Drawing Techniques

Drawing
 The graphical representation of any idea or object is called drawing. Drawing can be prepared
either by:
i. Using free hand
ii. Using drawing instruments
iii. Using computer programs
Types of Drawing
There are two types of drawing:
i. Artistic Drawing
ii. Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing
The drawing representing any object or idea which is sketched in free hand using imagination
of artist is called artistic drawing
Proper scaling and dimensioning is not maintained in artistic drawing
Artistic drawings are used to express aesthetic, philosophical, and abstract ideas
Examples: Paintings, Posters, Arts
Engineering Drawing
Engineering Drawing is the Graphical representation of any idea of object which expresses
technical details without the barrier of a language and communicates ideas and information
from one mind to another
Engineering Drawing is the “Universal Language for Engineers”
One picture/drawing is equivalent to several sentences
Drawings are also necessary for engineering industries since they are required and are being
used at various stages of development of an engineering product
Difference between Artistic and Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing Engineering Drawing
1. Purpose of artistic drawing is to convey 1. Purpose of engineering drawing is to
emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way convey information about engineering
object or idea
2. Can be understood by all 2. Need some specific knowledge or training
to understand
3. No special requirement of engineering 3. Engineering drawing instruments are used
instruments to make the drawing precise
4. Scale maintaining is not necessary 4. Scale maintaining is necessary
5. An artistic drawing may not be 5. An engineering drawing must be
numerically specific and informative numerically specific and informative

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 6. Standard drawing code need not to be 6. Standard drawing code (like ISO, ANSI,
followed JIS, BS etc,) must be followed

Objectives of Engineering Drawing

Objectives of Drawing are as follows:
To achieve the geometric form of the design
To communicate ideas between designers and manufacturing personnel
To act as an analysis tool, missing dimensions and tolerances are calculated on the drawing
as it is developed
To simulate the design
To act as an extension of the designer's short term memory, designers often unconsciously
make sketches to help them remember ideas that they might otherwise forget
Importance of Engineering Drawing to Civil Engineers
Importance of engineering drawing to civil engineers is as follows:
Engineering Drawing enables one to suitably depict the complex systems on piece of paper
with almost all critical information associated to it
For Civil Engineers, these complex systems could be buildings, dams, roads, railways,
services in buildings, and other infrastructure components
Before any structure comes into existence in real time, Civil Engineer first need to create
the drawings of the desired structure
It helps in preparing bill of quantities
It helps in preparing cost estimation
It helps to improve initial design
Engineering drawing acts as the language of engineers
Applications of Engineering Drawing
Applications of Engineering Drawing are as follows:
It is used in ship for navigation
For manufacturing of machines, automobiles etc.
For construction of buildings, roads, bridges, dams, electrical and telecommunication
structures etc.
For manufacturing of electrical appliances like TV, Phone, Computers etc.
Types of Engineering Drawing

1. Geometrical Drawing
The art of representing geometric objects such as rectangles, squares, cubes, cones,
cylinders, spheres etc. on a paper is called geometric drawing
a) Plane Geometrical Drawing
 If the object has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth, it is called Plane
geometrical drawing
 Examples: Rectangles, Squares, Triangles etc.
b) Sold Geometrical Drawing

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  If the object has 3 dimensions i.e. length, breadth and thickness/depth, it is called
Solid geometrical drawing
 Examples: Cube, Sphere, Prism, Cylinder etc.
2. Mechanical Engineering Drawing
The art of representing mechanical engineering objects such as machines, machine parts
etc. on a paper are called mechanical engineering drawing or machine drawing
It is used by mechanical engineers to express mechanical engineering works and projects
for actual execution
3. Civil Engineering Drawing
The art of representing civil engineering objects such as buildings, roads, bridges, dams
etc. on a paper are called civil engineering drawing
It is used by civil engineers to express civil engineering works and projects for actual
execution
There are two types of Civil Engineering Drawing:
i. Architectural Drawing
a) Plan
 It shows the position of different objects and elements of the structure in a two
dimensional view
 View along the top of the structure is called plan
 Only length and width of objects are shown here
b) Elevation and Section
 It shows a view along the height of structure
 In elevation view either height and length or height and width are shown
ii. Structural Drawing
 It shows the detail requirement of reinforcement and their arrangement in structure
 It also shows the specification and properties of construction materials like
concrete, steel, timber etc.
4. Electrical & Electronics Engineering Drawing
The art of representing electrical engineering objects such as motors, generators,
transformers, wiring diagrams etc. on a paper are called electrical engineering drawing
It is used by electrical engineers to express electrical engineering works and projects for
actual execution
The art of representing electronic circuits of TV, Phones, computers etc. on a paper are
called electronic engineering drawing or electronic drawing
It is used by electronic engineers to express electronic engineering works and projects for
actual execution
Elements of Engineering Drawing

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 Figure 1: Elements of Engineering Drawing
Drawing Standards
There are some drawing standards or drawing codes that accumulates the rules of engineering
drawing for a certain region
Well known drawing codes and their application region is expressed below:
S.N. Country/Region Code/Standard Full Meaning
1 Worldwide ISO International Organization for
Standardization
2 USA ANSI American National Standards Institute
3 Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standards
4 UK BS British Standards
5 India BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
In Nepal, it is usual practice to follow ISO standards. However, in some stances ANSI, BS,
BIS are also followed.
Drawing Instruments and Accessories/ Drafting Tools and Equipments
Following instruments and accessories are required to have perfection in manual drawing:
1. Drawing Board
Drawing board is made of soft woods.
Almost perfect planning of the working surface of the drawing board is to be ensured
A strip of hard ebony edge is fitted in a groove on the shorter edge of the board and perfectly
lined to provide the guide for the T-square.
The main parts of drawing board are working surface, battens and ebony working edge.

Designation Length × Thickness Recommended for

Width (mm) (mm) use with sheet sizes
D0 1500 × 1000 25 A0
D1 1000 × 700 25 A1
D2 700 × 500 15 A2
D3 500 × 350 15 A3

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 Table 1: Standard Drawing Board Sizes

2. Drawing Sheet
Drawing sheet is the medium on which drawings are prepared by means of pencils or pen
Drawing sheets are available in standard sizes
A standard A0 size sheet is the one with an area of 1 m2 and having dimensions of 1189 x
841
Each higher number sheet (A1, A2, A3, etc. in order) is half the size of the immediately
lower numbered sheet
The sides of each size drawing sheet being in the ration of 1: √2

Table 2: Standard Sizes of Drawing

Sheets

Figure 2: Recommended Sizes Obtained for Various Drawing Sheets

3. Mini Drafter
This is a device used to draw horizontal, vertical and inclined lines very effectively.
This is mounted on the top left corner of the drawing board by means of a clamping
mechanism which is an integral part of the device.
An L-shaped scale which is graduated in millimeters acts as the working edge of the mini-
drafter.

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 The L-Shaped scale also has a degree scale for angle measurement
The working edge can be moved to any desired location on the drawing board

Figure 3: Mini Drafter

4. T-Square
It is made of hard wood, plastic or celluloid.
It has two parts Stock and Blade.
The stock is used to move the T-square along the working face of drawing board.
Blade may be used as a base for set square as well as to draw horizontal lines.
Stock of T-square makes an angle 90 degree with working edge (blade).
Stock and the blade which are joined together at a right angle to each other by means of
screws.

Figure 4: T-Square

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 S.N. Designation Length of working edge (mm)
1 T0 1500 ± 10
2 T1 1000 ± 10
3 T2 700 ± 5
4 T3 500 ± 5
Table 3: T-Square Standard Sizes
5. Set Squares
Set squares are a set of 45° set square and 30°- 60° set-square
They are used in conjunction with each other and with T-square to draw parallel, inclined
and perpendicular lines
The 45° set square generally has a protractor whereas the 30°-60° set-square includes
French curves

Figure 5: Set Squares

6. Compasses
These are used to draw arcs or circles
Each compass consists of a needle point and a pencil point
Lengthening bar are used to draw very large circles, bow compass are used to draw small
circles and drop compass are used to draw very small circle.
Lengthening bars are used to draw circles of radius greater than 150 mm, bow compass
are used to draw circles of radius 25 mm to 150 mm and the drop compass (also called
small bow compass) are used to draw circles having radius less than 25 mm

Figure 6: Compass

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7. Divider
Dividers are used to transfer lengths to the drawings either from scales or from the drawing
itself
Similar to the compasses, two sizes of dividers are used in technical drawings. One large
divider and the other small spring bow divider

Figure 7: Divider
8. Pencils/lead sticks/Pencil sharpener/eraser/wiper etc.
The primary tool used in technical drawings is the pencil or lead sticks.
Generally, for technical drawings, the three grades of pencil used is HB, H and 2H.
H stands for hardness and B stands for Blackness.
Pencil sharpener is used to mend the pencils.
Eraser is used to erase the unnecessary part of the pencil drawing and unwanted matter
produced due to the use of eraser should be removed with the help of wiper.

