 2  1  5  3 = 17.
5 1

 a 0
b) Find det  A  where A =   , where a, b   .
 0 b
a 0
Solution: A = = ab  0 = ab .
0 b
x2 x
c) Determine x such that = 0.
4 2
x2 x
Solution: Suppose = 0. Then we find that:
4 2
2 x 2  ( 4) x  0  2 x 2  4 x  0  2 x( x  2)  0  x  0 or x  2

The definition of the determinant of an n  n matrix is done inductively. By this we mean we use
the Definition of the 2  2 case for the 3  3 case, we use the Definition of the 3  3 to define the
4  4 case, etc.

DEFINITION
 a11 a12 a13 
The determinant of the 3  3 matrix A =  a21 a22 a23  is given by :
 
 a31 a32 a33 

 a11 a12 a13  

 
det  a 21 a 22 a 23    a 22 a 23    a 21 a 23    a 21 a 22  
 a = a det     a12 det      a13 det   
  31 a 32 a 33   11
 a 32 a 33    a 31 a 33    a 31 a 33  

16
 Example 1.16
2 1 0
a) Let A =  5 2 2  . Evaluate det  A  .
 
 1 0 5

Solution: From the Definition of the 3  3 case :

2 2 5 2 5 2
det  A  = 2  1  0  2  10  0   1 25  2   0 = 43
0 5 1 5 1 0

a 0 0
b) Find 0 b 0 .
0 0 c

a 0 0
b 0 0 0 0 b b 0
Solution: 0 b 0 = a  0  0 =a = a  bc  0  = abc
0 c 0 c 0 0 0 c
0 0 c

Remark: We saw that :

a11 a12 a13 

 a a 23    a 21 a 23    a 21 a 22  
det a 21 a 22 a 23  = a11 det   22    a12 det      a13 det   
 a 32 a 33    a 31 a 33    a 31 a 32  
a 31 a 32 a 33 

and here we see that:

a a23 
•  22 is the matrix obtained by deleting the first row and first column
 a32 a33 

a a23 
•  21  is the matrix obtained by deleting the first row and second column
 a31 a33 

a a22 
•  21  is the matrix obtained by deleting the first row and third column
 a31 a32 

17
 DEFINITION

Let A be an n  n matrix and let M ij be the determinant of the  n  1   n  1 matrix obtained

by deleting the i th row and the j th column of A . Then M i j is called the ij th minor of A.

Then we can write the determinant of a 3  3 matrix as :

 a11 a12 a13 
det a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
 a a23    a21 a23    a21 a22  
= a11 det   22    a12 det      a13 det   
 a32 a33    a31 a33    a31 a32  
= a11 M 11  a12 M12  a13 M13
= a11 M 11  a12  1  M 12  a13 M 13

Example 1.17
 2 3 4 
A   2 0 1 . Calculate det  A  .

 5 6 7 

Solution
det  A  = 2 M 11  3M 12   4  M 13 , where
0 1
M 11 = = 0  6 = 6
6 7
2 1
M 12 = = 14  5 = 19
5 7
2 0
M 13 = = 12  0 = 12
5 6

 det  A  = 2  6   3  19    4  12  = 12  57  48 = 93

DEFINITION

Let A be an n  n matrix. The ij th co-factor of A is given by Aij   1

i j
M ij .

The last description is referred to as the determinant obtained by cofactor expansion along the
first row, because the a11 , a12 and a13 are the entries of the first row.

18
 Example 1.18
2 3 1
Let A =  1 0 4 .
 
7 3 5
Find det  A  by cofactor expansion of : (a) the first row (b) the second column.

Solution

a) Using the cofactor expansion of the first row :

det  A  = a11A11  a12 A12  a13A13
= 2A11  3A12  1A13
= 2  1 M 11  3  1 M 12  1 1
11 1 2 1 3
M 13
0 4 1 4 1 0
= 2  3  1
3 5 7 5 7 3
= 2  0  12)  3(5  28   1  3  0 
=  24  69  3 = 48

b) Using the cofactor expansion of the second column :

det  A  = a12 A12  a22 A 22  a32 A 32
= 3A12  0A 22  3A32
= 3A12  3A 32
= 3  1 M 12  3  1
1 2 3 2
M 32
=  3M 12  3M 32
1 4 2 1
= 3 3
7 5 1 4
=  3  5  28   3  8  1
=  3  23  7  =  3  16  = 48

Notice that we obtained the same determinant value although we used different cofactor expansions.
In fact, in general the cofactor expansion can be done according to any row or column and the
determinants value will always be the same. We now define the determinant of an n  n matrix.
DEFINITION
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
Let A =  21 be an n  n matrix. The determinant of A by cofactor
  
 
 an1 an 2  ann 
expansion of the first row is given by:
n
det  A  = a11 A11  a12 A12  ...  a1n A1n = 
k =1
a1k A1k

19
 Remark: Evaluate the determinant by choosing a suitable row or column
We select the row or column containing the most zeros.

Example 1.19
2 3 0 4
5 1 2 0 
Evaluate det  A  , where A = 
 3 1 0 1
 
0 3 0 2

Solution: We use cofactor expansion along the third column:

det  A  = 0A13  2A 23  0A 33  0A 43
= 2A 23
2 3 4
= 2  1
2 3
3 1 1
0 3 2
 2 3 4
Let B =  3 1 1 . We now progress along the first column as follows:
 
 0 3 2 
2 3 4
| A | =  2 3 1 1
0 3 2
=  2  2B 11  3B 21 
=  4B 11  6B 21
1 1 3 4
=  4  1  6  1
11 2 1

3 2 3 2
=  4  2  3  6  6  12  = 20  36 = 16

Clearly, the more zeros we can obtain in a row or column, the easier a “large'' determinant is to
evaluate.

1.6 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

The following properties of determinants can simplify computation to a great extent.
Let A be an n  n matrix.

1. If any row or column of A consists entirely of zeros, then det  A  = 0 .

2. If every entry of a row (or column) of A is multiplied by a factor k , then
det  A  also changes by a factor k .

20
 3. The interchanging of two rows (or columns) of A changes the sign of
det  A  .
4. If any non-zero multiple of a row (or column) is added to a different row (or column),
then det  A  is unchanged.
5. det  AB  = det  A  det  B  for any n  n matrices A and B .
6. det( A)  det( AT )
7. The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the entries on
the diagonal.

Example 1.20
 2 5
Let A =   . How is A affected by :
 1 6 
a) interchanging columns 1 and 2 ?
b) replacing row 1 with  2   row 1 ?
c) replacing row 2 with  2   row 1 + row 2 ?

Solution: Then A = 17 .

5 2
a) = 5  12 = 17 =  det  A 
6 1

4 10
b) = 24  10 = 34 =  2 17 =  2  det  A 
1 6

2 5
c) = 8  25 = 17 = det  A  .
5 4

To simplify notation, we introduce the following:

 kRi means row i is multiplied by k , k  0.
 R j  R j  kRi means a new row j is obtained by replacing it with row j plus a maultiple of row i.
 Ri  R j means interchanging row i and row j.
Anologously, the column operations are kCi , C j  C j  kCi and Ci  C j .

21
The following examples illustrates how we use the above operations to simplify the calculation of
determinants.

Example 1.21
 12 14 2
Let A =  2 6 1 . Find det  A  .
 1 2 1

Solution

1
2
1
4 2
A 2 6 1
1 2 1
2 1 8
1
 2 6 1 4 R1
4
1 2 1
0 5 10 R1  R1  2 R3
1
 0 10 3 R2  R2  2 R3
4
1 2 1
1 31 5 10
  1 1 cofactor expansion of first column
4 10 3
1 85
= 15  100  
4 4

22
 Example 1.22
3 5 2 6 
1 2 1 1
Let A =  . Find det  A  .
2 4 1 5
 
3 7 5 3

Solution

3 5 2 6
1 2 1 1
A
2 4 1 5
3 7 5 3

0 1 1 3 R 1  R1   3 R2
1 2 1 1

0 0 3 3 R3  R3   2  R2
0 1 8 0 R4  R4   3 R2

1 1 3
 1 1
21
0 3 3 cofactor expansion of the first column
1 8 0

0 9 3 R1  R1  1R3
=  1 0 3 3
1 8 0

9 3
  11 1
31
cofactor expansion of first column
3 3
=  1 9  3  3  3   18

23
1.7 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS : TERMINOLOGY
Having discussed matrices and determinants of matrices, we can now progress to the actual
solution techniques that could be employed to solve a system of linear equations.
This section deals with terminology and some general results concerning systems of linear
equations.

DEFINITIONS

Let m and n be natural numbers. Then :

a) An equation a1 x1  a2 x2  ...  an xn = b where a1 , a2 ,..., an , b are real numbers and the

x1 , x2 ,..., xn are unknowns, is called a linear equation in n unknowns.

b) A system
a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn = b1
a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn = bn

am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn = bn
of m linear equation in n unknowns x1 , x2 ,..., xn is called a homogeneous system if
bi = 0 for every i = 1, 2,..., n.
If bi  0 for at least one i = 1, 2,..., n then the system is called a non-homogeneous
system of linear equations.

c) An ordered n -tuple  c1 , c2 ,..., cn  is a solution of the system if the substitution xi = ci for

i = 1, 2,..., n satisfies every equation in the system.
The set of all solutions of the system is called the solution set of the system.

Remark: A homogeneous system of m equations in n variables x1 , x2 , , xn always has at least

one solution namely ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) = (0, 0, , 0) .

You would probably have encountered a linear equation in two variables before. Such an equation
can be represented graphically as a straight line on the Cartesian plane.

Consider a system of two equations in the variable x1 and x2 :

a11 x1  a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1  a22 x2 = b2 .
The solution of this system is an ordered tuple  c1 , c2  such that the substitution x1 = c1 , x2 = c2
satisfies both equations.

Geometrically  c1 , c2  corresponds to a point  x1 , x2  =  c1 , c2  in the Cartesian plane where the

24
 straight lines are represented by :
L1 : a11 x1  a12 x2 = b1
L2 : a21 x1  a22 x2 = b2
intersect.

Therefore, a solution of the system is quite simply a point of intersection of the straight lines.
The solution set is the set of all points of intersection. Naturally the question ''How many
solutions could there be?'', comes to mind.
The following graphs indicate the possible nature of the solution set of the system :
No intersection Infinitely many One intersection
points intersection points point L1
L1 = L 2
L1
L2
L2

Therefore, the system :

a11 x1  a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1  a22 x2 = b2

could have no solution, an infinite number of solutions or a unique solution.

In general it is true that any system of m linear equations in n unknowns has either no solution,
a unique solution or an infinite number of solutions. A system with no solution is called an
inconsistent system.

1.8 CRAMER’S RULE

This technique can be used if the system of linear equations is such that :

• the coefficient matrix A is square, and

• det  A   0.

If these conditions are met, then the system has a unique solution. We state Cramer's
THEOREM for a system of three equations in three unknowns. However, this can be
generalized to a system of n linear equations in n unknowns.

25
 THEOREM

(Cramer's Rule).
a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3 = b1
Let a21 x1  a22 x2  a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1  a32 x2  a33 x3 = b3
be a system of equations with coefficient matrix A =  aij  .

If det  A   0 , then the system has one solution  x1 , x2 , x3  , given by

xj =
 ;
det Aj
j = 1, 2, 3
det  A 
where Aj is obtained from A by replacing the j -th column of A with the column of constants :
b1
b2
b3

det  Aj 
Remark: When you consider x j = , do realize that Aj is obtained by removing the column
det  A 
of coefficients of x j from A and replacing them with the constants.
Clearly, in the THEOREM we have :
 b1 a12 a13   a11 b1 a13   a11 a12 b1 
A1 = b 2 a22 a23 , A 2 = a21 b 2 a23  ,
  A 3 = a21 a22 b 2 
     
b3 a32 a33  a31 b3 a33  a31 a32 b3 

An advantage of Cramer's Rule is that you are able to solve for a specific unknown.

