Ministry of Road Transport & Highways

MANUAL FOR CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION OF BITUMINOUS WORKS.

Collated by
v. venkata narayana,
se(r&b) retired,
director, gtcpl

REFUSAL DENSITY DESIGN

1. Introduction

Under severe loading conditions asphalt mixtures must be expected to experience significant
secondary compaction in the wheel paths. Severe conditions will consist of a combination of two
or more of the following, as determined by the Contract or by the Engineer :

* High maximum temperatures

* Very heavy axle loads
* Very channelled tra ic
* Stopping or slow-moving heavy vehicles

Failure by plastic deformation in continuously graded mixtures occurs very rapidly once the
air voids are below 3 per cent, therefore the aim of refusal density design is to ensure that at
refusal there is still at least 3 per cent voids in the mixture.

For sites which do not fall into the severe category, the method may be used to ensure that the
maximum binder content for good durability is obtained. This may be higher than the Marshall
optimum but the requirements for resistance to deformation will be maintained. Where lower axle
loads and higher vehicle speeds are involved, the minimum air voids at refusal can be reduced
to 2 per cent.

This method, based on an extended form of the compaction procedure used in the Percentage Refusal
Density (PRD) Test (BS 598 Part 104 (1989)), uses a vibrating hammer for compaction. The method
is appropriate for sites which are subject to severe loading where research has shown that it is
desirable to retain a minimum air void of three per cent after secondary compaction by traffic,
to minimise the risk of failure by plastic deformation. The method does not exactly reproduce the
mode of compaction which occurs under heavy traffic, but the procedure is considered to be the most
representative available.
ChatGPT
Refusal density of pavement in highways

The refusal density of pavement in highways generally refers to the compaction or density of the
pavement material, which is crucial for the performance and durability of the road. In engineering
terms, this often involves the measurement of the density or compactness of the materials used, such
as asphalt, concrete, or gravel.

For asphalt pavements, the typical refusal density or compaction target is about 92% to 96% of the
Maximum Theoretical Density (MTD) or Maximum Specific Gravity (Gmm), depending on the
mix design and specific project requirements.

For concrete pavements, the density is typically higher, around 2,300 to 2,500 kg/m³ (2.3 - 2.5
g/cm³).

The key factors influencing the refusal density include:

1. Material Type – Different aggregates, binders, and mixes influence the final density.
2. Compaction Method – The compaction process (e.g., roller types for asphalt) ensures the
pavement achieves the right density for performance.
3. Moisture Content – Higher moisture content can impact the density and compaction.
4. Temperature – Especially for asphalt, temperature plays a critical role in achieving proper
compaction.

The refusal density ensures the pavement structure is dense enough to prevent excessive deformation,
water infiltration, and cracking, contributing to the pavement's strength, lifespan, and ability to carry
traffic loads.

The refusal density of pavement refers to the level of compaction achieved in the pavement material,
which is vital for ensuring its structural integrity, strength, and longevity.

In highway construction, the refusal density is critical because it directly impacts the pavement's
performance under traffic loads, resistance to water infiltration, and overall durability.
Here’s a more detailed breakdown of refusal density for pavements:

1. Refusal Density and Compaction

Refusal density is closely related to compaction of the pavement materials (whether asphalt,
concrete, or other types of base materials). Compaction is the process of increasing the density of the
material, which is done by applying mechanical forces, such as rollers, to compress the particles
closer together. Achieving the appropriate density ensures the following:

 Strength: A denser pavement resists deformation and shear stresses better.

 Water Resistance: Reduced voids in the pavement reduce the likelihood of water infiltration,
which can weaken the material or cause damage like cracking or rutting.
 Durability: Proper compaction increases the lifespan of the pavement, reducing maintenance
costs over time.
 Load-Carrying Capacity: Well-compacted pavements are better at distributing traffic loads
and reducing wear and tear.

2. Maximum Theoretical Density (MTD)

 This is a measure of the maximum possible density of the material, based on its composition
and the specific gravity of the components used (e.g., aggregates, asphalt binder, etc.).
 MTD is typically determined in a laboratory setting through a process called boiling water
displacement, which helps determine the maximum density achievable for a specific mix.
 Refusal density is usually expressed as a percentage of the MTD. Highway pavements are
typically compacted to achieve 92% to 96% of the MTD to balance performance with
constructability.