Figure 8: Pencil Grades

9. French Curves/Flexible Curves

French curve is free form template make of acrylic and is used to draw a smooth curve
passing through a number of points
The outer profile of the French curve is adjusted such the smooth curve passes through
more than three points and a curve passing through these points are drawn
The next part of the curve is then drawn by using the next three points in addition to the
last two points of the previous curve
A flexible curve consists of a flexible, generally made of metallic wire coated with a thick
rubber material
This can be bend in to any shape so that its working edge can be matched with a number
of points and a smooth curve can be drawn

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 Figure 9: French curve
10. Protractor
It is used for lying out and measuring angles

Figure 10: Protractor

11. Scotch Tape or Drawing Pin
Transparent tape is used to stick the drawing sheet on the drawing board, which is known
as scotch tape. This tape is applied at the corners of the sheet. Drawing pins can also be
used for sticking the drawing sheet but they are usually not preferred.
Drawing Sheet and Its Essential Components
Every engineering drawing has to follow standard format
The drawing sheet consist of drawing space, title block and sufficient margins
After fixing the drawing sheet on the drawing board, margins should be drawn
The layout should facilitate quick reading of important particulars
Drawings are prepared at various locations and shared, and quick references should be located
easily
Drawing sheet consists of the following essential components as shown in below figure:

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 Figure 11: Drawing Sheet Layout
a) Boarders
Space left all around in between the trimmed edges of the sheet.
A minimum of 10 mm, ISO Standard
Margin/Border of paper can be increased according to requirements and setting of
printer/plotter
b) Filling Margin
20 mm minimum on left hand side with border included
This is provided for taking perforations
c) Grid Reference System
Used in all sizes of drawing sheets for easy location of drawing within the frame
The length and the width of the frames are divided into even number of divisions
The length of the grids lies between 25 mm to 75mm depending on the Drawing sheet size
and thickness is 5 mm
The grids along vertical edges are named by capital letters whereas grids along the
horizontal edges are by numerals
Numbering and lettering start from the corner of the sheet opposite to the title box and are
repeated on the opposite sides
Repetition of letters or numbers like AA, BB, etc. are practiced in case they exceed that of
the alphabets
d) Title Box
An important feature which is a must in every drawing sheet
The title box is drawn at the bottom right hand corner of every drawing sheet and provides
technical and administrative details regarding the drawing/component
ISO recommended size of title box are 180 mm x 27 mm and 180 mm x 36 mm.
Generally used size of title block is 180 mm x 65 mm (BIS Standard)
The title box is divided in to two zones:

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 a) Part Identification Zone
In this zone the details like the identification number or part number, Title of the
drawing, legal owner of the drawing, etc. are to be mentioned
b) Additional Information Zone
Here indicative items like symbols indicting the system of projection, scale used, etc.,
the technical items like method of surface texture, tolerances, etc., and other
administrative items are to be mentioned

Figure 12: Title Block

Lettering
Lettering is used for writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, scales and other details on a
drawing
Style of writing letters and numerals used in engineering drawing may be vertical and
inclined. Inclined lettering is done usually at an inclination of 75-degree.
Lettering types generally used for creating a drawing are
 Lettering A – Height of the capital letter is divided into 14 equal parts
 Lettering B – Height of the capital letter is divided into 10 equal parts
Table 2 and Table 3 indicates the specifications for Type A and Type B letters

Figure 13: Typical Lettering Features

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Heights of Letters and Numerals
Height of the capital letters is equal to the height of the numerals used in dimensioning
Height of letters and numerals – different for different purposes
S. No. Particulars Size (mm)
1 Name of the company 14, 20
2 Drawing numbers, letters denoting section planes 10, 14
3 Title of the drawing 7, 10
4 Sub-titles and heading 5, 7
5 Dimensioning, notes, schedules and material lists 3.5, 5
6 Tolerances, alterations entries 3.5
Table 4: The Letter Sizes Recommended for Various Items

Table 5: Specifications of A Type Lettering

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 Table 6: Specifications of B Type Lettering
Proportion of Height and Width according to ISO
The ratio of height to width of a letter is known as aspect ratio. Most of the alphabets have aspect
ratio of 7:5 except I, J, L, M and W and all numerals have aspect ratio of 7:4 except 1.
a) For A, M, O, Q, T, V, X, and Y, Height = Width
b) For, W, Height < Width
c) For other letters, Height > Width
d) For all numbers, Height > Width
Procedure of Drawing
Clean the drawing board and all the drawing instruments using duster
Fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board
Fix the mini-drafter in a convenient position
Draw border lines using HB pencil
Complete the title box using HB pencil
Plan spacing of drawings b/n two problems/views beforehand
Print the problem number on the left top and then commence the drawing work
Points to be noted during Drawing
Never sharpen pencils over drawing
Clean pencil point with a soft cloth after sharpening
Keep drawing instruments clean
Rest hands on drawing instruments as much as possible – to avoid smearing the graphite on
the drawing

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 When darkening lines – try to work from the top of the drawing to the bottom, and from left to
the right across the drawing
Use brush to remove eraser particles, never use hands
Always use appropriate drawing pencils
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The mini drafter serves the purpose of everything except
a) Scales c) Protractor
b) Set square d) Compass
2. During operation, the two arms of the drafter remain at
a) 45° c) 180°
b) 90° d) 270°
3. With the combination of Set-square, the following angles can be drawn except
a) 15° c) 45°
b) 25° d) 105
4. The designation of sheet of size 594 x 841 is
a) A0 c) A2
b) A1 d) A3
5. Which of the following is softest pencil?
a) 2B c) HB
b) 1B d) H
6. Which of the following is the lightest pencil?
a) 2B c) HB
b) 1B d) H
7. Which of the following is not used to fix drawing sheet on the board?
a) Drawing pins c) Clips
b) Adhesive tapes d) Thread
8. The main ingredients of pencil lead are
a) Graphite and Clay c) Clay and Lead
b) Lead and Graphite d) None of these
9. Which set of lead grades has a grade out of sequence?
a) H, HB, B, 3B c) 6B, B, H, 4H
b) 7B, H, F, 3H d) 9H, HB, B, 2B
10. Which angle cannot be made with either a 45 or 30/60 triangle or a combination of the two?
a) 90 c) 30
b) 70 d) 15
11. A drawing instrument set usually contains all of the following, except:
a) Compass c) Dividers
b) Scale d) Extra leads
12. When you want to make the letters of a line of text narrower, you would set its:
a) Aspect c) Alignment
b) Scale d) Font
13. When you want to make sure that all of the text stays to the right of a given point on the
drawing, you wound set its:
a) Aspect c) Alignment
b) Scale d) Font
14. A title block contains all of the following information, except:

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 a) Name of company c) Scale of the drawing
b) Parts list d) Drawing number
15. An assembly drawing normally consists of all of the following pieces, except:
a) Parts drawn on their operating positions
b) Detail number of parts
c) Engineering change orders
d) Bill of materials
16. An engineering change note would be placed:
a) With the other notes in the drawing area
b) On sheet attached to the detail drawing
c) In the bill of materials
d) In the revision book
17. What information should be available in engineering drawing?
a) Shape of an object
b) Exact Sizes and tolerances of various parts of the object
c) Name of the company
d) All of the above
18. Size of the D1 drawing board is
a) 1500 × 1000 c) 700 × 500
b) 1000 × 700 d) 500 × 500
19. Recommended paper size to be used in D0 type of drawing board is
a) A0 c) A2
b) A1 d) A3
20. Which of the following is the component of drawing sheet?
a) Boarders c) Title box
b) Filling margins d) All of the above
21. Generally, height of letters in drawing sheet is
a) 2.5 mm c) 4.5 mm
b) 3.5 mm d) 5.5 mm
22. Drawing helps in
a) Idea communication c) Preparing bill of quantities
b) Cost estimation d) All of the above
23. The following is not included in title block of drawing sheet
a) Sheet Number c) Method of Projection
b) Scale d) Size of sheet
24. Which of the following pencil grade is used in general for lettering and object lines?
a) F c) B
b) H d) 4H
25. In the manual drawing, which instrument is used to draw smooth curve passing through defined
points?
a) Drafter c) French curve
b) Compass d) Drawing templates
26. Which part of the drawing board guides the T-square?
a) Bottom the board c) Ebony working edge
b) Working surface d) Above the board