Example 1.23
Use Cramer's Rule to solve for the unknown y appearing in the non-homogeneous system :
x  y  z = 0
y  z = 1
2x  z = 3

26
 1 1 1
A = 0 1 1
2 0 1
1 1 1
Solution: = 0 1 1 R1,3  2 
0 2 1
1 1
= 1 1
11

2 1
= 11  2  = 1
det  A2 
Because A  0 , we can employ Cramer's Rule and y=
det  A 
where A2 is formed by replacing the coefficients of y appearing
in the coefficient matrix A with the constants. Thus :
1 0 1
A2 = 0 1 1
2 3 1
1 0 1
= 0 1 1 R1,3  2 
0 3 1
1 1
= 1 1
11

3 1
= 1  1  3  = 2
det  A2  2
y = = = 2.
det  A  1

One disadvantage of Cramer's Rule is that it can only be applied to a restricted class of linear
systems.

The following technique can be employed to solve any system of linear equations.

1.9 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION AND THE AUGMENTED MATRIX

The basic idea used in this technique is that we replace a given system with a simpler system of
equations having the same solution set. To obtain a simpler system with the same solution set
as the original system, we restrict manipulation of the equation to the following elementary three
row operations:
• Replacement of an equation with the sum of the equation and any multiple of
a different equation.
• Replacement of an equation with a nonzero multiple of itself.
• Interchanging of any two equations.
Since the equations are in rows, the above elementary row operations correspond to the meaning
27
associated with 𝑅 → 𝑅 + 𝐾. 𝑅 , 𝑅 (𝐾), 𝑅 ↔ 𝑅 ) encountered earlier.

It can be proved formally that performing these operations on a system does not change the
solution set. NOTE: This is only applicable to elementary row operations and not elementary
column operations.

Systems of equations having the same solution set are called equivalent systems.

Example 1.22
Solve the system, using only elementary row operations :

2 x1  4 x2  6 x3 = 18
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3 = 24
3 x1  x2  2 x3 = 4

Solution: Notice that the variables x1 are listed beneath one another and the same applies to the
variables x2 and x3 . For the solution we find :

2 x1  4 x2  6 x3 = 18
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3 = 24
3 x1  x2  2 x3 = 4
1x1  2 x2  3x3  9 1
2 R1 x1  2 x2  3 x3  9
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3  24 3x2  6 x3  12 R2  R2   4  R1
3x1  x2  2 x3  4 3x1  x2  2 x3  4

x1  2 x2  3 x3  9 x1  2 x2  3 x3  9
3 x2  6 x3  12 x2  2 x3  4   13  R2
5 x2  11x3  23 R3  R3   3  R1 5 x2  11x3  23

x1  2 x2  3 x3  9 x1  1x3  1 R1  R1   2  R2
x2  2 x3  4 x2  2 x3  4
1x3  3 R3  R3  5 R2 x3  3  1 R3

x1  4 R1  R1  R3
x2  2 R2  R2   2  R3
x3  3

Therefore, the system has a unique solution with solution set :

 x 1 , x 2,x 3  | x 1 = 4, x 2 = 2, x 3 = 3 

28
DEFINITION

Consider the following system of m equations in n unknowns :

a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn = b1
a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn = b2
 
am1 x1  a2 m x2    amn xn = bm

 a11 a12  a 1n b1 
a  b 2 
Then  21 a 22 a 2n
is the augmented matrix of the system.
     
 
am 1 am 2  amn bm 

Example 1.23
Solve the system
2 x1  4 x2  6 x3 = 18
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3 = 24
3 x1  x2  2 x3 = 4
using Gaussian elimination and the augmented matrix of the system.

Solution: This is the system discussed in the previous example and its augmented matrix is :

2 4 6 18
 4 5 6 24
 
 3 1 2 4

Proceeding with the solution :

2 4 6 18  12  R1  1 2 3 9 1 2 3 9
 4 5 6 24  4 5 6 24  R2  R2   4  R1  0 3 6 12

   
 3 1 2 4   3 1 2 4   3 1 2 4 

1 2 3 9 1 2 3 9  1 2 3 9
0 3 6 12 
     R2 0 1 2 4
1
3
 0 1 2 4
 
R3  R3   3 R1 0 5 11 23 0 5 11 23 R3  R3  5 R2 0 0 1 3

R1  R1   2  R2  1 0 1 1 R1  R1  R3 1 0 4
0 1 2 4  R2  R2   2  R3  0 1 0 2 

 
 1 R3 0 0 1 3  0 0 1 3

29
 This augmented matrix represents the system :

x1 = 4
x2 = 2
x3 = 3

which gives the solution set  ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) | x 1 = 4, x 2 = 2, x 3 = 3 

Note how the Gaussian Elimination technique is a systematic attempt to reduce the coefficient
matrix of the system to an identity matrix.

Example 1.24
Solve :
x1  2 x2  x3 = 2
2 x1  3 x2  5 x3 = 5
 x1  3 x2  8 x3 = 1

Solution: Consider the augmented matrix

 1 2 1 2 
 2 3 5 5
 
 1 3 8 1

 1 2 1 2  R1  R1  2 R2  1 0 13 4 
R2  R2   2  R1 0 1 7 1  0 1 7 1
   
R3  R3  R1 0 1 7 1 R3  R3  R2 0 0 0 0  Note row of zeroes

 1 0 13 4 
 0 1 7 1
 1 R2  
 0 0 0 0 
The last augmented matrix represents the system :
x1  13 x3 = 4
x2  7 x3 = 1
Therefore, all solutions  x1 , x2 , x3  of the system will satisfy
x1 = 4  13 x3
x2 = 1  7 x3
x3  ,
The system, therefore, has an infinite number of solutions and the solution set is :
 x 1 , x 2 , x 3  | x 1 = 4  13x 3 , x 2 = 1  7x 3 , x 3   .
We can obtain particular solutions by assigning a specific value for x3 , for example, if

30
 x3 = 1 then x1 = 9, x2 = 6, x3 = 1 is a particular solution of the system.

Example 1. 25
Determine the solution set of :

x  y  2z = 1
x  2z = 0
x  y  4z = 2
4 x  3 y  4 z = 2

Solution:
 1 1 2 1  1 1 2 1  1 1 2 1
 1 0 2 0  
R2  R2   1 R1 0 1 4 1  0 1 4 1
     
 1 1 4 2 R3  R3   1 R1 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 1
     
 4 3 4 2  R4  R4  4 R1 0 1 4 2  R4  R4  R2 0 0 0 1

The last row of this augmented matrix states 0 x1  0 x2  0 x3 = 1, which is impossible.

The system is, therefore, an inconsistent system and the solution set is the empty set
or  .

Example 1.26
Solve :
x  y  2z = 1
x  2z = 0
x  y  4z = 2
4 x  3 y  4 z = 3
Solution

 1 1 2 1  1 1 2 1  1 1 2 1
 1 0 2 0 
R2  R2   1 R1 0 1 4 1  0 1 4 1
     
 1 1 4 2 R3  R3   1 R1  0 0 2 1 2 R3
1
0 0 1 12 
     
 4 3 4 3 R4  R4  4 R1  0 1 4 1 R4  R4  R2 0 0 0 0 Not contradictory

R1  R1   2  R3  1 1 0 0 R1  R1  R2  1 0 0 1
 0 1 0 1 0 1
R2  R2  4 R3 0 1 
0 0 1 12  0 0 1 12 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

31
Therefore, the solution is represented by x  1, y  1 and z  12 .

The solution set consists of an unique :  x; y; z  | x  1, y  1, z  .

1
2

1.10 THE INVERSE MATRIX

One of the most important properties that a square matrix can have, is invertibility.

DEFINITION

An n  n matrix A is invertible if there exists an n  n matrix B such that AB = BA = I n . If

such a B exists, it is called the inverse of A and we denote it by A 1 .

Naturally, for a given matrix A two questions need to be answered, viz.

• When does a given n  n matrix A have an inverse?

• If such an inverse A1 exists, how is it calculated?

The answer to the first question is given by the following THEOREM.

THEOREM

Let A be an n  n matrix.
A is invertible (i.e. A1 exists)  det  A   0.

Therefore, for a given n  n matrix A , if det  A   0 , we know A1 exists.

We employ Gaussian Elimination to perform the reduction :

A | I n  Gaussian Elimination  I
  n | A 1

where A is an n  n matrix with det  A   0.

Example 1.27
 2 3
Determine A1 if it exists, where A =  .
 1 2
2 3
Solution: Because A = = 4  3 = 1 , we have det  A   0 which implies A1 exists.
1 2

32
 Determine A1 by doing the reduction :  A | I 2  G
.E.  I 2 | A1  .

Hence,

2 3 1 0
 1 2 0 1
 

R1  R2  1 2 0 1 1 2 0 1
 2 3 1 0 R2  R2   2  R1 0 1 1 2 

 

R1  R1  2 R2  1 0 2 3  1 0 2 3 
0 1 1 2   1 R2 0 1 1 2 
 
 2 3
Therefore, A1 =  
 1 2 
Check that this is correct : A  A1 = I 2 and A1 A = I 2 must be true.

 2 3  2 3
AA 1 =   
 1 2   1 2 

 2(2)  3  1 2  3  3  2    1 0

=   =   = I2
1 2   2  1 1 3  2  2   0 1

Similarly, you can verify that A1 A = I 2 also holds.

One application of the inverse matrix is its use in solving a system of equations with
• square coefficient matrix A and
• det  A   0.
Notice that these are the same conditions required when we were discussing Cramer's Rule.
Suppose we had matrix equation representation of a system of equation in which the coefficient
matrix satisfies the two conditions stated above.
Then A1 exists and
AX = B
 A 1  AX  = A 1B
 A A  X
1
= A 1B
 I n X = A  1B , where A is an n  n matrix
1
 X = A B.
Because matrix multiplication is NOT commutative, we need to ensure we use
X = A 1 B and NOT X = BA 1 .

33
 Example 1.28
2x  3 y = 2
Solve the system using the inverse matrix method.
x  2y = 4

Solution: The matrix equation of the system is AX = B , where

 2 3 x  2
A =  , X =  , B =  .
 1 2 y  4
 2 3
In the previous example we saw that A  0 and that A1 existed, with A1 =  .
 1 2 
Therefore X = A1B

x   2 3 2
  =   4
y   1 2   
  4  12  
= 
  2  8  

x   8
  =  
y   6

 x = 8, y = 6 is the solution of the system.

2  8   3  6  = 16  18 = 12
Check :
 8   2  6 = 8  12 = 4
And x = 8, y = 6 satisfies both equations.

One advantage of this method of solving a system of linear equations is that should we replace
the constant matrix B in AX = B , but kept A unchanged, the solution is easily obtained.

Example 1.29
Consider the same system as in example 30, but with different constant terms
2x  3y = 6
x  2y = 0
Use the inverse matrix to solve the system.

 2 3  x 6 
Solution: Here AX = B , with A =   , X =   , B =  .
 1 2  y 0 

 2 3
As before A1 =   , so:
 1 2 

34
 x 
y  = A 1B
 
 2 3 6
=   
 1 2 0
x   12
  =  
y   6 

 x = 12, y = 6 is the unique solution of the system.

Example 1.30
2x  z = 2
Solve the system : y  z = 3
x  z = 4
using the inverse matrix if possible, otherwise use Gaussian elimination.

Solution: The matrix equation representing the system is AX = B where

 2 0 1  x  2
A = 0 1 1 , X = y , B =  3 and
   
     
 1 0 1  z   4 
2 0 1
A = 0 1 1 = 1( 1) 2  2  2  1 = 3
1 0 1
Since A  0 , A1 exists and we can use the inverse matrix method.

Determine A1 as follows:

 A | I3  G
.E.  I 3 | A1  .