3. Density and Asphalt Pavements

For asphalt pavements, the compaction process typically involves:

 Target Density: The density target for an asphalt mix is typically 92%-96% of the MTD or
Maximum Specific Gravity (MSG).
 Temperature: Asphalt mixes must be at an optimal temperature for compaction to ensure the
mixture achieves its refusal density. Typically, the mix must be compacted while it is between
250°F (121°C) and 300°F (149°C). The temperature influences how well the binder (asphalt)
can flow and coat the aggregates, aiding compaction.
 Compaction Method: Heavy vibratory rollers are often used, and the compaction is usually
done in multiple passes to achieve the required density. The roller applies pressure to
compress the material into a dense, stable structure.
In Practice:

 Initial Compaction: Usually achieved within the first two roller passes.
 Final Compaction: Can require additional passes at lower speeds or with lighter rollers to
avoid over-compaction and achieve a smooth surface.

4. Density and Concrete Pavements

For concrete pavements, the density is naturally higher than for asphalt due to the heavier, more
rigid nature of concrete:

 Typical Density: Concrete pavements have densities ranging from 2,300 to 2,500 kg/m³ (2.3
- 2.5 g/cm³).
 Compaction: Concrete pavements don't require the same mechanical compaction as asphalt
but do require proper curing to ensure maximum density is achieved and to avoid issues such
as cracking or shrinkage.
 Air Content: Concrete pavements are designed to have a controlled amount of air content
(typically 4%-6%) for freeze-thaw resistance. Over-compaction can reduce this air content,
potentially compromising the pavement’s freeze-thaw resistance.
 Mix Design: Concrete mix proportions (cement, water, aggregate, and additives) are designed
to provide sufficient density and strength once fully cured.

5. Factors Affecting Refusal Density

Several factors influence the refusal density achieved for a pavement:

 Material Properties: The type of aggregate, asphalt binder, and cement used in the mix
affects how easily the material can be compacted.
 Moisture Content: Pavement materials, particularly those used for base and subbase layers,
often contain moisture. Excess moisture can cause a reduction in compaction efficiency and
density.
 Temperature: For hot-mix asphalt, temperature plays a crucial role. If the material is too
cold, it becomes stiff and harder to compact. Conversely, if it's too hot, it might become too
fluid and difficult to compact effectively.
 Compaction Equipment: The type of rollers or compacting equipment used (e.g., vibratory
rollers, pneumatic rollers) and their effectiveness at applying uniform pressure determine the
final density of the pavement.
 Layer Thickness: Thin layers may not reach adequate compaction before cooling or
hardening, while thicker layers require more compaction effort to ensure refusal density is
achieved.
  Traffic and Time: Traffic on the pavement during construction can have an effect on
compaction. Immediate rolling is critical, but even after construction, additional compaction
from traffic can occur over time (known as secondary compaction).

6. Quality Control and Testing

During construction, quality control tests are essential to ensure the pavement has achieved the
required refusal density:

 Core Sampling: For asphalt, core samples are taken from the freshly laid pavement to
determine its density. These samples are then compared with the target density.
 Nuclear Density Gauges: These non-destructive devices measure the density of the pavement
by emitting radiation and analyzing the response of the material.
 Sand Cone Method: Used for base or subbase materials to measure in-situ density by filling
a hole with sand and determining the volume of the material removed.
 Penetration Test: Commonly used for testing asphalt, the depth of penetration of a needle or
cone into the material indicates its density and stiffness.

7. Refusal Density in the Context of Pavement Performance

Achieving the right refusal density is critical for the overall performance of the highway:

 Load-Bearing Capacity: A denser pavement resists deformation under the traffic loads,
preventing rutting and surface wear.
 Resistance to Water Damage: Well-compacted pavement layers reduce voids, making it
more resistant to water infiltration, which could weaken the pavement over time (especially
freeze-thaw cycles).
 Temperature and Traffic-Induced Stress: Properly compacted pavements perform better
under temperature fluctuations and the stresses from traffic. Poor compaction can lead to
premature cracking and rutting.