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27. Which of the following instrument is used to draw circles with more than 150 mm radius
accurately?
a) Compass c) Lengthening bar
b) Small bow compass d) Big bow compass
28. For drawing arcs of radius less than 25mm, which of the following instrument is used?
a) Compass c) Big bow compass
b) Small bow compass d) Lengthening bar
29. Keeping one leg of the compass straight what is the maximum diameter of the circle that can
be drawn?
a) 100 mm c) 300 mm
b) 120 mm d) 360 mm
30. Which of the following instrument is used to draw horizontal lines?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) T-square d) French curves
31. Which of the following instrument can be used to draw accurate perpendicular lines, parallel
lines and angular lines?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) T-square d) French curves
32. Which of the following instrument is made of thin strips of wood arranged in a line to form a
rectangle and on which the drawing is made?
a) Mini drafter c) Protractor
b) Drawing board d) Scale
33. Which of the following drawing tool is used by architects for making blueprints?
a) Drawing pencils c) Ink pen
b) Dusters d) Erasers
34. Which of the following drawing tool is used to transfer dimensions when there is repetition of
the dimensions?
a) Compass c) Mini-drafter
b) Protractor d) Divider
35. The part that does not belong to the T-square is
a) Working edge c) Stock
b) Blade d) Ebony
36. ……… is used to draw curves which are not circular.
a) Compass c) French curves
b) Protractor d) Mini drafter

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 Drafting Techniques, Methods, Conventions and Symbols
Lines
Lines is one important aspect of technical drawing/drafting
Various types of lines are used to construct drawing, each line used in some specific sense
A line may be curved, straight, continuous, segmented
It may be drawn as thin or thick
Name of line Appearance Use Feature
type
Visible Line/ To indicate all visible Thick and continuous
Object Line outlines/boundaries of an
object.
Hidden line/ To represent hidden edge Thin and broken
Dashed line of an object
Center line To show center of circle, Thin and chain
arcs and the line passing
through center of hole
Dimension To dimension drawing of Thin and continuous
line an object with arrowhead at
ends
Extension line To dimension drawing of Thin and continuous
an object
Cutting plane Thick broken with
line perpendicular
To show imaginary
arrowheads
cutting of an object
ISO cutting Thick chain with
plane line arrowheads
Section lines To show cut portion of an Thin continuous,
object usually inclined at 45
degrees
Long break Thin continuous with
line To break an object in order zigzag
Short break to shorten the view Thick continuous and
line freehand

Construction Used as auxiliary lines to Very thin and

line complete any geometric continuous
construction

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 Projection To project or any features Very thin and
line from one view to another continuous
Phantom line To show alternate position Thin
of an object
Figure 1: Types of Lines Used in Engineering Drawing

Pencil Uses Guidelines for Various Lines

Precedence of Lines
Precedence of one line over another is as follows:
1. Visible (Object) lines
2. Hidden (Dashed) lines
3. Cutting plane lines
4. Center lines
5. Break lines
6. Dimension lines
7. Extension lines/leader lines
8. Section lines/cross hatch lines

Figure 2: Precedence of Line Examples

Line Strokes

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 Line strokes refer to the directions of drawing straight or curved lines
Vertical and inclined lines are drawn from top to bottom, horizontal lines are drawn from left
to right and curved lines are drawn from left to right or top to bottom

Figure 3: The Line Strokes for Drawing Straight and Curved Lines

Texture of Different Materials in Drafting

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By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 20|P a g e
Symbols for Various Features

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Dimensioning
The size information of an object is expressed by means of dimensioning in a drawing.
These dimensions indicated should be those that are essential for the production, inspection and
functioning of the object.
The dimensions are written either above the dimension lines or inserted at the middle by
breaking the dimension lines.
Normally, two types of dimensioning system exist. i.e. Unidirectional system and the Aligned
system
i. Unidirectional System
The dimensions are so oriented such that they can be read from the bottom of the
drawing
It is also known as horizontal system
This system is preferred to aligned system
ii. Aligned System
All the dimensions are oriented to be read from the bottom or right side of the
drawing
In the aligned system the dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line

Figure 5: (a) Unidirectional System (b) Aligned System of Dimensioning

Arrangements of Dimensions
1. Chain Dimensioning
 Also called continuous or feature to feature dimensioning
 Commonly used and easy to insert

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2. Baseline Dimensioning
 Also called parallel dimensioning
 It is used when the location of
features must be controlled from a
common reference point or plane

3. Overall Dimensioning
 Also called combined dimensioning
 When several dimensions make up
overall length, the overall
dimension can be shown outside
these component dimensions.

4. Auxiliary Dimensioning
 Also called reference dimensioning
 When all of the component dimensions must be specified, an overall length may still be
specified as an auxiliary dimension
 Auxiliary dimensions never have tolerance and shown in brackets

Rules to be followed in dimensioning

Each feature is dimensioned and positioned only once
Each feature is dimensioned and positioned where its shape shows
Size dimensions – give the size of the component

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 Every solid has three dimensions, each of the geometric shapes making up the object must
have its height, width, and depth indicated in the dimensioning
A gap of 1mm has to be kept between extension line and visible line
An extension line should be extended about 3mm from the outmost dimension line
Extension lines may cross each other without break
Center lines can be used as extension lines
Extension lines are drawn usually perpendicular to dimension lines
Dimensioning consists of the following:
a) Dimension lines
 Dimension lines should be placed at least 10 mm away from the outline
 Other parallel dimensions should be at least 6 mm apart, or more, if space permits
b) Extension Line
 A thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension line, indicating which feature is
associated with the dimension
 There should be a visible gap of 1 mm between the feature’s corners and the end of the
extension line
c) Leader Line
 Leaders are used in engineering drawing for dimensioning of arcs, circles etc.
 They are also used to present note, symbols, item number or part number etc.
 A leader should be terminated by either an arrowhead or a small dot of about 1.5mm
diameter
 Leaders should not be drawn bent
unless necessary
 Leaders should not cross each other
 All notes, symbols and dimensions
in a leader need to be provided in
horizontal direction

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 Figure 10: Various Types of Arrows Used in Dimensioning

d) Arrows
 3 mm long and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are long - symbols placed at the end
of dimension lines to show the limits of the dimension
 Arrows are uniform in size and style, regardless of the size of the drawing
Scales
There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects, some are very large and some are
very small.
There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper.
The proportion by which the drawing of an object is enlarged or reduced is called the scale of
the drawing.
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing
to the actual dimensions of the same.
Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing
It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size such as Buildings,
Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.
Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at
a) Full size
b) Reduced size
c) Enlarged size
Reducing scales 1:2 1:5 1:10
1: Y (Y>1) 1:20 1:50 1:100
1:200 1:500 1:1000
1:2000 1:5000 1:10000
Enlarging scales 2:1 5:1 10:1
Y: 1 (Y>1) 20:1 50:1 100:1
200:1 500:1 1000:1
2000:1 5000:1 10000:1
Full size scales 1:1
Information Necessary for Construction of Scale
Following are the necessary information required for construction of a scale:
1. The representative fraction (R.F.) of the scale

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 2. The unit or units to be presented
3. The maximum length to be measured
Representative Fraction (R.F.) or Scale Factor (S.F.)
 The ratio of the length of the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the object is
known as the representative fraction (R.F.) or the scale factor (S.F.)
 It is to be remembered that for finding RF the distances used for calculation must be in
same unit
 Being a ratio of same units, R.F. itself has no unit
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅. 𝐹. =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
When 1 cm long line in drawing represents 1 m length of the object,
1 𝑐𝑚 1
𝑅. 𝐹. = =
1 ∗ 100 𝑐𝑚 100
Length of Scale = R.F. × Maximum length to be measured
Representative Fraction can also be represented as,