Now

 2 0 1 1 0 0 R1  R3  1 0 1 0 0 1  1 0 1 0 0 1
 0 1 1 0 1 0  0 1 1 0 1 0  0 1 1 0 1 0
     
 1 0 1 0 0 1  2 0 1 1 0 0  R3  R3  2 R1  0 0 3 1 0 2 

 1 R1  1 0 1 0 0 1 R1  R1  R 3 1 0 0 1
3 0  13 
0 1 1 0 1 0 R2  R2   1 R 3  0 1 0  13 1  32 
 
 13  R3 0 0 1 13 0 23   0 0 1 1
3 0 2
3

35
  13 0  13   1 0 1
1
 A 1 =   13 1  23  = 1 3 2  .
3  
 13 0 2
3
 1 0 2 

Therefore, X = A1B gives :

x   1 0 1  2    2  4   2   23 

 2  9  8  =
1 1 1 
y  =
 
 1 3 2   3 
     1 =   13 
3 3 3 
 z   1 0 2   4    2  8    10  103 

 x =  23 , y =  13 , z = 103 is the solution of the system.

1.10 TERMINOLOGY
Main Diagonal
Additive
inverse
Augmented Matrix
Matrix
Coefficient Matrix Product
Matrix
Cofactor Minor of a determinant
Expansion
Column Matrix Non-Homogeneous System
Cramer's Rule Particular Solutions
Determinant Row Matrix
Difference of Scalar Multiple
matrices
Equal Solution Set
Matrices
Equivalent Square Matrix
systems
Gaussian Sum of matrices
Elimination
Homogeneous Symmetric Matrix
System
Identity Matrix Systems of equations
Inconsistent Trace of a matrix
System
Inner Product Transpose of a matrix
Inverse Matrix Triangular matrix
Invertible Upper Triangular
Linear Zero Matrix.
Equation
Lower
Triangular

36
 CHAPTER 1 EXERCISES
1.1 Write down one example of each of the following :

a) a 1 3 matrix A
b) the zero 2  3 matrix 0
c) a 3  3 diagonal matrix C such that C  I 3
d) I 4

e) a column matrix D =  d ij 
21

f) a row matrix E =  eij 

12

 2 0 2
 2 1 3 3 2 1  3 2  
1. 2 Let A =   , B =  1 0 3 , C =  1 1 and D =  1 3 0  .
 0 5 1      1 1 1

Determine the following if they are defined :

 B  A ,  C  B  , AD , tr  CC  , BD , 2 A  4 B , tr  AD 
T T
a)
 A  B  D ,  AD  BD  , tr  CAD  , tr  2C 
T T
b)
c) D2 where D n = D  D  ...  D for n factors of D , where n  

 1 1 1
1.3. Show that A = I 3 , where A =  2 1 0 .
3
 
 1 0 0

1.4 Determine det  A  using cofactor expansion according to the row or column of your choice :

0 6 0  3 1 0  1 3 7
a) A =  8 6 8 
b) A = 2 4 3 c) A =  2 0 8
     
 3 2 2  5 4 2   1 3 4 

1.5 Find the following determinants by inspection :

1 2 3 3 1 2
a) 3 7 6 b) 6 2 4
1 2 3 1 7 3

37
1.6 Use elementary row operation to determine det  A  :

 2 1 1  2 4 8
a) A =  4 2 3 b) A = 2 7 2 

   
 1 7 3  0 1 5

2 1 2 1  12 1
2 1 1
2
1  1 
0 1 1 1
0 1
c) A=  d) A =  22 2 2
0 2 1 0  3 1
3
1
3 0
   1 
0 1 2 3  3 1 1
3 0

1.8 Use Cramer's Rule to show that for the system :

x  y  z = 0
y  z = 1
2x  z = 3

x = 1, y = 2 , z = 1 is the unique solution of the system.

1.9 Use Cramer's Rule to determine the solution set of the system :

x1  2 x3 = 6
3 x1  4 x2  6 x3 = 30.
 x1  2 x2  3 x3 = 8

1.10 Use Cramer's Rule (if possible) to solve:

2 x1  4 x2  6 x3 = 18
4 x1  5 x2  6 x3 = 24
3 x1  x2  2 x3 = 4

1.11
x1  2 x2  x3 = 2
The system 2 x1  3 x2  5 x3 = 5 has a square coefficient matrix.
 x1  3 x2  8 x3 = 1

Can we employ Cramer's Rule?

Check whether det  A   0 holds where A is the coefficient matrix of the system.

38
1.12 Use Gaussian elimination to solve the following systems :

a) b)
x1  2 x2  3x3 = 11 3 x1  6 x2  6 x3 = 9
4 x1  x2  x3 = 4 2 x1  5 x2  4 x3 = 6
2 x1  x2  x3 = 10  x1  16 x2  14 x3 = 3

c) d)
x1  x2  x3 = 7 x1  x2  x3 = 0
4 x1  x2  5 x3 = 4 4 x1  x2  5 x3 = 0
6 x1  x2  3 x3 = 20 6 x1  x2  3 x3 = 0

e) f)
x1  2 x2  x3  x4 = 2
x1  2 x2  4 x3 = 4 3 x1  2 x3  2 x4 = 8
2 x1  4 x2  8 x3 = 9 4 x2  x3  x4 = 1
 x1  6 x2  2 x3 = 7

g) h)
x1  x2 = 4 x1  x2 = 4
2 x1  3 x2 = 7 2 x1  3 x2 = 7
3 x1  2 x2 = 8 3 x1  2 x2 = 11

39
1.13 Determine A1 , if it exists :

 1 2 3  3 1 5
1 2 
a) A=   b) A =  2 5 3 c) A =  2 4 1
   
1 2   1 0 8  4 2 9 

 5 11 7 3
 15 1 1
 2
5 5
1 4 5
d) A =  15 1 4
 5 e) A = 
5
 3 2 8 7
  52 1
10
1 
10   
0 0 0 0

1.14 Solve the following systems, using inverses of matrices. You may assume they exist

a) b)
2 x  4 y  6 z = 18
3 x1  4 x2 = 5
4 x  5 y  6 z = 24
2 x1  x2 = 4
3x  y  2z = 4

c) d)
2 x1  3 x2  x3 = 3 2x  y  z = 4
x1  2 x2  x3 = 1 3x  2 y  4 z = 11
 x1  4 x2 = 2 6x  8y  4 z = 22

40
 CHAPTER 2
EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS
After working through this chapter you should be able to:

 Draw graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions

 Know definitions and properties of exponents and logarithms and use them to:
 Expand expressions
 Evaluate expressions
 Write expressions as a single logarithm
 Know what the natural exponent, the natural logarithm and common logarithm are
 Find derivatives of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions
 Calculate derivatives of complicated functions using logarithmic differentiation

2.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Although the functions y = x 2 and y = 2 x possess exactly the same variables, they behave totally
differently. y = x 2 is a quadratic function while y = 2 x is what we call an exponential function
where the input value is in the exponent.

Now what if, say y =  2  :

x

 even powers result in positive values of y ,

 uneven powers in negative values of y .
But what about the values which are neither even nor odd, e.g. x = 12 ?
Clearly (−2) = √−2 ∉ ℝ. Thus we will not allow our base to be negative.
The graphs of y = 0 x and 1x are straight lines and will hence also be excluded.

Definition

The function f defined by f ( x )  a x , where a  0, a  1 and the exponent 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, is called the

exponential function with base a .

Thus we get : y = a x is an exponential function where we have two cases for a (the base), viz. :

• 0 < a <1 (i,e, proper fractions)

• a > 1.

41
Now the graphs of the above look like as follows (you can confirm the shape once the
differentiation of exponential graphs have been done) :

0  a 1 y  ax a 1

1 1

Note the following :

• All exponential graphs have a y-intercept of  0;1

x x
• lim a = 0 if a > 1 ; lima = 0 if 0 < a < 1
x  x 

• a > 0  x   . 𝑎 > 0 ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ
x

Now the following rules of exponents must be known , 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 1, 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℝ

• a0 = 1
• a n  a m = a nm
• a 
n m
= a nm
1
• an =
an
• an = am  n = m
 ab 
n
• = a nb n
n
a an
•   = .
b bn

Now, one of the most useful numbers (irrational) which we shall use is what is known as Euler's
number: e .

Definition

e = lim 1  r  r
1
r 0

The usefulness of e will become apparent as we progress through the course. An estimated
value of e is 2,71.

42
 Thus, if we draw y = e x , we obtain

y  ex

2.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Now we introduce the inverse of the exponential function which we call the logarithmic function.

Definition

The logarithmic function with base a , where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is denoted

by loga and is defined by f ( x )  loga x  a f ( x )  x .

Note the reversal of x , y in a y = x from the exponential graph y = a x , which we call an inverse
relation.

Thus : 𝑦 = log (𝑥) ⇔ 𝑎 = 𝑥; 𝑎 > 0; 𝑎 ≠ 1; 𝑥 > 0; 𝑦 ∈ ℝ

One must easily be able to go from logarithmic form to exponential form and vice versa - especially
when solving for an unknown. See later examples once we have completed the logarithmic laws.

Now, as for exponential functions, we can also draw the logarithmic functions :

y  loga x a 1
0  a 1

1 1

Note: We can only take log aM of a positive number M and the x-intercept is 1; 0  .
43
 Now the following logarithms are commonly used :

• Common logarithm : log x : Note, no base written but base 10 meant.

• Natural logarithm : ln x : Note, ln x  log ex (i.e. base e ).

This will prove extremely useful in differentiation.

The following logarithmic laws are also very important :

 log a  mn  = log am  log an

m
 log a   = log am  log an
n
 log am n = nlog am
 log aa = 1
 log a1 = 0
log cm
 log am = (change of base law)
log ca
 log am = log an  m = n
log m
 a a =m
 log a a m  m

No proofs of the above will be required, but the statements must be known.

Example 2.1
Solve for x in the following :

a). log 3x  log 39 = 4 b) log 327 = x

c). ln  x  1 = 9 d) log x 49 = 2
3x
e). 2 = 41

Solution
a).
log 3x  log 39 = 4
 x = 4
log 3  
9
34 = x (x found within log ; go to exponential form)
9
9  34 = x
36
= x.

44
 b)
log 327 = x
log 333 = x (try to write 27 in base 3:same as log base)
3log 33 = x
3 1 = x
x = 3
c)
ln  x  1 = 9
log e  x  1 = 9
e9 = x  1
x = e9  1

d)
log x 49 = 2
x2 = 49
x = 7
But base of the log is always positive, hence x = 7
e)
23 x = 41 (x is power:go into logarithmic form)
3x = log 2 41
3x = ln 41
ln 2
x = ln 41 (changed to natural logs as calculator can then be used)
3 ln 2

In the next section we shall see that writing logarithms in simplified natural log form will prove
useful for differentiation.