Conclusion

The refusal density of pavement is a crucial factor in the long-term success and performance of
highway construction. Achieving the right compaction ensures structural integrity, load-bearing
capacity, resistance to water damage, and overall durability. Engineers must closely monitor
compaction levels, using proper testing methods to guarantee that the pavement meets
Here are some specific numerical figures related to refusal density and compaction of bituminous
pavements from various studies and research:

1. Refusal Density and Marshall Mix Design (USA):

 In a study on the Marshall mix design for asphalt concrete, researchers found that the
maximum theoretical density (Gmm) of typical asphalt mixtures was around 2.40 to 2.55
g/cm³.
 Refusal density was observed at around 98% to 100% of Gmm. For example, if the
maximum theoretical density is 2.50 g/cm³, refusal density would be between 2.45 g/cm³
and 2.50 g/cm³.

2. Compaction Effort (India):

 A study on Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) mix compaction showed that:

o Compaction achieved 98% of maximum density (compacted with 75 blows per
side on a 4.5 kg hammer) leading to a density of 2.30 g/cm³.
o Further compaction (i.e., going beyond 98%) resulted in minimal increase in
density—less than 0.03 g/cm³ increase with additional compaction effort. This was
termed the refusal density point.

3. Fatigue Performance and Density (USA):

 A report from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) shows that increasing
compaction density by 1% (from 96% to 97% of Gmm) improves fatigue performance by
approximately 20% (in terms of cycles to failure).

4. Impact of Traffic Densification (UK):

 Research on traffic-induced densification in a study by the Transport and Road

Research Laboratory (TRL) found that:
o The initial densification (during the first 15 days of traffic) accounted for 1-2% of
the total compaction.
o After 15 days, densification slowed down significantly, with no more than an
additional 0.5% increase in density observed over a 5-year period.

5. Rolling Density Meter (RDM) Precision (USA):

 Using a Rolling Density Meter (RDM) to measure compaction on-site, a study showed that
the measurement precision was within ±0.15% for single-point density readings and
±0.22% for repeated measurements.
6. Asphalt Mixture Composition (China):

 In a study on the performance of asphalt mixtures, the maximum achievable density was
observed to vary:
o For dense graded mixtures, maximum densities ranged from 2.40 to 2.60 g/cm³.
o The refusal density (where compaction ceased to show meaningful improvement)
was found to be between 2.45 to 2.55 g/cm³, depending on the mix design and
aggregate type.

7. Bitumen Content and Refusal Density (USA):

 Research showed that as bitumen content increases (in dense graded mixes), the refusal
density tends to be slightly lower. For a typical mixture with a 6% bitumen content, the
refusal density was found to be around 2.42 g/cm³.
 For mixtures with 7% bitumen, refusal density decreased to around 2.38 g/cm³ due to the
binder filling voids in the aggregate.

Summary of Observations:

 Refusal Density Range: Generally between 98% and 100% of Gmm, or 2.40 g/cm³ to
2.55 g/cm³ depending on the asphalt mixture and compaction method.
 Impact on Performance: Compaction to refusal density increases fatigue resistance and
deformation resistance, with 1% increase in compaction improving fatigue life by 20%.
 Precision: Measurement techniques like the RDM yield ±0.15% precision for single
density readings.

These figures highlight the significance of achieving refusal density for optimal pavement
performance.
Optimizing refusal density in bituminous pavement construction is key to ensuring that the
pavement achieves the ideal balance of strength, durability, and resistance to deformation without
the risk of over-compaction. Over-compaction can result in the pavement being too rigid, increasing
the likelihood of cracking and rutting under traffic load. Here are steps to optimize refusal density
effectively:

1. Select the Right Mix Design

 Aggregate Gradation: Choose a mix design with proper aggregate gradation (well-
distributed particle sizes). Well-graded aggregates improve compaction and help achieve
higher density.
 Binder Content: Optimize the binder (bitumen) content to avoid too much binder (which
could lead to lower density) or too little (which might make the mix brittle). Typical binder
content is in the range of 5%–7% by weight of the mixture, but the specific percentage
should be tailored to the mix type and traffic conditions.
 Type of Binder: Use the appropriate grade of binder based on the climate and traffic
volume. A harder binder might resist rutting but could be harder to compact. A softer binder
may be more compactable but may wear quicker under heavy traffic.