2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅. 𝐹. = √
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

3 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙
𝑅. 𝐹. = √
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

For full sized scale, R. F. = 1

For reducing scale, R. F. is less than 1.
For enlarging scale, R. F. is greater than 1.
Polygon
(𝑛−2)∗180
i. Magnitude of any internal angle = , Here, n = number of sides
𝑛
𝑆
ii. Radius of out scribing circle = 𝜋 , Here, S = Length of each side and n = number of
2𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝑛
sides
𝑛(𝑛−3)
iii. Number of diagonals = , Here, n = Number of sides
2

Polygon Names
S.N. Number of Sides Name of the Polygon
1 Three Trigon or Triangle
2 Four Tetragon or Quadrilateral
3 Five Pentagon

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 26|P a g e

 4 Six Hexagon
5 Seven Heptagon
6 Eight Octagon
7 Nine Nonagon or Enneagon
8 Ten Decagon
9 Eleven Hendecagon
10 Twelve Dodecagon
11 Thirteen Triskaidecagon
12 Fourteen Tetrakaidecagon
13 Fifteen Pentadecagon
14 Sixteen Hexadecagon
15 Seventeen Heptadecagon
16 Eighteen Octadecagon
17 Nineteen Enneadecagon
18 Twenty Icosagon
19 Thirty Triacontagon
20 Forty Tetracontagon
21 Fifty Pentacontagon
22 Sixty Hexacontagon
23 Seventy Heptacontagon
24 Eighty Octacontagon
25 Ninety Enneacontagon
26 Hundred Hectogon

Conics
Cone is formed when a right-angled triangle with an apex and angle Ө is rotated about its
altitude as the axis. The length or height of the cone is equal to the altitude of the triangle and
the radius of the base of the cone is equal to the base of the triangle. The apex angle of the cone
is 2Ө.
When a cone is cut by a plane, the curve formed along the section is known as a conic. For this
purpose, the cone may be cut by different section planes and the conic sections obtained are
shown in figures below.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 27|P a g e

 Figure 2: Right Cone and Engineering Curves
Ellipse
When a cone is cut by a section plane B-B at an angle, α more than half of the apex angle i.e.,
2Ө and less than 90°, the curve of the section is an ellipse. Its size depends on the angle α and
the distance of the section plane from the apex of the cone.
An ellipse is also defined as a curve traced by a point, moving in a plane such that the sum of
its distances from two fixed points is always the same

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 28|P a g e

 Figure 3: Another Definition of Ellipse
Parabola
If the angle α is equal to Ө i.e., when the section plane C-C is parallel to the slant side of the
cone, the curve at the section is a parabola. This is not a closed figure like circle or ellipse. The
size of the parabola depends upon the distance of the section plane from the slant side of the
cone.
Hyperbola
If the angle α is less than Ө (section plane D-D), the curve at the section is hyperbola. The
curve of intersection is hyperbola, even if α = Ө, provided the section plane is not passing
through the apex of the cone. However, if the section plane passes through the apex, the section
produced is an isosceles triangle.
Eccentricity
 Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant. The ratio is called eccentricity.
a) Fixed point is called Focus
b) Fixed line is called Directrix
 The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is the axis of the curve.
The point at which the conic section intersects the axis is called the vertex or apex of the curve.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 29|P a g e

 Figure 4: Eccentricity
When eccentricity
<1 Ellipse
=1 Parabola
>1 Hyperbola
Roulettes
• Roulettes are curves generated by the rolling contact of one curve or line on another curve
or line, without slipping.
• The most common types of roulettes used in engineering practice are: Cycloids, Trochoids,
and Involutes.
Cycloid
• A Cycloid is generated by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling along a straight
line without slipping

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 30|P a g e

Epicycloid
The cycloid is called Epicycloid when the generating circle rolls along another circle outside it.

Hypocycloid
• Hypocycloid is obtained when the generating circle rolls along another circle inside it.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 31|P a g e

Trochoid
• Trochoid is a curve generated by a point outside or inside the circle rolling along a straight
line.
• If the point is outside the circle the curve obtained is called Superior Trochoid
• If the point is inside the circle, the curve obtained is called Inferior Trochoid

Involute
• An Involute is a curve traced by the free end of a thread unwound from a circle or a polygon
in such a way that the thread is always tight and tangential to the circle or side of the
polygon
• The tangent to the circle at any point on it is always normal to the its involute.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 32|P a g e

Spiral
It is a curve generated by a point which revolves around a fixed point and at the same moves
towards it.

Helix

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 33|P a g e

It is a curve generated by a point which moves around the surface of a right circular cylinder/cone
and at the same time advances in axial direction at a speed bearing a constant ratio to the speed of
rotation.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which type of line is part of c) Construction lines
dimension line? d) All of the above
a) Break lines 5. Which type of line has precedence
b) Phantom lines over all other types of lines?
c) Extension lines a) A hidden line
d) Cutting plane lines b) A center line
2. Which type of line is particular to c) A visible line
section drawing? d) None of the above
a) Break lines 6. Which statement(s) is true about the
b) Phantom lines precedence of lines?
c) Extension lines
a) A hidden line has precedence
d) Cutting plane lines over center line
3. Which line type is thin and light? b) A center line has precedence
a) Visible lines over visible line
b) Center lines c) A visible line has precedence
c) Construction lines over miter line
d) All of the above d) All of the above
4. Which line type is thick and black? 7. What type of curve is created by the
a) Visible lines intersection of a plane parallel to the
b) Center lines side of a cone?

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 34|P a g e

 a) Parabola c) 2:1
b) Hyperbola d) None of the above
c) Ellipse 14. The following line is used for visible
d) Circle outlines.
8. What type of curve is created by the a) Continuous thick
intersection of a plane with a cone b) Continuous thin
which makes an angle with the axis c) Chain thin line
greater than the angle between the d) Short zigzag thin
side of the cone and the axis? 15. The following line is used for
a) Parabola dimension line.
b) Hyperbola a) Continuous thick
c) Ellipse
b) Continuous thin
d) Circle c) Chain thin line
9. A (n) ________ is created by the d) Short zigzag thin
motion of a point on a circle as the 16. The dotted line represents
circle rolled along a straight line
a) Hidden
a) Epicycloid b) Projection
b) Hyperbola c) Center
c) Cycloid d) Hatching
d) Spiral
17. Hatching lines are drawn at ___
10. Another name of a cube is a degree to reference line
a) Hexahedron a) 30
b) Tetrahedron
b) 45
c) Octahedron c) 60
d) None of the above d) 90
11. Which of the following represents 18. In aligned system of dimensioning,
reducing scale? the dimensions may be read from
a) 1:1
a) Bottom or right hand edges
b) 1:2 b) Bottom or left hand edges
c) 2:1 c) Only from bottom
d) None of the above d) Only from left side
12. Which of the following is full size 19. The internal angle of regular
scale? pentagon is ___ degree.
a) 1:1 a) 72
b) 1:2
b) 108
c) 2:1 c) 120
d) None of the above d) 150
13. Which of the following is enlarging 20. The internal angle of regular
scale? hexagon is ___ degree.
a) 1:1 a) 72
b) 1:2

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 35|P a g e

 b) 108 d) None of the above
c) 120 26. A tetrahedron has four equal ____
d) 150 faces
21. The number of line types used in a) Square
below figure is b) Rectangular
c) Triangular
d) None of the above
27. The following is formed by revolving
rectangle about one of its sides which
remains fixed
a) Cylinder
b) Sphere
a) 1 c) Hemi sphere
b) 2 d) Cone
c) 3 28. When drawings are drawn smaller
d) 4 than the actual size of the objects the
22. The Length to Width ratio in case of scale used is said to be_________
an arrow head is a) Enlarging scale
a) 1:1 b) Reducing scale
b) 2:1 c) Small scale
c) 3:1 d) Decreasing scale
d) 4:1 29. When drawings are drawn larger
23. The following are the Polyhedron than the actual size of the objects the
except scale used is said to be_________
a) Prism a) Enlarging scale
b) Pyramid b) Reducing scale
c) Cube c) Small scale
d) Cylinder d) Decreasing scale
24. The following are the Solids of 30. Which of the following is not a line
revolution except segment?
a) Prism a) Bamboo
b) Sphere b) Ruler
c) Cone c) Laser beam
d) Cylinder d) Pencil
25. If a solid is cut by a cutting plane 31. The drawing for municipality is
parallel to the base of the solid and top drawn at scale
part is removed, the remaining part is a) 1” = 8’
called b) 1:50
a) Frustum of a solid c) 1:100
b) Truncated solid d) Both (a) and (c)
c) Oblique solid