Example 2.2
Write the following in natural log form :
 x 1 
log  x 2  1 log 3x 2  4log 2  x  3x 2 
3
a) b) log   c)
 x 1 

45
 Solution
a)
log  x 2  1
3
= 3log  x 2  1

= ln  x 2  1
3
ln10

= 3
 ln  x 2  1
ln10

b)
x  1 = log  x  1  log  x  1
log
x 1
= ln  x  1 ln  x  1

ln10 ln10

= 1
ln10
 ln  x  1  ln  x  1 

c)
log 3x 2  4log 2  x  3x 2  = 2log 3x  4log 2  x  3x 2 

= ln x ln  x  3x 2 
2  4
ln 3 ln 2

= 2
ln 3
 ln x  
4
ln 2

ln  x  3x 2  

2.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

We now look at how to differentiate logarithmic functions. This will be seen to very important and
useful. The only pre-knowledge needed to find Dx  ln( x )  , will be the following :
 A
ln( A)  ln( B) = ln  
B
r ln  A  = ln  Ar 
1
e = lim 1  r  r
r 0

lim  ln(u )  = ln lim u .

u a
 
u a
if u is continuous

46
 THEOREM
1
Dx  ln( x) =
x

Proof
ln  x  h   ln  x 
D x  ln( x )  = lim
h 0 h
ln  x x h 
= lim
h 0h
= lim  ln 1  xh  
1
h
h 0

= lim  x1  xh  ln 1  xh  
h 0

h
Now, let k = . Then h  0  k  0 , and hence :
x

D x  ln( x )  = lim  x1  k1  ln 1  k  
k 0

= lim  x1  ln 1  k  k 
1

k 0  
= lim x1  lim ln 1  k  k 
1

k 0 k 0  

= 1
x 
 ln lim 1  k  k
k 0
1


= 1
x  ln(e )
= 1
x
1
= 1
x

1
Note: Once again, by using the chain rule, we can obtain Dx ln f  x   =  f /  x.
f  x

Example 2. 3
dy
a) . Find if y  ln  x 2  1
dx

Solution

dy 1 2x
a)  2  2x  2
dx x  1 x 1

b). Find the domain of f (x )  ln  x 2  1

47
 Solution

You may only take the logarithm of a positive number. This means x 2  1 > 0 must hold.

-1 1
x2 1 + − +

Therefore the domain is :  ; 1  1;   .

The question arises: How do we differentiate logarithmic functions not of base e (i.e. not natural
logarithms)?

The answer is easy :

Convert to base e , then differentiate.

Example 2.4
dy
Find if y = log 3  x 2  4 x 
dx
ln  x 2  4 x  1
Solution: y = log 3  x  4 x  =
2
= ln  x 2  4 x  .
ln 3 ln3

constant
Thus:
dy 1 1
=  2   2x  4.
dx ln 3 x  4 x

Example 2.5
dy x2 1
Find if y = ln
dx 1 x

dy
Solution: To find of this expression, make life easy for yourself by FIRST simplifying the
dx
expression and then differentiating. Hence :
1
 x 2 1 2 1  x 2 1 
y = ln   = 2 ln  
 1 x   1 x 
= 12 ln  x 2  1  ln 1  x   .

dy 1  2x 1  1  2x 1 
Thus: =  2  =
 2  x  1 
dx 2  x  1 1 x 2
1  x 

48
 Example 2.6
dy  2 
3 x 1
Find if y = ln  .
dx  x 

3
 x2 1    x2  1  
Solution: Note that ln  3
 is another way of writing  ln   .
 x    x 

So we have: :
2
dy   x 2 1     x 2  1 
= 3  ln     D x ln 
 
dx   x    x 

2
  x 2 1  
   D x ln  x  1  ln( x )  (simplify first)
2
= 3  ln 
  x 

2
  x 2 1    2x 1
= 3  ln    2  .
  x   x 1 x 

2.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

How do we differentiate y = a x ? We would prefer the x in the base rather than the power.
But by taking natural logarithms both sides, we obtain:
ln y = ln a x = x  ln a

Now differentiate (using implicit differentiation) with respect to both sides :

D x  ln( y ) = D x [ ln a   x ]
 
constant

1 dy
= ln a 1
y dx
dy
= a x  ln a (substituting back for y ).
dx

Thus the technique to differentiate a power where x is in the exponent:

First take the natural logarithms on both sides , then differentiate and solve
for the desired derivative.

Note: D x a x   a x  ln a
D x e x   e x  ln e  e x

49
IMPORTANT NOTE:

It is importand to ditinguish between the following 3 functions and their derivatives:

1. 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)] : This is a power function with the variable in the base and a constant
as exponent. In this case = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)] . 𝑓′(𝑥)

2. 𝑦 = 𝑎 ( ) : This is an exponential function with a constant in the base and the

variable in the exponent. In this case = 𝑎 ( ) . ln(𝑎) . 𝑓′(𝑥)

3. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ( ) : This is neither a power function nor an exponential function as the

variable apears in both the base and the exponent. To find the derivative a
technique called “logarithmic differentiation” must be used. This will be discussed
in the next section.

Example 2.7
dy
Find if y = x x
dx

Solution:
ln( y )  ln  x x  = x  ln(x )
D x  ln( y )   D x  x  ln( x ) 
1 dy 1
  x  ln(x ) 1 product rule
y dx x
= 1  ln( x )
dy
 y 1  ln( x ) 
dx
 x x 1  ln( x ) 

Example 2.8
dy 2
Find if a) y  2x  3 b) y  32 x  5 x
dx

Solution

dy
a)  2 x ln2
dx

50
 2
b) y  32 x  5 x
dy 5 x 
2
 D x 32 x   D
dx x  

2
 32 x  (ln3)  (2)  5 x  (ln5)  (2x )

2
 2ln3  32 x  2x ln5  5x

Now in many examples you will experience finding the derivative of e f  x  . Thus we establish a
rule for this (same techniques as for previous examples).

Let
y = e f  x
 
ln( y ) = ln e f  x  = f  x  ln(e) = f  x  .
Thus:
1 dy
= f /  x
y dx
dy
= e    f /  x .
f x

dx

Example 2.9
d2y
Find D x e 3x 
2 3ln x 4
a). b). Find if y = e
  dx 2

Solutions

Dx e3 x  = e3 x  6 x
2 2
a).
 

b). Beware : When the base of the exponent is the same as the base of the logarithm in the
log m
power then simplification is possible, using a a = m .
4
So : e 3ln x = e
 
ln x 4 3
= e ln x = x 12
12

and, hence :
dy
= 12 x11
dx
d2y
2
= 132 x10 .
dx

51
2.5 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION
Logarithmic differentiation is a technique that can be used effectively in the following two cases:
1. A complex function where it can be veray cumbersome to use the other rules of
differentiation, and
2. An function involving exponents where the variable appears in in boith the base and the
exponents.

These two cases are demonstrated in the following examples:

Example 2.10
( ) ( )
a). Find b). Find 𝐷 [(2𝑥 − 3) ]
( )

Solutions

( )
a) 𝑦 = ( ( )
)
( )
ln(𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛( ( )
) [Taking ln on both sides of the equation]
( )
ln (𝑦) = ln ( ( )
) = [𝑙𝑛(2𝑥 − 1) − ln 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛(3𝑥 − 2𝑥) ]
ln(𝑦) = ln(2𝑥 − 1) − ln (𝑥) − (3𝑥 − 2𝑥)
Hence
= . − . − . Differentiating both sides using implicit
differentiation
Thus
( )
=𝑦 . − . − . = [ . − . − . ]
( )

Note that it is not necessary to use logarithmic differentiation in this case, but it
can be done using other rules of differentiation.

( )
b) 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 3)
( )
ln(𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛(2𝑥 − 3) = 3 log (3𝑥 − 2) . ln (2𝑥 − 3)
= 3. . ( ) . ln(2𝑥 − 3) + . 3 log (3𝑥 − 2)
[Implicit differentiation using product rule on the right-hand side]
( )
= (2𝑥 − 3) [3. . ( ) . ln(2𝑥 − 3) + . 3 log (3𝑥 − 2)]

Note that in this case logarithmic differentiation is the only technique available
to differentiate the function.
52
 TERMINOLOGY
2.6

Quadratic Function Natural Logarithm

Exponential Function Base
Euler's Number Exponent
Logarithmic Function Power
Common Logarithm Logarithmic differentiation

CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE
2.1 Find the value of the following logarithms (without using a calculator):

1
a) ln b) ln e 4 x c) log 77 4 d) log 2 2
e
27
e) 34log3 2 f) log10 g) log 2
23

2.2 Sketch the following :

a) y = log 2 x b) y = log 1 x c) y = ln x
3

d) y = e x e) y = 3x f) y = 0,5x

2.3. Solve for x :

a) e ln 2 x
=5 b) log 4 x = 1 c) 5  3x  6  = 10

d) 3e 2 x  1 = 1
2 e) 24 x  1 = 9

2.4 Express the following in terms of ln x , ln  x  1 , ln  x  2  or ln (constant)

9
 x 
ln  x  x  1 
10
a) b) log 3  
  x 2

x9 x 1
c) log d) log
 x  2 x 2

 1 x2 
e) ln  5 
 x  2  x  1 4 
 

53
2.5 Find the first derivatives of the following functions :

a) y = ln  x 2  x 

b) p  a  = log 3 a 2  1

c) h  z  = z 2  ln 4 1  z 2 

2.6 Find the derivatives as indicated in the following :

2
a) g  x  = 3 x  4 ; g / 1

b) h  r  = r 2  2r ; h / r 

4 log9 ( x )
c) z =9 ; z //

d) y x  = e 2 x  ln  x 2  ; y / x 

2.7 Find y / if e xy
 y = x [ Hint : use implicit differentiation].

2.8 Use logarithmic differentiation to find the first derivative of the following functions:

√
a) 𝑦 =
( )
( )( )
b) 𝑦 =
√
c) 𝑦 = (ln(3𝑥 + 1))

54
 CHAPTER 3
DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC,
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS
After working through this chapter you should be able to:

 Understand the concept and application of radian measure

o Know the definition of radian measure
o Convert between radians and degrees
o Find the length of an arc of a circle with given radius that subtends a given central angle
o Find the measure of a central angle in a circle with given radius subtended by an arc of
a given length.
 Apply differentiation formulae for trigonometric functions

3.1 RADIAN MEASURE

At school level angles were measured in degrees and used as such in Trigonometry. We shall now
introduce a new angle measure which will prove more useful in Calculus.
We shall briefly look at some trigonometric problems, using the new angle measure. Also make
sure that you understand the Trigonometry revision in ( See appendix 1) as we will assume it
known.
Consider the following :

Angle  drawn in circle of radius r results in an arclength s.

Definition

The new angle measure (which is called radians) is defined as follows :

arclength  s
=  = .
radius  r

Note:  has no unit attached.

55
A question which should spring to mind, is the following: What is the relationship between radian
measure and degree measure?

Consider an angle of 360  =  .

Then, by radian measure,

arclength 2 r
360 =  = = = 2 .
radius r

Hence 180 =  (radians).

The above forms the basis for all conversions:


1  (radians)
180

 180  
1 (radian)     57.3
  

 
Thus, say we want to find 60 in radians : 60 = 60  
= (radians).
180 3

Note:

• If no measure given, then the angle is in radians

• negative value also means angle measured in clockwise direction

• sin(𝜃 + 𝑘. 2𝜋) = sin(𝜃) ; 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

cos(𝜃 + 𝑘. 2𝜋) = cos(𝜃) ; 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

tan(𝜃 + 𝑘. 2𝜋) = tan(𝜃) ; 𝑘 ∈ ℤ

56
 Example 3.1
a). Convert the following angles from degrees to radians :
0 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90

Solution
  
0  0 30   
180 180 
6
   
45  
 60  

180 4 180 3
 
90  

180 2

 2 5
b). Convert to degrees:  ; ; 
2 3 6

Solution
 180
   90
2 

2 180
  120 
3 

5 180
   150
6 

3.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Definition: If given a point ( x; y ) is a distance r = x 2  y 2 from the origin (0;0) as in the sketch below.