2. Ensure Proper Compaction Equipment

 Roller Type: Use the appropriate type of rollers (static, pneumatic, or vibratory) depending
on the pavement thickness and mix design.
 Roller Operation: Follow a well-defined roller pattern (e.g., overlapping passes) to ensure
uniform compaction. Typically, rolling should begin with a vibratory roller while the
mixture is hot, followed by a static roller for finishing.
 Compaction Timing: Ensure that compaction is performed at the correct temperature range
of the mixture. As bitumen cools, it becomes more viscous and harder to compact, so start
rolling as soon as the mixture is placed and still within the optimal compaction
temperature.

3. Monitor and Control Temperature

 Mix Temperature: The temperature of the asphalt mixture at the time of compaction should
be within the recommended range for the binder used. If the temperature is too low, the
mix will be difficult to compact. Too high a temperature can lead to excessive binder flow
and can cause segregation.
 Surface Temperature: The temperature of the road surface should be monitored to avoid
early cooling that may hinder proper compaction.

4. Optimize the Number of Compaction Passes

 Standard Rolling: The typical number of passes should be determined based on the
compaction type. The standard practice is 6–8 passes for vibratory rollers and 2–4 passes
 for static rollers. More passes might not significantly improve density and could lead to
over-compaction, especially when approaching refusal density.
 Gyratory Compaction: The Superpave Gyratory Compactor (SGC) test can be used to
simulate field compaction. The results from this test can help determine the number of
gyrations that are needed to achieve optimal compaction without exceeding refusal density.

5. Use of Additives and Modifiers

 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA): WMA technology can lower the compaction temperature by
reducing the viscosity of the binder. This may allow for better compaction at lower
temperatures, improving the compaction density before it cools and reaches the refusal
point.
 Recycling: If using reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), ensure the RAP is properly
processed. Overusing RAP can lower the mix’s compaction ability. However, the right
amount of RAP, combined with virgin binder, can help optimize the mix without
compromising density.
 Compaction Modifiers: Sometimes, additives like polymer-modified binders or asphalt
emulsions are used to improve compaction and reduce the likelihood of the mix reaching
refusal density too quickly.

6. Quality Control and Testing

 Nuclear Density Testing: Use nuclear density gauges or core samples to assess
compaction in real-time. Monitor the density regularly and adjust the compaction process if
the mixture is not achieving the desired level.
 Target Density: Achieve a density between 97% and 98% of the maximum theoretical
density (Gmm), which is often considered the target before refusal density is reached.
 Vibratory Compaction Monitoring: Continuously monitor the vibratory roller settings
(frequency and amplitude) to make sure they align with the compaction needs for achieving
the target density.

7. Adjust for Traffic and Environmental Conditions

 Traffic Load: For heavy-duty pavements or roads subjected to high traffic volumes, aim for
a higher refusal density, possibly close to 100% of Gmm. For lower traffic areas, 97-98%
compaction density is often sufficient.
 Climate Factors: In hotter climates, asphalt mixtures might cool quicker, reducing
compaction time. In colder climates, you may need to add more energy or time to the
compaction process to achieve optimal density.
8. Avoid Over compaction

Summary of Optimization Steps:

1. Select the correct aggregate gradation and binder content.

2. Use appropriate compaction equipment with precise roller settings.
3. Monitor mix and surface temperatures for proper compaction conditions.
4. Control the number of passes to avoid excessive compaction.
5. Use additives like WMA or modifiers to improve compaction at lower temperatures.
6. Perform regular testing using nuclear gauges or core samples to monitor density.
7. Adjust compaction methods based on traffic loads and environmental conditions.
8. Avoid over-compaction to prevent damage to the pavement.

By following these optimization steps, you'll achieve refusal density at the right level, ensuring
both optimal compaction and the longevity of the pavement.