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 36|P a g e

 32. The shape of scales is c) Flat and square
a) Flat and triangular d) All of the above
b) Flat and rectangular

Theory of Projection
Projection
 In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a 2-
dimensional media
 The act of obtaining image of an object is known as “Projection”
 The image obtained by projection is known as “View”
 A simple projection system is shown in figure below:

Figure 5: A Simple Projection System

 All projection theory are based on two variables:

1. Line of sight/projector
o The lines or rays drawn from the observer to object and to the plane are called line
of sight/projectors
2. Plane of Projection
o A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon
which the image created by the line of sight is projected
o The image is produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the
projection plane
o In effect, 3-D object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called
projections
Projection Techniques
 There are generally two types of projection techniques:
1. Parallel
2. Perspective
 In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel and the observer is assumed to be
stationed at infinite distance from the object

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 37|P a g e

  In most of the cases parallel projection technique is used

Figure 6: Parallel Projection Technique

 In perspective technique of projection, the observer is assumed to be stationed at finite

distance from the object
 The height of the object appears to be reducing as we move away from the observer
 In perspective technique, all lines of sight start at a single point

Figure 7: Perspective Projection Technique

Parallel Vs Perspective Projection

Parallel Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is infinite

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 38|P a g e

  Projection lines are parallel
 Object is positioned at infinity
Perspective Projection
 Distance from the observer to the object is finite and object is viewed from a single point
 Projectors are not parallel
 Perspective projection technique mimic what the human eyes see, however, they are
difficult to draw
Types of Projection
 There are generally four types of projection:
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
2. Axonometric Projection
3. Oblique Projection
4. Perspective Projection
1. Orthographic/Multi-view Projection
 'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing
 When the projectors are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it
is known as orthographic projection
 Following six views are possible in orthographic projection of a solid object
a) Top view
b) Front view
c) Left view
d) Right view
e) Rear view
f) Bottom view

Figure 8: Viewing the Object from all Six Sides

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 39|P a g e

 Figure 9: Orthographic Views
2. Axonometric Projection
 It is a type of pictorial projection
 The Projections in which the description of the object is completely understood in one view
is known as pictorial projection
 They have the advantage of conveying an immediate impression of the general shape and
details of the object, but not its true dimensions or sizes
 Axonometric projection is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which an object appears
to be rotated to show its all three dimensions
 Axonometric projection is one of the four principal projection techniques: multi-view,
axonometric, oblique and perspective projection
 In multi view, axonometric, and oblique projections, the observer is theoretically infinitely
far away from the projection plane
 In addition, the lines of sight are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of
projection
 The main difference between a multi-view drawing and an axonometric drawing are that,
in a multi-view, only two dimensions of an object are visible in each view and hence more
than one view is required to define the object

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 40|P a g e

 Figure 10: Four Main Projection Techniques

 Axonometric projections are generally three types:

Figure 11: Axonometric Projections

i. Isometric Projection
o Isometric projection is a type of pictorial projection in which the dimensions along
the three axes of the solid are shown in one view
o In isometric projection, all three angles are equal and all three corners are also equal
o Angle between the axes is 120° and are called the isometric axes
o Each edge of the cube is parallel to one of the isometric axes
o The forward tilt of the cube causes the edges and planes of the cube to become
shortened as it is projected onto the picture plane

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 41|P a g e

 o The lengths of the projected lines are equal to the cosine of 35° 16’, or 0.8165 times
the true length
o A drawing produced using a scale of 0.8165 is called an isometric projection and is
a true representation of the object
o However, if the drawing is produced using full scale, it is called an isometric
drawing, which is the same proportion as an isometric projection, but is larger by a
factor of 1.23 to 1

Figure 12: (a) Isometric Projection (b) Isometric Drawing of a Cuboid

 While drawing isometric projection, an Isometric scale is to be constructed for convenience

and all the measurements are to be taken from this scale
 As shown in figure below, isometric scale is produced by positioning a regular scale at 45
° to the horizontal and projecting lines vertically to a 30° line

Figure 13: Illustration of Construction of Isometric Scale

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑠45°

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = = = 0.8165
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐶𝑜𝑠30°
Isometric Length = 82 % of true length (approximately)
Isometric Views of Some of Standard Shapes
Square appears as rhombus in isometric view. A rectangle appears as a parallelogram in isometric
view. The isometric view or isometric projection of a circle is an ellipse. The isometric view of
equilateral triangle is scalene triangle.

ii. Dimetric Projection

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 42|P a g e

  In dimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that two of the three axes of
space appear equally shortened
 When two of the three angles are equal, the drawing is classified as a dimetric
projection
 Dimetric drawings are less pleasing to the eye, but are easier to produce than
trimetric drawings
iii. Trimetric Projection
 In trimetric projection, the direction of viewing is such that all of the three axes of
space appear unequally foreshortened
 The scale along each of the three axes and the angles among them are determined
separately as dictated by the angle of viewing
 Trimetric projection is seldom used
3. Oblique Projection
 It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which projectors are parallel to each other but
they are not perpendicular to the picture plane
 The angle is usually kept 15-45 degree
 Mostly used angle is 45 degree
 Oblique projection may be of two types:
i. Cavalier Projection
ii. Cabinet Projection
i. Cavalier Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along all the axes are plotted in full scale
ii. Cabinet Projection
 In this case, the dimensions along the diagonal axis are plotted by reducing it to
half of the actual value
 Dimensions along other axes are plotted in full scale

Figure 14: Oblique Projection

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 43|P a g e

4. Perspective Projection
 It is a type of pictorial projection in which projectors are not parallel to each other and they
occur at an angle to the picture plane in such a way that they converge to a point as if an
observer sees the view on the picture plane from that point
 In case of perspective projection observer is considered to be at finite distance where in
case of any other type of projection observer is considered to be at infinity
 Perspective projections are not used for the preparation of working drawings of any part
because it does not reveal the exact shape and size. However, it can be used to describe the
natural view of the object to the non-technical persons.
 In linear perspective, the Cone of Vision is indicated with a 60-degree angle beginning at
the station point. It is 30 degrees to the left and right of the line of sight.

 There are three types of perspective projection: one point (parallel), two point (angular),
three point (oblique)
 If the principal face of the object viewed is parallel to the picture plane, the perspective
view formed is called parallel perspective. In parallel perspective views, the horizontal
lines receding the object coverage to a single point called vanishing point. Single point
perspective projection is generally used to present the interior details of a room, interior
features of various components, etc.
 If the two principal faces of the object viewed are inclined to the picture plane, the
perspective view formed is called angular perspective. In angular perspective views, all the
horizontal lines converge to two different points called vanishing point left (V.P.L.) and
vanishing point right (V.P.R). But the vertical lines remain vertical. Two-point perspective
projection is the most generally used to present the pictorial views of long and wide objects
like buildings, structures, machines, etc.
 If all the three mutually perpendicular principal faces of the object viewed, are inclined to
the picture plane, the perspective view formed is called oblique perspective. In oblique
perspective views, all the horizontal tines converge to two different points called vanishing
point left (V.P.L.) and vanishing point right (V.P.R) and all the vertical lines converge to
a third vanishing point located either above or below the horizon line. Three-point
perspective projection may be used to draw pictorial views of huge and tall objects like tall
buildings, towers, structures, etc. Oblique perspective projection is seldom used in practice.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 44|P a g e

Projection Methods
 The principal projection planes and quadrants used to create drawings are shown below

 Frontal plane is also called vertical

plane
 Front view is drawn in vertical plane
 Top view is drawn in horizontal plane
 Side views are drawn in profile plane
 There are two methods of projection
1. First Angle Projection
2. Third Angle Projection

Figure 15: Principle Planes and Quadrants

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 45|P a g e

1. First Angle Projection
In first angle projection, object is assumed to be placed in first quadrant. The object is assumed
to be placed in between the observer and plane of projection. The views are obtained by
projecting the images on the respective planes. Note that the right side view is projected on the
plane placed left to the object. After projecting on to the respective planes, the left plane is
unfolded towards the left side to obtain the right side view on the left side of the front view.
The bottom plane is unfolded towards the bottom to obtain the top view below the front view
and aligned with the front view.