(0;0)
)

then we define the following trigonometric functions as the ratios:

57
 y r
sin( )  csc( )  if y  0
r y
x r
cos( )  sec( )  if x  0
r x
y x
tan( )  if x  0 cot( )  if y  0
x y
All trigonometric identities defined for angles measured in degrees still hold for angles
measured in radians, take note of the following:
1 1
sin( )  cos( ) 
csc( ) sec( )

1 sin( )
tan()  tan() 
cot() cos( )

sin2 ( )  cos2 ()  1

sin( )   sin( ) cos( )  cos( ) tan( )   tan( )

sin( A  B )  sin( A)cos( B )  cos( A)sin( B )

sin( A  B )  sin( A)cos( B )  cos( A)sin( B )
sin(2 A)  2 sin( A)cos( A)

cos( A  B )  cos( A)cos( B )  sin( A)sin( B )

cos( A  B )  cos( A)cos( B )  sin( A)sin( B )
cos(2 A)  cos2 ( A)  sin2 ( A)

Trignometric values of the special angles, 0o , 30o , 45o , 60o , 90o were found using special
triangles. These special triangles can be adapted to use for the radian measure as follows:

58
 Example 3.2

Use the special triangles to determine:

  3   
a) cos   b) sin   c) sec   
3  4   6

Solutions

 1
a) cos   
3 2

 3       

sin    sin     sin   cos    cos   sin  
b)  4  2 4 2 4 2 4

2 2 2
 1  0 
2 2 2

  1 1 2
c) sec      
 6  cos     cos    3
 6 6
   

3.3 DIFFERENTIATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Before we obtain the rules for differentiating the trigonometric functions, we need the following
identities.
sin     = sin( )cos(  )  cos( )sin(  )

cos      = cos( )cos(  )  sin( )sin(  )

Also recall that we now work in radian measure. The importance can be seen in the next table :

sin( ) sin( )
degrees  radians 

0,1 0, 2 0,1 1, 00
0, 01 0, 2 0, 01 1, 00
0, 001 0, 2 0, 001 1, 00
0,1 0, 2 0,1 1, 00
0, 01 0, 2 0, 01 1, 00
0, 001 
0, 2 0, 001 1, 00

sin( ) sin( )
Thus it would seem that in degrees : lim = 0, 02 whereas (in radians) : lim = 1.
 0   0 
59
 s i n ( )
We shall not formally prove it, but will accept lim = 1 working in radians.
 0 
From here on all angles will be in terms of radians.
co s( )  1
lim = 0.
Another important limit we shall need is :
0 
THEOREM
Dx sin( x)  = cos( x ) .

Proof
sin  x  h   sin(x )
D x sin(x )  = lim
h 0 h
sin( x )  cos(h )  cos( x )  sin( h )  sin( x )
= lim
h 0 h
 sin( x )  cos(h )  1 cos(x )  sin(h ) 
= lim   
h 0
 h h 
cos(h )  1 sin( h )
= lim sin( x )  lim  lim cos(x )  lim
h 0 h 0 h h 0 h 0 h
= sin( x )  (0)  cos( x )  (1)
= cos( x )

Now, what if we consider Dx sin f  x   : Let u = f  x  , thus:

y = sin f  x  = sin(u )
u = f  x
Then, by the chain rule :
dy dy du
= 
dx du dx
= cos(u )  f /
x 
= cos f  x    f /
x 

 D x sin  f  x    = cos  f (x )   f / ( x )

which is useful in obtaining the rule for differentiating cos  f  x   .

THEOREM

D x cos f  x   =  sin  f  x    f /
x 

Proof: Consider :
60
 sin  2  f  x   = sin  2  cos  f  x    cos  2  sin  f ( x ) 
= 1  cos  f ( x )   0  sin  f ( x ) 
= cos  f ( x ) .
Thus :
D x cos f  x   = D x sin  2  f  x  
= cos  2  f  x    D x  2  f  x  
= cos  2  f  x     f /
 x 
=  cos  2  cos  f  x    sin  2  sin  f  x     f /
 x  
=  0  sin  f  x    f /
 x 

 D x cos f  x   =  sin f  x    f /

x .

The remaining differentiation rules are now stated, but each one is easily obtained by writing the
function in terms of sin( x) and cos( x) and then using already known differentiation rules like the
quotient rule.
By applying the chain rule, the general case is obtained.

THEOREM
D x  tan  f  x    = sec 2  f  x    f x 
/

D x sec  f  x    = sec  f  x   tan  f  x    f /

x 

D x csc  f  x    =  csc  f  x   cot  f  x    f x 

/

D x cot  f  x    = csc 2  f  x    f '

x 

Proof: Exercise.

Note: The derivatives of trigonometric functions starting with a '' c '', all have negative signs in their
answers.

Example 3.3
dy
Find for the following :
dx
a). y = sin(3x 2 ) b). y = sin( x)  tan( x)

61
c) y = cos 4(2 x) d) y = sin  tan( x)  .

Solutions
dy
a). = cos  3 x 2    6 x = 6 x cos(3 x 2 )
dx 

We usually write the '' x bits'' not associated with the trigonometric function in the front ( as the
coefficient of the trigonometric function).

dy
b)  sin(x )  D x  tan( x )   tan(x )  D x sin( x ) 
dx

= sin( x) sec 2 ( x)  tan( x) cos( x)

c) Note : cos 4 (2 x) is another way of writing  cos(2 x)  . Thus :

4

 cos(2x ) 
4
y =
dy
= 4  cos 2x  D x  cos(2x )
3

dx
= 4  cos 2x     sin(2x )  2 
3

=  8cos3 (2x ) sin(2x )

d)
dy
 Dx sin  tan( x)   2
1

dx
1
 1
2 sin  tan( x )   2  D x sin  tan x  

sin  tan(x )  2  cos  tan(x )   D x  tan x 

1
 1
2

sin  tan(x )  2  cos  tan(x )   sec2 ( x )

1
 1
2

62
Example 3. 4

Find an equation for the tangent line to y = x tan( x) at x = 4 .

dy
Solution: Now ytan = mx  c where m =
dx x  4
and
dy
= x  sec 2 (x )  tan(x ) 1
dx
1
= x  tan(x )
 cos(x ) 
2

dy
m =
dx x = 4

 1
=   tan  4 
 cos   
2
4 
4

 1
=   1
 
2
4 1
2

= 
4
 2 1
= 1
2   2 

Thus, y tan = 12 (  2)x  c . But  

4 ; 4 tan  4   =  4 ; 4  is a point on the tangent line,

Therefore 
4 = 12 (  2)  4   c  c =  18  2 .

Hence y tan = 12 (  2)x  1

8 2

Example 3. 5
a) Show that y = e x sin( x) is a solution to the differential equation
y //  2 y /  2 y = 0 .

x sin( x )
b) Find or which x -value the function y = e has a slope of zero on
the interval  0; 2  .

63
Solutions:

a) y /  x  = e x  cos( x )  sin( x )  e x (product rule)

= e  cos( x )  sin( x) 
x

y //  x  = e x   sin( x)  cos( x)   cos( x)  sin( x)  e x

= e x   sin( x)  cos( x)  cos( x)  sin( x) 
= 2e x cos( x)
Therefore:
y //  2 y /  2 y = 2e x cos( x)  2 e x  cos( x)  sin( x)   2e x sin( x)
= 2e x cos( x)  2e x cos( x)  2e x sin( x)  2e x sin( x)
= 0
b)
dy
Slope : = e x  sin( x ) 1  cos x  .
dx
dy
= 0
dx
 e x sin x 1  cos x  = 0
 e x sin x = 0 or 1  cos x = 0.
But :
x  sin x
e > 0
 cos x = 1
 x =    0; 2 

Example 3.6
sin (x )   x  1
3 2
dy
Find if y =
dx 4x  x 3

Solution: So far this would involve the quotient rule and within the quotient rule you would need
both the power rule and the product rule. Rather messy!
However, once again the natural logarithm aids us. Take the natural logarithms on both sides
dy
and SIMPLIFY, then differentiate and solve for dx , i.e.
 sin 3 ( x )   x 2  1 
ln y = ln  
 4x  x 3 

= ln  sin 3 ( x )   ln  x 2  1  ln 4x  x 3

ln y = 3ln  sin(x )   ln  x 2  1  12 ln  4x  x 3  .

64
 Now differentiating both sides with respect to x :

1 dy  cos x  2x 1  4  3x 2 
= 3     
y dx  sin x  x 2 1 2  4x  x 3 
dy  2x 1  4  3x 2  
= y 3cot x    
dx  x 2 1 2  4x  x 3  
sin x  x  1 
2
1  4  3x 2  
3
2x
= 3cot x     .
4x  x 3  x 2 1 2  4x  x 3  

Thus, if ever you are faced with more than two factors being either multiplied or divided, then it is
much easier taking the natural logarithms first , simplifying and then doing the differentiation.

Example 3.7

Find: p  r  if
/
p r  = 4
r cos 3 r  1
2
 2

ln  r  1

Solution

1
 r 2 cos 3  r 2  1  4
ln  p  r   = ln  
 ln  r  1 

 r 2 cos 3  r 2  1 
= 1
 ln 
ln  r  1 
4


= 1
4  ln r
2
 
ln cos 3 r  1
2
  ln  ln  r  1  

ln  p  r   = 1
4  2 ln r  
3 ln  cos r  1 
2
  ln  ln  r  1

Note: As yet, no differentiation has been done. We have just taken logarithms and simplified
using log laws. We only now differentiate both side with respect to r.

65
 1 1 1  sin  r 2  1  2r 1 1 
p / r  = 2   3   1
p r  4 r
 cos  r 2  1 ln  r  1 r  1 

1 2

6r sin r  1  2
 
1 
=  
4 r 
cos r  1
2
  r  1 ln  r  1 

1 2 1 
=   6r tan r  1  2
 
4 r  r  1 ln  r  1 

1 2 1 
p / r  = p r    6r tan r  1  2
 
4 r  r  1 ln  r  1 

1
2 3
r 2
  2 1 
 
r cos 1
=     6 r tan r  1
2
 .
 r  1 ln  r  1 
4

4 ln  r  1   r

3.4 TERMINOLOGY
Arclength Radians
Degrees Special Triangles
Radian Measure Trigonometric Identities

66
 CHAPTER 3 EXERCISES
3.1. Convert the following angles from degrees to radians :

20 ; 120 ;  60 ; 50 ; 3 ,  17 , 290

3.2. Convert the following angles from radians to degrees:

2  5 5
; 7 ;  ; ;
3 2 3 6

3.3. Use the special  's with angles in radians and then determine the following without using a
calculator :

   4   5 
a) tan   b) cos   c) sin  
3  3   2 

     
d) sec   e) cot   f) sin   
4 6  4

3.4. Prove the following:

a ) D x  tan  f  x   = sec 2  f  x    f /
x 

b ) D x sec  f  x    = sec  f  x   tan  f  x    f x 

/

c ) D x csc  f  x   =  csc  f  x   cot  f  x    f /

x 

d ) D x cot  f  x   = csc 2  f  x    f '

x 

3.5. Find the derivatives as indicated for the following :

3 dy
a) y = sin (4x ) ;
dx
dy
y = sec  tan(4x ) ;
2
b)
dx
d 2y
c) y = 4cos 2 (x )  14cos( x 2 ) ;
dx 2
d) r = sec  tan(t )  ; r / t 
sin( p )  p 2
e) g p = ; g /  
p2  p

67
3.6. Find the first derivatives of the following functions :

a) y = ln  x 2  x  b) g  r  = ln  sin(r 2 ) 

c) f (x ) = ln sin 2 (x )  d) p  a  = log 3 a 2  1

e) h  z  = z 2  ln 4 1  z 2  f) y =x 2tan( x )

2 sec( x ) e 2t  2t  ln t 2  1
g) y = x tan (x ) h) h (t ) = 4
sec 4 (t )

3.7. Find the derivatives as indicated in the following :

2
a) g  x  = 3 x  4 ; g / 1

b) h  r  = r 2  2r ; h / r 

4 log9 ( x )
c) z =9 ; z //

sin( x )  4 x 2
d) h x  = e ; h / x 

e) y x  = e 2 x  ln  x 2  ; y / x 

3 sin ( x )
3.8. Find the slope of the function y  e at x = 
2

3.9. Find y / if e xy
 y = x [ Hint : use implicit differentiation].

68
 CHAPTER 4
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
After working through this chapter you should be able to:
 Understand the concepts of anti-derivatives and indefinite integrals.
 Know the anti-derivatives of standard functions including trigonometric, exponential and
logarithmic functions
 Find anti-derivatives
 Know and apply basic properties of indefinite integrals
 Evaluate indefinite integrals
 Know and apply the substitution rule for indefinite integrals
 State and apply the second part of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
 Know and apply basic properties of definite integrals
 Evaluate definite integrals
 Know and apply the substitution rule for definite integrals
 Use definite integrals to calculate areas of bounded regions between curves

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the chapter on differentiation we saw how the derivative could be interpreted as giving the
gradient of a tangent line. We usually had the situation where we were given a function and had
to determine its derivative, for instance :

given f  x  = 3 x 2 we found f /
 x  = 6x
In this chapter we will encounter the reverse process to differentiation, namely integration. We
will show that there is a very strong relationship between the process of differentiation and
integration.