2. Third Angle Projection

In the third angle projection, the object is assumed to be placed in third quadrant i.e. the object
is placed behind the vertical plane and below the horizontal plane. In third angle projection
plane of projection is assumed to be placed between observer and object.

Differences between First Angle and Third Angle Projection

First Angle Projection Third Angle Projection
1. Object is assumed to be placed in first 1. Object is assumed to be placed in third
quadrant. quadrant.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 46|P a g e

 2. Object lies between observer and plane of 2. Plane of projection lies between the object
projection. and observer.
3. Plane of projection is assumed to non- 3. plane of projection is assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
4. Front view is drawn above XX line and 4. Front view is drawn below XX line and top
top view is drawn below XX line. view is drawn above XX line.
5. Left side view is drawn in right profile 5. Left side view is drawn in left profile plane
plane and the right side view is drawn in and right side view is drawn in right plane.
the left side plane.
Symbol of Projection
The type of projection obtained should be indicated symbolically in the space provided for the
purpose in the title box of the drawing sheet. The symbol is to draw front view and side view of
the frustum of a cone placed with its axis horizontal. The symbol for first angle and third angle
projection are given below:

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The straight lines which are drawn from c) Three views
various points on the contour of an object d) Four views
to meet a plane are called as _________
a) Connecting lines 3. In orthographic projection, each
b) Projectors projection view represents how many
c) Perpendicular lines dimensions of an object?
d) Hidden lines a) 1
2. In the Oblique projection an object is b) 2
represented by how many views?
c) 3
a) One view
d) 0
b) Two views

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 47|P a g e

4. When the projectors are parallel to each c) Side view
other and also perpendicular to the plane, the d) View at 45 degrees perpendicular to
projection is called horizontal plane
___________________________
8. If isometric projection of an object is
a) Perspective projection drawn with true lengths the shape would be
b) Oblique projection same and size is how much larger than
actual isometric projection?
c) Isometric projection
a) 25%
d) Orthographic projection
b) 29.5%
4. The object we see in our surrounding
usually without drawing came under which c) 22.5%
projection?
d) 33.3%
a) Perspective projection 9. If an isometric projection is drawn with
b) Oblique projection true measurements but not with isometric
scale then the drawings are called
c) Isometric projection
____________
d) Orthographic projection
a) Isometric projection
5. In orthographic projection an object is
represented by two or three views on b) Isometric view
different planes which _________________ c) Isometric perception
a) Gives views from different angles from d) Orthographic view
different directions
b) Are mutually perpendicular 10. If an isometric drawing is made with use
projection planes of isometric scale then the drawings are
c) Are parallel along one direction but at called ___________
different cross-section
a) Isometric projection
d) Are obtained by taking points from 2 or b) Isometric view
3 sides of object
c) Isometric perception
6. The front view of an object is shown on
which plane? d) Orthographic view
a) Profile plane 11. The angle between the isometric axes is
__________
b) Vertical plane
a) 180 degrees
c) Horizontal plane
b) 60 degrees
d) Parallel plane
c) 90 degrees
7. What is additional 3rd view on
orthographic projection in general for simple d) 120 degrees
objects? 12. The value of the ratio of isometric length
a) Front view to true length is ________
b) Top view a) 0.141

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 48|P a g e

 b) 0.372 c) Parallel to each other and inclined to
projection plane
c) 0.815
d) Not parallel to each other and inclined
d) 0.642
to projection plane
13. The length in isometric projection of line
18. Lines of sights (projectors) for
is 20 cm. What is the true length of it?
orthographic projection will be
a) 24.53 cm ______________
b) 15.46 cm a) Parallel to each other and
c) 19.31 cm perpendicular to projection plane
d) 23.09 cm b) Not parallel to each other and
perpendicular to projection plane
14. Isometric view of cube is drawn the
angle between the edge of cube and c) Parallel to each other and inclined to
horizontal will be______ projection plane
a) 15 degrees d) Not parallel to each other and inclined
to projection plane
b) 120 degrees
19. Which are not usually used as angle
c) 45 degrees between the projection plane and receding
d) 30 degrees lines for oblique projection?
15. Isometric view of cube is drawn and a) 30 degrees
faces of cube are seen as ___________ b) 50 degrees
a) Square c) 45 degrees
b) Rectangle d) 60 degree
c) Rhombus 20. In oblique projection, the object is
d) Parallelogram assumed to be placed with one face
_______________
16. Isometric view of equilateral triangle
will be _____________ a) Parallel to plane of projection
a) Equilateral triangle b) Parallel to adjacent edge
b) Scalene triangle c) Perpendicular to plane of projection
c) Isosceles triangle d) Perpendicular to adjacent edge
d) Right angled triangle 21. When the receding lines are drawn to
full size scale then the oblique projection is
17. Lines of sights (projectors) for oblique ___________
projection will be ______________
a) Cabinet projection
a) Parallel to each other and perpendicular
to projection plane b) Isometric projection
b) Not parallel to each other and c) Orthographic projection
perpendicular to projection plane d) Cavalier projection

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 49|P a g e

22. When the receding lines are drawn to b) Double of its actual size
half size scale then the oblique projection is
c) Full size
__________
d) Increased or decreased to a particular
a) Cabinet projection ratio
b) Isometric projection 27. In perspective projection the projectors
c) Orthographic projection are _________ to each other and ________
to picture plane.
d) Cavalier projection
a) Parallel, perpendicular
23. Which of the following statement is
wrong in case of oblique projection? b) Not parallel, inclined
a) The object is drawn with the reduced c) Parallel, inclined
dimensions d) Not parallel, perpendicular
b) Projectors are parallel to each other and
28. Axonometric projection is a special type
inclined to projection plane
of
c) The choice of the position of the object a) Orthographic projection
depends upon the shape and size b) Perspective projection
d) The faces of object which are c) Isometric projection
perpendicular to the plane of projection will d) Multi-view projection
be distorted 29. In orthographic projection of third angle
24. The perpendicular edges of planes type, picture plane is
parallel to projection plane are drawn at an a) Transparent
angle of 30, 45, 60 degrees with the b) Opaque
horizontal. The inclined lines are called c) Semi-transparent
_____________ d) All of the above
a) Projectors 30. Which is not pictorial projection?
a) Oblique
b) Slanting edges b) Orthographic
c) Contour lines c) Trigonometric
d) Receding lines 31. First angle and third angle projection
methods are used in
25. The faces parallel to projection plane are a) Axonometric views
having ________ size and shape in oblique
b) Isometric views
projection.
c) Orthographic views
a) Actual d) None of the above
b) Double 32. In first angle projection, object is
assumed to be placed in
c) Half
a) First quadrant
d) Increased b) Second quadrant
26. In cavalier projection the receding lines c) Third quadrant
are drawn _________ d) Fourth quadrant
a) Half of its actual size

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 50|P a g e

Working Drawing
Working drawings also called production drawings are complete sets of drawing that details the
manufacturing and assembly of products and structures. They are widely used as orthographic
views of machine parts, structures and their assembly.
Working drawings are graphic information prepared by design team for use by construction or
production team. For example: detail drawing of building will be prepared by design engineer
which later will be used by construction engineer/supervisor. Material and component specifics
are provided in the title block of the working drawing.
The sub-assembly where the components will be assembled are usually shown in working drawing.
Working/production drawing mention the number of parts that are required for making assembled
unit. Working drawings are taken by production/construction engineer who decide how best to
manufacture/construct/build the product.
Generally, there are four sets of working drawing:
1. Detail of each non-standard part on a drawing sheet, usually one part per sheet.
2. Sub-assembly drawing of parts
3. Assembly drawing showing all parts and their arrangements in one sheet
4. Bill of materials (BOM), essentially of each parts
Elements of Working Drawing
The basic elements of working/production drawing are as follows:
1. Size and shape of the component
2. Format of the drawing sheet
3. Process sheet
4. Projection method
5. Limits, fits and tolerances of size, form and position
6. Material specification and shape such as casting, forging, plates, rounds etc.
7. Conventions used to represent certain components
8. Inspection and testing methods
9. Specification of standard components
Applications of Working Drawing
Applications of the working drawings are as follows:
1. Physical Construction/Production
This is the major application of the working drawing. Working drawings are used to
construct/produce any structure/product.
2. Permission

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 51|P a g e

 In residential construction, there will be requirement of plans (drawing) in the permitting
process.
3. Estimation and Costing
The bidder and sub-contractors use working drawings to calculate all of their materials,
labor and other expenses.
4. Permanent Record
A set of working drawing constitutes a permanent record of construction and design along
with all details and specifications.
5. Legal Record
The working drawings become parts of legal record for the building. If legal issues arise
during or after construction, court may use working drawings as a basis for determining
important facts.
Construction Detailing in Plan and Section
The detail and section views provide very specific information about a particular
construction or design feature.
These views provide large drawings to show specific drawing.
Common practice is to include one typical wall section and any details unique to the design
or special feature.
Study details sheets carefully before construction begins to assure compliance with
structural, material and energy efficiency requirements.
Significance of Detailing in Terms of Accuracy of Estimation, Bill of Quantities and
Construction Supervision
Detailing of drawing helps to estimate cost very precisely, prepare bill of quantities
accurately and do construction supervision with less error.
In detail drawing; every parts, sections which are not seen clearly in the assembled drawing
are shown clearly.
It eliminates the chances of repetition and exclusion.
It shows every parts very clearly with large scale which helps in supervision with accuracy.
Bill of quantities, cost estimate prepared with the help of detail drawings are accurate and
with less errors.
Site Plans
A site plan is a large scale drawing that shows the full extent of the site for an existing or
proposed development
It is a landscape architectural plan, and a detailed engineering drawing of proposed
improvements to a given lot
A site plan usually shows a building footprint, travel-ways, parking, drainage facilities,
sanitary sewer lines, water lines, trails, lighting, and landscaping and garden elements

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 52|P a g e

 Typically, depending on the size of the project, site plans are likely to be at a scale of 1: 500
or 1 : 200
However, for very small projects, larger scales may be used, and for large projects smaller
scales, or even several drawings, perhaps pulled together on one very small scale plan
The information shown on a site plan will vary depending on the size and nature of the project,
however, certain information is likely to appear on most site plans:
 Title block, giving the project name, drawing type, author, revision number, status,
scale used, and so on
 Notes highlighting changes from previous revisions
 Directional orientation: This could be a compass or a north-pointing arrow
 Key dimensions
 Key materials
 Site boundaries and delineation of adjacent properties, including where necessary,
adjoining or adjacent structures, and surrounding streets
 The location of the building or buildings in relation to their surroundings
 Trees, tree protection orders, and the main elements of the landscape
 Parking areas with dimensions or capacities, traffic flows, and signage
 Roads, footpaths, ramps, paved areas, and so on
Preliminary Drawings
Preliminary drawings are the initial project plans of a construction or development that are
prepared by the designers, architects, and engineers
These are the initial set of sketches, drawings and plans used to convey concepts, designs, and
ideas between clients, design professionals, and project stakeholders
Preliminary drawings serve the purpose of communicating and establishing an understanding
and direction of a project between the client and the design team
Preliminary drawings help visualize ideas among the different parties involved
These drawings are not intended to be used for construction, but they are used for exploring
design concepts, material selection, preliminary cost estimates, approval by the customer, and
a basis for the preparation of finished working drawings
Although preliminary drawings help establish a common understanding and vision of a project
Instead, preliminary drawings establish the basis for more specific plans that will ensue
Topographic Map/Drawing
Topographical plans and maps are drawings that indicate the main physical and geographical
features of a particular area
Topographical map is a representation of the Earth, or part of it
To complete a topographical drawing, a professional must perform topographical surveys to
gather information
A finished topographical drawing will tell you all you need to know about the buildings, fences,
roads, rivers, lakes, forests and more that can be found in a given area
The distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the shape of the Earth’s surface is
shown by contour lines

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 53|P a g e

 Moreover, a drawing can also specify changes in elevations, such as peaks and valleys

Figure 16: Topographic Map

Suitability of Scales
1. Topographic Maps/Drawings
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
1 cm = 1 km 1:100000
1 cm = 2.5 km 1:250000
2. Town Surveys
1 cm = 50 m 1:5000
1 cm = 0.1 km 1:10000
1 cm = 0.25 km 1:25000
1 cm = 0.5 km 1:50000
3. Sketch Drawing
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
4. Large Scale Survey and Layout
1 cm = 5 m 1:500
1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
1 cm = 20 m 1:2000
5. Working Drawings, Plans, Elevation and Sections
1 cm = 50 cm 1:50
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
1 cm = 2 m 1:200

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 54|P a g e

 As per Public Works Directives (Part III 7.5) the suggested scale for plan and longitudinal
sections of different structures are as follows:
1. Roads and Irrigation Works: 1:2500 horizontal and 1:250 vertical
2. Bridges: 1:200
3. Buildings: 1:250
4. Typical Details: 1:50 to 1:100
5. Foundations: 1:100 to 1:200
6. Drainage: 1:50 to 1:100
7. Utilities: depending on nature and extent
Working Drawing for Private and Public Buildings, Sanitary Installation and Electrification
Working drawings for sanitary installation and electrification works are more essential for
both private and public buildings.
Working drawings for sanitary installation and electrification helps to perform work in
systematic way in good accuracy.
These drawings also help in maintenance work.
Nepal National Building Code, NBC 208:2003 has been introduced for Sanitary and
Plumbing Design requirements.
Nepal National Building Code, NBC 207:2003 has been introduced for Electrical Design
Requirements (for Public Buildings)
These codes will have to be used for sanitary and plumbing design works.
Structural Working Drawings and Structural Detail: Column, Beam, Slab, Foundation and
other Structural Element
Structural drawings are used to progress the concept of architect by giving the shape and
position of all parts of structure.
It enables the construction of structure on site very smoothly.
Structural drawings are also used for the preparation of reinforcement drawings.
Structural drawings would typically contain the following information.
 All architect plans must have north point
 Setting out dimensions for concrete structure on site
 Plans, sections, elevations; showing layout, dimensions and levels of all concrete
members within the structure.
 Locations of all holes, fixings and other items affecting the connecting work.
 Notes on specifications, finishes and all references affecting the construction.
 Detail information about the length, shape and number of each number of
reinforcing bar.
Techniques of Free Hand Drawing
The basic ideas and concepts are usually outlined by means of freehand sketching.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 55|P a g e

 Using the criteria of technical drawing, symbols and characters, such a sketch becomes clear
to anyone familiar with the international technical language.
The only difference lies in the fact that on a technical drawing, everything is precisely drawn
whereas the accuracy of a sketch/free hand drawing depends on the accuracy of its author and
his or her talent.
It is used for daily communication in engineering as drawing is the Universal Language for
Engineers.
Sketching is also used to quickly present, in a graphical form, an idea or object to non-technical
persons.
Sketching significantly improves the communications between the members of a team, the
drafter and the customer.
Free hand drawings are drawn without the help of measuring instruments.
Free hand drawings are drawn with the help of pencil and eraser only.
All technical sketches are freehand drawings, but not all freehand drawings are technical
sketches.

Figure 17: Example of Technical Free Hand Sketch

Technical sketches are usually made on opaque paper in sizes A4 or A3
A graphite pencil of 2H hardness is normally used as it allows the drawing of both light
(narrow) and dark (wide) lines by simply pressing the pencil against the drawing paper
2B or B grade lead is used to draw contours, visible edges, shades and writing letters of 7
mm and more
Free Hand Drawing Instruments
Following instruments are used in free hand drawing:

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 56|P a g e

 a) Soft lead pencil
b) Eraser
c) Sharpener
d) Drawing sheet
e) Graph sheet
Principles of Free Hand Drawing/Sketching
Following principles should be followed for free hand sketching:
1. The object should be seen thoroughly and pondered over its objectives and concepts.
2. More detailed aspect shall be considered for selection of a view.
3. Space is specified on a drawing sheet according to the sizes of views.
4. Firstly, the dim lines are drawn so that extra lines may be erased easily.
5. Scale and ruler are not used in drawing, although, ratio and proportion of different parts of an
object are considered.
6. Firstly, horizontal lines are drawn then vertical lines are drawn, and arcs and circles are drawn
lastly.
7. After completing the diagram, a clear scale is written in some suitable manner.