In the chapter on differentiation we saw that the derivative f / (x ) of a function f ( x) has a

geometric interpretation as related to the gradient of a tangent line to the curve of y = f ( x) at
the point ( x, f ( x)) .

In this chapter we will show that subject to certain conditions the definite integral can be
interpreted as representing an area bounded between the graphs of functions.

We will also discover how to find a function G so that

dG
= 7 x 2  3x  1.
dx

69
4.2 ANTI-DERIVATIVES AND THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
DEFINITION

Let F be a differentiable function of x . The differential of F is written as dF and is

defined to be dF = F /
 x d x

DEFINITION

dG
A function G is an anti-derivative of a function f if = f  x  or equivalently,
dx
dG = f  x  dx
dG
In general, = f x    f  x d x = G  x   C
dx
Where G  x   C is referred to as the indefinite integral of f  x  .

Suppose we had a function f  x  = x 3 and had to determine an anti-derivative of f . Since G is

dG
an anti-derivative of f  x  = x 3  = x 3 , we might proceed as follows :
dx
d
dx
 x 4  = 4x 3

d
 14
dx
 x 4  = 14  4x 3 

d 1 4
  4 x  = x 3.
dx

Therefore G  x  = 14 x 4 is an anti-derivative of f  x  = x 3 .

Numerous other anti-derivatives of f  x  = x 3 exist, such as for example :

1
4 x 4  2, 1
4 x 4  7 , 1
4 x 4  100, etc.

From this we conclude the anti-derivatives of f  x  = x 3 are of the form 1

4 x 4  C , where C is an
arbitrary constant.

The general anti-derivative 1

4 x 4  C is referred to as the indefinite integral of x 3 and we write

x dx = 14 x 4  C , where  x dx denotes the indefinite integral of x 3 with respect to x.

3 3
this as :

x dx = 14 x 4  C we refer to:
3
In
• x 3 as the integrand

70
 •  as the integral sign
• `` x '' in dx as the variable of integration
• C as the constant of integration.

Note: Whenever an indefinite integral is calculated, we MUST add the constant of integration
since the indefinite integral represents the GENERAL form of the antiderivative.

dG
In general, = f x    f  x  dx = G  x   C
dx

and the process of calculating  f  x  dx is called integration.

Note that the indefinite integral always evaluates to “ a function” plus “an arbitrary “integration
constant” .

Example 4.1
Use your knowledge of differentiation to find the following indefinite integrals:

 x dx  xdx  4dx
2
a). b). c).

 e dx  cos(x ) dx  sin(x ) dx
x
d). e). f).

Solutions

x dx  31 x 3  C
2
a).

b).  xdx  21 x 2  C

c).  4dx  4 x  C
 e dx  e C
x x
d).

e).  cos(x ) dx  sin( x )  C

f).  sin( x ) dx   cos( x )  C

71
4.3 BASIC INTEGRATION FORMULAE
dG
From the statement, = f  x    f  x  dx = G  x   C , we notice a link between
dx
differentiation and integration and if we consider the basic differentiation formulas and the
previous examples we obtain the following basic integration formulas:

 kdx = kx  C k  
x n 1
 x dx
n
= C  n  , n  1
n 1
 x dx
1
= ln x  C

 e dx = e x C
x

ax
a
x
dx = C  a  1, a > 0
ln a
f / (x )
 f (x )
dx = ln | f (x ) | C

 cos  x  dx = sin  x   C

 sin  x  dx =  cos  x   C

 sec  x  dx = tan  x   C
2

 sec  x  tan  x  dx = sec  x   C

 csc  x  cot  x  dx =  csc  x   C
 csc  x  dx =  cot  x   C
2

 cf  x  dx = c  f  x  dx

 f  x   g  x  dx =  f  x  dx   g  x  dx
Let us consider how a few of these integration rules were deduced:

Example 4.2
d
a). Since  kx  = k , therefore,  kdx = kx  C
dx

d
b) . Since  tan x  = sec2 x , therefore,  sec2  x  dx = tan x  C
dx

d
c). Since
dx
  csc  x   =    csc x cot x  = csc  x  cot  x  , we get
 csc  x  cot  x  dx =  csc  x   C .

72
Example 4.3
Find the following indefinite integrals:

 7dx  dx x
5
a) b) c) dx

1 1
d)  7x dx e)  6x 3 dx f)  t
dt

 7 
 x  2x  sin(x ) dx   2 x4   cos(x )  dx
2 5
g) h)
x 

 2x  1 x  2  dx x 4 1
i)  3
j)  x5
dx

 1 1  1
k) Is   x 3  sec 2(x )  2  dx = 3 3
4 x 4  tan(x )  C ?
 6x  6x

Solutions

a).  7dx = 7x  C
b).  dx =  1 dx = 1x  C = x  C
x 51 x6
 x dx = C = C
5
c).
5 1 6

d).  7x dx = 7  x dx .

Since:
x 11 x2
 x dx  x dx = K = K,
1
= thus
11 2
x 2 
7  x dx = 7   K  = 72 x 2  7 K
 2 
  7x dx = 72 x 2  7 K .

Let C = 7 K , then 7x dx = 7

2 x 2 C .

73
 1
e).  6x 3
dx   16 x 3dx

=
x
3
1
6
dx
=  x 31 
1
6  C1 
 3  1 
=  x 2 
1
6  C1 
 2 
= 1 1

2
 C1
12x 6
= 1
 2
 C where C = 16 C 1.
12x

If we leave out some of the intermediate steps, we can simply write :

1
 6x 3
dx =  1
6
x 3dx

x
3
= 1
6
dx
 x 31 
=  C
1
 6
 3  1 
1
=  C .
12x 2

1
 dt   t 2 dt
1
f).
t

= t 2
 1 1

C
 12  1
= t 12
1
C
2

= 2 t C .

 x  2x  sin(x ) dx   x 2dx  2  x 1dx   sin(x ) dx

2
g).
x3 x2
  2     cos(x )   C
3  2 
x3
  x 2  cos( x )  C
3

74
  7   54 1 
  2 x4   cos(x )  dx    2x  7  x   cos( x )  dx
5
h).
x     

= 4
1
2  x dx  7  dx   cos( x ) dx
5

x
= 9
5
x
2 9  7 ln x  sin( x )  C
5

 10 5
x9  7 ln x  sin( x )  C
9

 2x  1 x  2  dx  13   2x 2  3x  2  dx
i).  3

=  x3 x2 
1
3  2   3   2x  C
 3 2 
= 2
9
x 3  12 x 2  32 x  C .

x 4 1 x4 1 
j).  x 5
dx    5  5  dx
x x 

=
x  x 5  dx
1

= x 4
ln x  C
 4 
= 1
ln x   C.
4 x4

 1  1
  x
1
k). Is 3
 sec 2(x )   dx =
3 3
4 x4  tan(x )  C ?
6x 2  6x
Now :
d
dx
 3
4
4
x 3  tan(x )  16 x 1  = 3
4  34 x 3
1

2
sec (x )  1
6  1 x 2
1
1
 sec 2( x ) 
3
= x ,
6x 2
we conclude that:
 1  1
  x
1
3
 sec 2(x )   dx =
3 3
4 x4  tan(x )   C is true.
6x 2  6x

Note:  1
x dx  ln x  c NOT  1
x dx   x 1dx  x 11
1  1  c as x0
0 is undefined
75
Although a function has numerous anti-derivatives, we may want a particular one that satisfies a
certain condition. The following examples illustrate this:

Example 4.4
Suppose y' = x 2  6 and y  3 = 1 . Find :
a) the function y b) the function value y  3  .

Solutions
dy
a) Since = x 2  6 , y is an anti-derivative of x 2  6 and y must have the form given by
dx
 (x  6) dx
2

 y =   x 2  6  dx
x3
y =  6x  C .
3
Since y = 1 when x = 3 we deduce:
1  273  18  C
C  1  9  10

( x )3
y  3
 6x  10

( 3)3
b) y ( 3)  3
 6( 3)  10  19

Example 4.5
Find y if : Dx  y  =  3  2 x  and y  0  = 1 .
2

Solution: As with the previous example :

y =   3  2x  dx
2

  9  12x  4x  dx
2
=
x2  x3
= 9x  12    4    C
 2   3 
 y = 9x  6x 2  43 x 3  C .
If x = 0 then y = 1 , thus:
1 = 9  0   6  0   43  0   C
1 = C
y = 9x  6x 2  43 x 3  1.

76
4.4 THE SUBSTITUTION PRINCIPLE IN INTEGRATION
Thus far when we calculated integrals in the examples we only needed some basic algebraic
manipulation and the basic integration formulas. The basic integration formulas were
established through the close connection between integration and differentiation given by :

D xG ( x ) = f ( x )   f ( x )dx = G ( x )  C
from which we obtained a formula such as:

D x  tan(x )  = sec 2(x )   sec (x ) dx

2
= tan(x )  C

We could “just as easily” obtain the formula :

D x  tan(x 2  2x )  = (2x  2) sec 2(x 2  2x )   (2x  2) sec 2(x 2  2x )dx = tan(x 2  2x )  C

This last integral does not appear to be one of the basic integration formulas but perhaps we
could obtain a basic formula by means of some manipulation.
You will recall that to differentiate a function such as tan(x 2  2x ) we would make use of the
chain rule for differentiation which states that for differentiable functions f ( x) and g ( x) that
D x f  g ( x ) = f /  g ( x )  D x  g ( x )

You may recall that we used a substitution u = g ( x) to write f ( g ( x)) is the simpler form f (u )
which we then differentiated as follows:
D x f  g ( x )   = D x  f (u )
= f / (u )  D x (u )
= f / [ g ( x )]  D x  g ( x )
= f / [ g ( x )]  g / ( x )

If we follow this procedure for the function tan( x 2  2 x ) we find that

D x  tan(x 2  2x )  = D x  tan u  where u = x 2  2x
= Du  tan(u )   D x u 
= sec 2 (u )  D x  x 2  2x 
= sec 2 ( x 2  2x )  (2x  2)
2
= (2x  2)  sec (x 2  2x )

This procedure we followed used a substitution to reduced the given function to one of the
standard differentiation forms which we then differentiated by means of the chain rule. This
method actually suggests what we could do to evaluate the integral also.
To evaluate  (2 x  2)sec 2( x 2  2 x)dx we use a substitution u = x 2  2 x which introduces a new
variable viz. u which implies that dx needs to be replaced also (because the variable has
77
changed from x to u ).

We make use of the notion of a differential to obtain:

u  x2  2x
 du   2 x  2  dx recall: du  u '  x  dx

Using this information we can now integrate as follows:

  2 x  2  sec  x  2 x  dx
2 2

  sec2  u  du
 tan  u   C
 tan  x 2  2 x   C

 (2 x  2)sec ( x  2 x)dx to a basic form  sec 2 (u ) du

2 2
Notice how we used a substitution to reduce
which we know how to integrate. Let's consider another example of this type.

Example 4.6
Consider Dx  3

x3  3 x 2 and the integration formula that we obtain from it.

Solution: Once again we employ the chain rule to do the differentiation

   x  3x 2  
1

Dx 3
x 3  3x 2 = Dx 3 3

= Dx u 3  1
where u = x 3  3x 2

= Du u  D
1
3
x u 
2
= 1
3
u 3 (3x 2  6x )
x 2  2x
=
3
u2
x 2  2x
=
3
(x 3  3x 2 ) 2

This means we have the following integration formula:

x 2  2x
 3 (x 3  3x 2 )2 dx = x  3x  C
3 3 2

78
 which we can derive if we make use of the substitution u = x3  3x 2 as follows :

x2  2x
 3
x  3x
3 2
dx Let u  x 3  3 x 2

du   3x 2  6 x  dx
1
du   x 2  2 x  dx
3
1 1
 du
3 3 u2
1 3 13
  u C
3 1
1
  x 3  3x 2  3  C

Example 4.7
Evaluate  (2  x)50 dx .

Solution:
  2  x  dx
50
Let u  2  x
du  1 dx
  u 50 du
u 51
 C
51
2  x
51

 C
51

We will now consider further examples.

Example 4. 8
Find the following indefinite integrals:

3 x  x  7  dx .
5
x x 2  5dx
2 3
a) b)
1
 4x  x  1 dx
2

2 4
c) dw d)
1 w
1
 x ( x 4  1)10 dx
7
e) dx f)
 
3
x x 2

79
Solutions

a)
 3x  x  7  dx
5
2 3
Let u  x 3  7
du  3x 2 dx
  u 5 du
u6
 C
6
x  7
3 6

 C
6

b).
x x 2  5dx   x  x 2  5  dx Let u  x 2  5
du  2 xdx
1
du  xdx
2
1 1
  u 2 du
2
1 2 3
  u2  C
2 3
3
1
  x 2  5 2  C
3

c).
1 1
dw   1  w  2 dw

 1 w
Let u  1  w

du   dw
 du  dw
1

  u 2 du
1
 2u  C 2

1
 2 1  w  2  C

80
d).
 4x  x  1 dx
2
2 4
Let u  x 4  1
.
du  4 x 3 dx

Since the integrand only has a “ 4x 2 ” and not a “ 4x3 ”, we need to find another strategy,
substitution in not working.
We have to expand the brackets in the original integrand :

 4x  x  1 dx  4x  x  2x  1 dx
2 4 2 2 8 4
=

  4x  8x  4x  dx
10 6 2
=
x 11 x7  x3
= 4  8   4  C
11  7   3 
= 114 x 11  78 x 7  34 x 3  C .

e).

1
 dx Let u  x  2
 
3
x x 2
1
du  dx
2 x
1
2du  dx
x
2
 du
u3
2 2
 u C
2
1
 C
 
2
x 2

81
 f).
 x x  1 dx
10
7 4
Let u  x 4  1 We notice the original integral has x7 ,
du  4 x3 dx so when we substitute u in, there will
be x 4 “left over”.
1
du  x 3 dx We can represent x 4 in terms of u.
4
Since u  x 4  1, x 4  u  1

  x 7  x 4  1 dx
10

  x3  x 4  x 4  1 dx
10

1
  u  1 u10 du
4
1

4
 u11  u10  du
1  u12 u11 
   C
4  12 11 

1   x  1  x 4  1 
 4 12 11

  C
4  12 11 
 

4.5 INTEGRALS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL AND

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The substitution technique used in the power rule for integration is a general technique that is
very useful as the following examples serve to demonstrate:

Example 5.9
Find the following indefinite integrals:
 x sec  2x  3 dx
a)  sin  2 x  3 dx 3 x dx
  2 x  3 8
2 2 x2
b) c)
 2x 3
 3x  2x 3  3x 2  x  1 1
d)  x  3x  7
4 2
dx e)  2x  1
dx f)   x  3 ln  x  3 dx
g)  sec  5 x  tan  5 x  dx  sin x  cos x dx  e cos  e  dt
4 t t
h) i)

82
Solutions

a) We know  sin  u  du   cos  u   C , so we let that guide us:

 sin  2 x  3 dx Let u  2 x  3
du  2dx
1
du  dx
2
1
  sin  u  du
2
1
  cos  u   C
2
1
  cos  2 x  3  C
2

 sec udu = tan u  C so,

2
b) We know that

 x sec  2 x  3 dx Let u  2 x 2  3
2 2

du  4 xdx
1
du  dx
4
1
  sec 2  u  du
4
1
 tan  u   C
4
1
 tan  2 x 2  3  C
4

3 x dx .
  2 x  3 8
x 2
c).
8u
Here we are guided by  8 du = C . Therefore:
u

ln8
  2 x  3 8
x2 3 x
dx Let u  x 2  3 x
du   2 x  3 dx
  8u du
8u
 C
ln 8
2
8 x 3 x
 C
ln 8

83
d)
2 x3  3x
 x 4  3x 2  7 dx Let u  x 4  3 x 2  7

du   4 x 3  6 x  dx
1
du   2 x 3  3 x  dx
2
2 x3  3x 1 1
 dx   du
x  3x  7
4 2
2 u
1
 ln u  C
2
1
 ln x 4  3x 2  7  C
2

2x 3  3x 2  x  1
e) .  2x  1
dx .

2 x 3  3x 2  x  1
Since can be calculated using long division as in
2x 1

remainder
2x 3  3x 2  x  1 1
 = x 2 x 
2x  1 2x  1
2x  3x  x  1
3 2
 1 
  dx =   x 2  x   dx
2x  1  2x  1 
1
= 13 x 3  12 x 2   dx .
2x  1
1 1
We evaluate  2 x  1 dx (form :  u du = ln u  C ).

84
 1
 2 x  1 dx Let u  2 x  1

du  2dx
1
du  dx
2
11
 du
2u
1
 ln u  C
2
1
 ln 2 x  1  C
2

Thus we obtain:

2 x3  3x 2  x  1 1 1 1
 2x 1
dx  x3  x 2  ln 2 x  1  C
3 2 2

f).
1
  x  3 ln  x  3 dx Let u  ln  x  3

1
du  dx
x3
1
  du
u
 ln u  C
 ln ln  x  3  C

g).  sec  5x tan 5x dx .

(Hint : sec  u  tan  u  du = sec  u   C ).
Let u = 5x
 du = u /  x  dx
= 5dx
 dx = 1
5 du

85
  sec  5x  tan  5x  dx =  sec u  tan u  du
1
5

= 1
5  sec u  tan u  du
= 1
5 sec u   C
= 1
5 sec  5x   C .

h).  sin 4 x  cos xdx =   sin x  cos xdx .

4

un1
  C; n  1 ).
n
(Hint : u du =
n 1
  sin  x   cos  x  dx Let u  sin  x 
4

du  cos  x  dx
  u 4 du
1
 u5  C
5
1
 sin 5  x   C
5

i). e
t
cos  e t  dt .

(Hint :  cos  u  du = sin  u   C ). Let :

 e cos  e  dt Let u  et
t t

du  et dt
  cos  u  du
 sin  u   C
 sin  et   C

86
4.6 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
When we discussed differentiation we saw that the derivative of a function f ( x) was defined in
terms of a limit by:
d f (x  h )  f (x )
f (x ) = lim
dx h 0 h

The definite integral of a function is also defined in terms of a limit.

DEFINITION

Let f  x  be a function continuous over the interval a ; b  where the interval is divided up into
sub-intervals [ x 0 ; x 1 ],[ x 1 ; x 2 ], .... ,[ x i ; x i 1 ], ... [ x n 1 ; x n ] where
a = x0 < x1 < .... < xi < ... < xn = b and the intervals [ x i 1 ; x i ] have length xi = xi  xi 1 . Let
P = max{x1 , x2 ...., xn } be the length of the longest interval and choose x i  [ x i 1 ; x i ] .
Then the definite integral of f over the interval a ; b  is denoted by
b b
 n 
 f  x  dx and is defined as  f  x  dx lim   f  x i   x i 

=
P  0  i 1 
a a

b
The numbers a and b appearing in  f  x  dx
a
are called the limits of integration; a is the

lower limit and b the upper limit.

The above Definition of a definite integral is very cumbersom, especially when calculating
definite integrals.

Remark: The indefinite integral  f  x  dx is a function, whereas the definite integral

b

 f  x  dx
a
is a number.

The following result which we do not prove, is of great importance and establishes a link
between definite integrals and anti-derivatives.

THEOREM
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS :

If f is a function continuous on the interval a ; b  and G is any anti-derivative of f , then

b

 f  x  dx
a
= G b   G  a  .

We sometimes write G  x   a to mean G  b   G ( a ) . Hence G  x   a = G b   G  a  .

b b

87
 b
In the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus , for  f  x  dx
a
we assume a < b .
b a
If a = b , then  f  x  dx
a
=  f  x  dx
a
= F  a   F a  = 0
b a
If a > b , then  f  x  dx
a
=   f  x  dx .
b

Some additional properties of definite integrals:

b b
a).  k f  x  dx = k  f  x  dx k  
a a
b b b
b).  (f  x   g  x ) dx =  f  x  dx   g  x  dx
a a a
b b
c).  f  x  dx
a
=  f t  dt . The variable of integration is a ``dummy variable'' in the sense
a

that any other variable produces the same result (see the first example below).

d). If f is continuous on an interval I that contains a , b and c , then

c b c

 f  x  dx
a
= a
f  x  dx   f  x  dx .
b

This means that a definite integral over an interval can be expressed in terms of definite
integrals over subintervals as, for instance, in
2 1 2

  4  x  dx =   4  x  dx    4  x  dx .
2 2 2

0 0 1

Example 4.10
a) Show that :

2 2 0 2

(i)   (ii)  cos  x  dx =   cos  x  dx

2 2
x dx = t dt
0 0  0
2

b) Evaluate:
6 2 2
 4t  t t 2  13  dt
  x  1  x  2 x  5  dx
3
(i)  
2
4
2 x  4 dx (ii) (iii)
0 1
  1

Solutions


a) (i) Now x dx = 13 x C provides an anti-derivative of x namely G ( x ) = 13 x 3 .
2 3 2

2 2 2
Therefore  x dx = G (x ) 0 =  13 x  0 =
2 3 1
3 2   0  =
3 1
3
3 8
3
0
2 2 2

2   0  =
2
and  t dt =  13 t  0 = .   x 2 dx =  t 2 dt .
2 3 1 3 1 3 8
3 3 3
0 0 0

88
a).(ii) (Note: Upper limit < Lower limit).

 2
2

Now :  cos  x  dx =  sin x  = sin  2   sin  0  = 1  0 = 1

0
0

0 2

 cos  x  dx

=   cos  x  dx = 1
0
2

0 2

  cos  x  dx =   cos  x  dx
 0
2

6
b)(i)  2 x  4 dx (This example is quite important, specifically the technique used.)
4

let u = 2x  4
du = u /  x  dx
= 2dx
 dx = du1
2

Since the limit x = 0 and x = 6 relate to the variable x , and we are going to change the
variable u , we need to calculate new limits as follows:

If x = 0 , then u = 2  0   4 = 4 . If x = 6 , then u = 2  6   4 = 16 .

Therefore:
6 16 16

  2x  4 4 dx =
1

 
1 1
u 4  12 du = 1
2 u 4 du
0 4 4
16
=  12  54 u 4 
5

 4
16 32  
5 5
= 2
5
4
 25 4 4 = 2
5
32

89
b)(ii).