Figure 18: Sketching Pencil

When sketching horizontal lines, your hand and forearm should turn at the elbow, and the edge of
your hand should slide horizontally on the paper. You should first try drawing a line in the air to
see how the line goes. Then apply a little pressure on the pencil tip and draw a horizontal line
lightly. The horizontal line shall be drawn in single stroke from left to right and the gap between
parallel horizontal line shall be equal.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 57|P a g e

 Figure 19: Freehand Sketching of Parallel Lines
A vertical line is drawn from the top to the bottom of the drawing sheet. It takes a lot of practice
to draw vertical lines. Vertical lines can be drawn using the edge of a paper as a guide and your
hand as a scale. The gap between the parallel vertical lines shall be equal.

Figure 20: Free Hand Sketching of Vertical Parallel Lines

The oblique lines are drawn from the one corner of the page to the other diagonally. Usually, the
right-handed people draw sloping or oblique lines from the bottom left to the top right of the paper.
However, the sketching can be made much easier by just rotating the paper into a position where
you are going to draw an oblique line.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 58|P a g e

 Figure 21: Free Hand Sketching of Oblique Parallel Line

Figure 22: Free Hand Sketching of Small Circle Using Four Arcs

Building Drawing
Building drawing plays important role in building construction. Building drawing is prepared
before constructing any building. Generally, a drawing is needed for every building, but the
drawing of the big building is very important. Different people construct different parts of a big
building. They should have drawing concerning required parts. The building drawing shall be
approved from the local authority before the construction. The building drawing should be in
accordance with the Bye-Laws of the Local Body. Every local body has made some rules by
considering the health of the people and environment of the society.
Types of Building Drawing

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 59|P a g e

Different types of building drawings are as follows:
1. Site Plan
This is the top view or bird eye view of the property. Site plan shows the specific location
(plot) for the building construction. In this type of building drawing; plot numbers, name of
the owner of the building, name of the streets and other important aspects of the building are
shown. The breaths of the streets and roads are also mentioned. The dimension of the plot is
written and the north direction is marked so that the plot can be easily located. This drawing is
generally prepared in the scale of 10 m = 1 cm (100 ft = 1 in.). Only boundary lines of the plot
are shown in site plan. The area of the plot is colored, or shaded so that this plot may look
different from other plots.

Figure: A Typical Site Plan

2. Line Plan
The position and size of internal rooms are given in line plan. Line plans are prepared with
single lines. The thickness of the walls is not shown in the line plan.
Line drawing is prepared by some architect. Then the remaining drawing is prepared by
draftsman with the help of this drawing.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 60|P a g e

 Figure: Line Plan
Characteristics of Line Plan are as follows:
a) Dimensions given in the rooms shows the internal dimensions of the rooms which do not
include thickness of the walls.
b) Dimensions given outside the rooms shows the external dimensions which include the
wall thickness.
c) The first dimension represents the horizontal dimension of the room while the second one
represents normal to the horizontal.
d) To represent the height of the room, it is written in a circle.
e) The doors and windows are represented in the related places with size.
3. Detailed Plan
The size, arrangement and position of rooms and verandas are shown in this type of building
drawing. The thickness of the wall is also shown. This plan is prepared with the help of the
line plan. It is taken into consideration that the level of the floor of the whole building is cut at
the height of 1 to 2 meter horizontally while planning this plan.
The drawings are prepared after cutting it. In case of multi-storied building, the detailed plan
of every storied shall be prepared separately.

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 61|P a g e

 Figure: Detailed Plan
4. Foundation plan
This type of building drawing is prepared to show the detail of the foundations of a building.
The whole place and size used in the building are shown in this plan.
5. Landscape plan
In this type of plan, space left after the construction of the building is shown. It is decorated
with flower beds, grassy plots, and other plants. In this plan, the external part of a building is
beautified. For this plan, the scale 1 cm = 1 m to 2 m is used.
6. Elevation
The vertical view of the building is called elevation. If front view is shown it is called front
elevation. If side view is shown, it is called side elevation.
7. Sectional elevation
The internal detail is shown in the sectional elevation. This view is shown by cutting the
drawing by a cutting plane line, and the detail of the required part is shown. If the building is
big, then it is divided into various sections to show their detail.
8. Perspective drawing
The true picture of an object appears in the perspective drawing. Such drawing is prepared
generally for important buildings so that the owner of the building and other concerned
authorities, who are not actually technical, could easily understand it.
9. Submission drawing

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 62|P a g e

 A drawing is prepared for a building which is to be constructed. This drawing is prepared
under the Bye-laws set by some competent authority. Such drawing which is prepared for the
approval of the authority is called submission drawing.
10. Model
Models are prepared for important buildings after preparing their drawings. This method
helps much in understanding a building.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Working/drawing space on the paper is shown on the map to be identified on the
determined by ground by their shape and position are
a) Working line called:
b) Drawing line a) Topographical maps
c) Border line b) Geographical maps
d) Trimmed edge c) Geological maps
2. Working drawing is not prepared for d) Site plan
a) Bill of quantities 7. Topographical map is used to represent
b) Estimation a) Artificial detail
c) Layout b) Natural detail
d) Specification c) Construction detail
3. The set of technical drawings used d) All of the above
during the manufacturing phase of the 8. Concept drawing is normally provided
product including civil construction are for the work of
known as a) Tender
a) Structural drawing b) Construction
b) As built drawing c) Revise estimate
c) Working drawing d) All of the above
d) Assembly drawing 9. As built drawing is normally constructed
4. Working drawings …………
a) Must provide complete a) Before the construction
information to produce the object b) After the construction
b) Need not provide complete c) Simultaneously with the construction
information d) All of the above
c) Should be supplemented by further 10. Free hand sketch is normally used for
details a) Concept
d) Should be supplemented by b) Final
specifications c) Discussion
5. Site plan is a d) None of the above
a) Structural plan 11. Free hand drawing is used for
b) Architectural plan a) Generate new idea
c) Sectional plan b) To make correction
d) None of the above c) Both (a) and (b)
6. The maps which are on sufficient large d) None of the above
scale to enable the individual features 12. The main purpose of as built drawing is

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 63|P a g e

 a) Maintenance and service work d) Hard-grade pencil
b) Dimensioning 19. Which of the following pencil grade is
c) Profession suitable for sketching?
d) To award tender a) 9H
13. In engineering free hand drawing is b) 10H
mostly used for c) 6H
a) Shape d) H
b) Size 20. Which of the following is false regarding
c) To express easily to client sketching?
d) To express dimension a) Initial ideas are represented in sketch
14. In the first angle method of orthographic form
projection b) Sketching are made in correct
a) The object comes between the proportions
observer and plane c) Sketching is done with the use of
b) The plane comes between the instruments
observer and object d) Sketching need not have a scale
c) The observer comes between the 21. To sketch an object, which of the
object and plane following should be done thoroughly?
d) None of the above a) Need to collect scales and higher
15. General structural drawing would grade instruments
typically include: b) Scaling should be decided perfectly
a) North point c) All the features of the object
b) Plan, section and elevation should be observed clearly
c) Notes on specification d) Need to know what instruments are
d) All of the above needed
16. In a topographical drawing the symbols 22. Which of the following is wrong to do in
representing natural features are drawn sketching?
by free hand while artificial works are a) Using no proper scale
drawn by b) Using no proper instruments
a) Free hand c) Sketching it as small as possible
b) Mechanically d) Sketching with proper proportions
c) Both (a) and (b) 23. What should be the minimum distance
d) None of the above between the hand and the pencil tip
17. The purpose of sectional view is to show while drawing a horizontal line?
a) Surface of the object a) 5mm
b) Internal of the object b) 100mm
c) Shape of the object c) 40mm
d) None of the above d) 80mm
18. Which of the following is not used in 24. Which of the following increases
free-hand sketching? proficiency in free hand drawing?
a) Cross-sectioned graph paper a) Using proper instruments
b) Soft rubber-eraser b) Using a better scale
c) Soft-grade pencil c) Using appropriate dimensions

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 64|P a g e

 d) Having constant practice 26. An accurate record of changes made to
25. Trammel method is used in sketching release drawing is tracked via:
free-hand to draw _______ a) A revision block
a) Horizontal lines b) Basic title form
b) Vertical lines c) Working drawings
c) Oblique lines d) Portable documents
d) Large-radii arcs

By: Er. Manoj Dangal Apex Academy, Putalisadak 65|P a g e