 
2 2 2
4t  t t 2  1 dt t t 2  1 dt
3 3

1
= 
1
4t dt  
1
2

 t t  1 dt
2 3
= 2t 2   2
1
1
2

8  2   t t  1 dt .
3
=  2

Let u  t  1 2

du  2tdt
1
du  tdt
2
t  1  u  11  2
t  2  u  4 1  5
2 5
du
t t 2  1 dt
3

1
= 
2
tu3
2t
5
= 
2
1
2 u 3 du

5
u 4  54 16
= 8 = 
 2 8 8

 
2
54 16 657
4t  t t 2  1 dt = 6 
3
 
1
 =
8 8 8
.
2

  x  1  x  2 x  5  dx .
2 3
b)(iii).
1

Let u  x 2  2 x  5
du   2 x  2  dx
1
du   x  1 dx
2
x  1  u  1  2  5  2
x  2  u  445  3

2 3
du
 x  1  x  2x  5  dx   x  1u 2  x  1
3
 2
= 3

1 2

34  2 
3 4
4 3 65
 =   u  = 
3
= 1
2 u du 1
2
1
4 =
2
2 8 8 8

90
4.7 DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC
AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Example 4.11
Evaluate the following definite integral s:
e
2
4 x2 p 8
a)  xe
0
dx . b) 
1
p
dp


3 4
c)  sin  x  dx d)  sin(t )cos t dt
3

0 0

Solutions
2
4 x2
a)  xe
0
dx

Let u  4  x 2
du  2 xdx
1
 du  xdx
2
x  0 u  40  4
x  2 u  44  0
2 0
 1 u
0 xe dx  4   2  e du
4 x2

0
 1  1 1
   eu     e 4
 2 4 2 2

b)
e e
p 8

1
p
dp =  1   dp
1
8
p

 1   dp = p  8ln p  C )
e
=  p  8ln p 1 (since 8
p

= e  8ln e   1  8ln 1 

= e  8  1  0  (since ln e  = 1 and ln 1 = 0)
= e  7.

91
 
3

sin  x  dx =  cos  x   3 =   cos  3      cos  0  =  12  1 = 12



c) 
0
0

 
4 4
d)  sin(t ) cos t dt =  sin(t )  cos t  dt .
3 3

0 0

Let u  cos  t 
du   sin  t  dt
 du  sin  t  dt
t  0  u  cos  0   1
   2
t  u  cos   
4 4 2
 2
4 2

 sin  t   cos  t     u  du
3
dt  3

0 1
2
 u4  2
  
 4 1
1 1 3
  
16 4 16

4.8 AREA AND THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Another property of a definite integral is the following :

If f is continuous and f (x)  0 on the interval a  x  b ,then the area of the region
b
bounded between y = 0 , y = f  x  , x = a and x = b is given by : Area =  f  x  dx
a

92
 Example 4.12

Determine the area of the region bounded between:

a) y = x 2  1 , y = 0 , x = 0 and x = 3

b) y = 2 x , y = 0 , x = 1 and x = 2 .

Solutions

a)
3

 x  1  dx
2
Area =
0 10
 x 3 x 
3
= 1
3 0

27
=  3  0  0
3
0 3
= 12 square units.

b).
2
Area = 
1
2x dx

2
 2x 
=  
 ln 2 1
42
=
ln 2
2
= square units.
ln 2

Suppose we had to determine the area of a more general region, such as in the following figure :

93
On the interval a ; b  , f is the upper function and g the lower function, i.e. f  x   g  x  for
all x  a ; b  .
b
 AreaA 1 =  f  x   g  x  dx
a
since f  x  is the upper and g  x  the lower function.
On the interval b ; c  , g is the upper and f the lower function, i.e. g  x   f  x  for all
x  b ; c  .
c
 Area A 2 =  g  x   f  x  dx .
b

Total Area = AreaA1  Area A 2

b c

=   f  x   g  x   dx    g  x   f  x   dx .
a b

Let us now consider a few examples of such general regions.

Example 4.13
Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = x 2  x  2 , y = 0 from x =  2 to x = 2 .

Solution: It is always useful to draw a rough sketch of the given region.

Let A1 be the area of region on interval   2;  1 and let A2 be the area of the region on the
interval [1; 2] . Then:
1

 x  x  2    0  dx
2
A1 =
2
1
=  13 x 3  12 x 2  2x 
2

=  1
3 (1)3  12 (1) 2  2( 1)    13 (2)3  12 ( 2)2  2(2) 
= 7
3  12
= 11
6 square units and
2
A2 =  0   x 2  x  2   dx
 
1
2
= 
1
 x 2  x  2dx

2
=   13 x 3  12 x 2  2x 
1

=  1
3 (2)3  12 (2) 2  2(2)     13 (1)3  12 (1) 2  2(1) 
= 9
2 square units

94
 11 9 19
Therefore the total area is A =  = square units.
6 2 3

Here are some additional examples :

Example 4.14
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = x and y = x .

Solution: A rough sketch of the region is given below.

The graphs intersect when

x = x
 x = x2 (squaring both sides)
 x x 2 = 0
x 1  x  = 0
 x = 0 or x =1

Since y = x is above y = x on the interval  0;1 , the area of the region is :

x 
1 1

  
x  x dx = 
1
Area = 2
 x dx
0 0
1
 23 x 3  12 x 2 
2
=
 0

 1 
 12 (1) 2   0  0 
2
= 2
3
3

= 2
3  12 = 1
6 square units.

95
 2. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = 4 x  x 2  8 and y = x 2  2 x .
Solution: A rough sketch of the region is given below :

(4;8)

(-
1;3)

The graphs of y = 4 x  x 2  8 and y = x 2  2 x intersect when

x2  2 x = 4x  x2  8
 2 x2  6 x  8 = 0
 x 2  3x  4 = 0
  x  4  x  1 = 0
 x = 4 or x = 1
The area of the region is given by :
4

  4x  x  8    x 2  2x  dx
2
Area =
1
4

  6 x  2x  8  dx
2
=
1
4
= 3x 2  23 x 3  8x 
1

=  3(16)  3  32    3  23  8 
128

= 85  130
3 = 125
3 square units.

4.9 TERMINOLOGY
Anti-Derivative Integration
Area Integration Formulas
Bounded Region Limits Of Integration
Constant Of Integration Lower Function
Definite Integral Lower Limit
Differential Substitution
Fundamental Theorem Of Upper Function
Calculus
Indefinite Integral Upper Limit
Integral Sign Variable Of Integration
96
 Integrand

CHAPTER 4 EXERCISE
4.1 Find the following indefinite integrals:

 2x  2  dx
25
a) dx b) x  sin( x )  e x

 
2
x 2 dx   sec  x   2x  dx
2
c) d)

1 x2 2 
e)  3z
dz f)       dx
 3 x 

x 2  7x 3
 5
x
g) dx h) dx
2x

e
3lnx
i) dx

4.2 Find y subject to the given conditions in each of the following :

dy
a) = sin  x   2; y  2  = 1
dx

dy
b) = x 2  x; y 3 = 4
dx

dy
c) = 2x ; y 1 = 4
dx

4.3 Find the following indefinite integrals :

4x 1
a)  dx b)  dx
 2x  7
10
2 3x  2

 x  3x  7  dx
10 1
  4x 
2 3
c) d) 7
dx

3x 18  12x
e)  dx f)  dx
x 2 4  4  9x  3x  2 5

 
2
x 2
g)  3 x
dx

97
4.4 Determine each of the following indefinite integrals :

 3t sin  2t   5x  2
x2
2
a) dt b). dx

 csc  3x 1  cot  3x 1 dx  sec 5x  2 dx

2
c). d)

cos  t  dt
e).  cos(t )  sin(t ) dt f)  t

sin  t 
g).  sin t  cos t  dt 
h). tan(t ) dt (N.B. : tan  t  =
cos  t 
)

1 2x  1
i).  x ln  x  dx j).  x x2
dx

2 x2  5x  3 1 1
k).  x  5 dx l).  
x  1  x  12
dx

 cot(w )  tan( p ) sec ( p )

2
m). dw n). dp

 sin (t )  cos(t )
4
o). dt

4.5 Evaluate the following definite integrals:

2 2

 3x dx  5x  7 x
2
a) b) dx
1 2

2 1

  2x  x  dx   x  3
2 5
c) d) dx
1 0

4
e) x
2
x 2  3 dx

4.6 Evaluate the following definite integrals:


2 0,2

 cos  2x  dx  sec t  dt
2
a) b)
0 0,1

98
 2
2
p2  p3
 x  1 e x 2 2x
c)
0
dx d) 
1
p2
dp


1 6
x 2 2
e)  2x e
2
dx f)  4cos(2x ) dx
5
6

2 10
g)   x  1 3 x  3x h)  sin  x  2  dx
2 3 3
dx
0 5

4.7 Use a definite integral to find the area of the region bounded by the given curve, the x -axis and
the given lines in each of the following. (First sketch the region):

a) y = x  5; x = 2; x = 4 b) y = x2 ; x = 2; x=3

c) y = 2 x 2  x; x = 2; x = 1 d) y = 9  x2

e). y= x  9; x = 9; x=0 f) y = x2  2x  8

4.8 Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of the given equations.
(Be sure to find any needed points of intersection.)

a) y = x2 ; y = 2x b) y = x; y = x  3; y = 0

c) y = x2; x = 0; y=4  x  0 d) y = x 2  3; y=9

e) y = 4  x2 ; y = 3x f) y= x; y = x2

g) y = x 3; x-axis h) y = sin(x ); y = cos(x ) ; x = 0 ; x = 2

i) y = cos(x ); y =  sin(x ); x  0; 2  j) y = e x ; y = 5 x ; x    1;1

99
APPENDIX A - TRIGONOMETRY
Definition: If given a point ( x; y ) is a distance r = x  y from the origin (0;0) as in the sketch below.
2 2

(0;0)
)

then we define the following trigonometric functions as the ratios:

y r
sin( )  csc( )  if y  0
r y
x r
cos( )  sec( )  if x  0
r x
y x
tan( )  if x  0 cot( )  if y  0
x y

Special angles

100
From the above figure, we obtain:

 0 30 45 60 90

sin( ) 0
2
0 1
2 2
2
2
3 2
2
1
cos( ) 2
2
1 2
3
2
2 1
2
0
2
0
tan( ) 0
2
0 1
3
1
1
1 3
1
2
0
not defined

Trigonometric identities
1 1
1) csc( ) = 2) sec( ) =
sin( ) cos( )
1 sin( )
3) cot( ) = 4) tan( ) =
tan( ) cos( )

5) sin ( )  cos ( ) = 1
2 2
6) sin( ) =  sin( )

7) cos( ) = cos( ) 8) tan( ) =  tan( )

9) sin(A  B ) = sin(A)  cos(B )  cos(A)  sin(B )

10) cos(A  B ) = cos(A)  cos(B )  sin(A)  cos(B )

11) sin(2A)  2sin( A)  cos( A)

12) cos(2 A )  cos2 ( A )  sin2 ( A )  2cos2 ( A )  1  1  2 sin2 ( A )

Graphs of y = tan(x ), y = a cos(x ), y = a sin(x ) where ( a   )

For y = tan(x) we know the:

• amplitude is undefined
• asymptote is at x  90
o

o
• period is 180

101
One cycle of its graph is:
Y

1
X
0° 45° 90° 180°

For both y = a cos( x ) and y = asin(x) we know:

• amplitude (maximum y--displacement) is equal to | a |
i.e. the absolute value of a.
o
• period = 360

The following represents one cycle of y = 2sin( x) and y = 3cos( x) :

1
0°v 90° 180° 270° 360°
1
2

102
APPENDIX B - TABLE OF INTEGRALS
1  kdx = kx  C k  
x n 1
2  x n dx = C  n  , n  1
n 1
 x dx
1
3 = ln x  C

 e dx = ex  C
x
4
ax
5  a dx
x
= C  a  1, a > 0
ln a
f / ( x)
6  f ( x)
dx = ln | f ( x ) | C

7  cos  x  dx = sin  x   C

8  sin  x  dx =  cos  x   C

 sec  x  dx = tan  x   C
2
9

10  sec  x  tan  x  dx = sec  x   C

11  csc  x  cot  x  dx =  csc  x   C
 csc  x  dx =  cot  x   C
2
12
13  cf  x  dx = c f  x  dx
14   f  x   g  x  dx =  f  x  dx   g  x  dx

103