Structure of Atom

&
Chemical Bonding

M. L. Palash, PhD
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
 Structure of atom: Definition
The smallest possible amount of matter which still retains its identity,
consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.

❖ The structure of atom comprising of a nucleus (center) in which the

protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present. The
negatively charged particles called electrons revolve around the
center of the nucleus.

The word "atom" comes

from the Greek "atomos",
indivisible, from, not, and a
cut. “Everything is made of
atoms, invisible and
indivisible spheres of matter
of infinite type and number”-
Greek philosophers
Democritus and his mentor
Leucippus, around 460 BC.
 John Dalton’s atomic theory (1803)
Dalton suggested that all matter was made up of tiny spheres that were
able to bounce around with perfect elasticity and called them atom.

1. Everything is composed of atoms,

which are the indivisible building
blocks and indivisible.
2. All atoms of an element are
identical.

3. The atoms of different elements

vary in size and mass.
4. Compounds are made of different
whole-number combinations of
atoms.
5. A chemical reaction results in the rearrangement of atoms in the
reactant and product compounds.
 J.J. Thompson atomic model (1904)
Thomson discovered that the atom wasn’t as indivisible as previously
claimed.
First person who discovered electrons while he was working with cathode
rays in 1897. He realized electrons had a negative charge, unlike protons
(positive) and neutrons (no charge). Mass of the electron was found 1800
times less than hydrogen atom.

Thomson created the plum

pudding model (1904), which
stated that an atom was like
plum pudding: the dried fruit
(electrons) were stuck in a
mass of pudding (protons).
(Nobel Prize in 1906)
 Discussion ? Q & A
1. Who discovered that atoms can be more divisible?

2. Who first use the word ‘Atom’?

3. Are the atoms of different elements same in size and mass?

4. Who discovered electrons?

5. What do we represent the seeds and the Red part in an

watermelon during studying plum-pudding model?
 Rutherford atomic model (1911)
Rutherford, student of Thomson, overturned Thomson’s model in 1911 with
his famous gold-foil experiment, in which he demonstrated that the atom
has a tiny, massive nucleus.

Alpha ray scattering experiment

❑ A very thin gold foil of 1000 atoms

thick is taken.

❑ Alpha particles (doubly charged

Helium He2+) were made to
bombard the gold foil freely
comes out from any radioactive
elements

❑ ZnS screen is placed behind the

gold foil.
 Observation and Conclusion of Rutherford experiment

❑ Most of the rays just went through the gold foil

making scintillations (bright spots) in the ZnS
screen.
❑ A few rays got reflected after hitting the gold
foil.
❑ One in 1000 rays got reflected by an angle of
180° (retraced path) after hitting the gold foil.
Conclusion:
❖ Since most rays passed through, Rutherford concluded that most of the
space inside the atom is empty.
❖ Few rays got reflected because of the repulsion of its positive with some
other positive charge inside the atom.
❖ 1/1000th of rays got strongly deflected because of a very strong positive
charge in the center of the atom he called this strong positive charge as
“nucleus”.
❖ He said most of the charge and mass of the atom resides in the Nucleus
 Rutherford atomic model:
1. The nucleus is at the center of an
atom, where most of the charge
and mass are concentrated.
2. Atomic structure is spherical and
it consists of a lot of empty
space.
3. Electrons revolve around the
nucleus in a circular orbit, similar
to the way planets orbit the sun.
Limitations:
❖ If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy
against the strong force of attraction from the nucleus, and eventually,
will fall into the nucleus so the stability of atom is not explained.
❖ Rutherford’s theory was incomplete because it did not mention anything
about the arrangement of electrons in the orbit.
❖ Unable to explain the line spectrum observed in jumping of electrons.
 Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic number (Z):
❖ Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number.
❖ Proton numbers = Atomic number
❖ Such as Carbon has atomic number 6, Oxygen-6 etc.

Mass Number (A):

❖ The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is
called mass number.
❖ Protons + Neutrons = Mass number
❖ Such as carbon has mass of 12, Oxygen – 16 etc.
 Isobars and Isotopes
Isobar:
❖ Same mass number
but different atomic
number.
❖ Such as 146C and 147N

Isotope:
❖ Same atomic number
but different mass
number
❖ Different number of
neutrons

❖ 1 H- Protium
1
❖ 2 H-Deuterium
1
❖ 3 H-Tritium
1
 Discussion ? Q & A
Problem 1: Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
80 Br.
35
Answer:
Here, Given, Z = 35, A = 80, It is a Neutral atom
So, Number of protons = Number of electrons = 35
Number of neutrons: 80-35= 55.
Problem 2: Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
238 U.
92

1. Who discovered nucleus?

2. What is the alpha rays consisted of?
3. Most of the space of an atom is covered by nucleus?
4. Does the Rutherford atomic model stable in nature?
 Neil’s Bohr atomic model (1913)
Studied under Rutherford at the Victoria University in Manchester, Bohr
refined Rutherford's idea by adding that the electrons were in orbits. Rather
like planets orbiting the sun, with each orbit only able to contain a set
number of electrons.

Postulation:

1. Fixed circular orbits: Electron is revolving

round the nucleus in circular orbit at definite
distance from the nucleus and with a
definite velocity.

2. Stationary energy levels: Electron

remains in a particular orbit, it neither emits
nor absorbs energy. Hence each of the
fixed orbits is associated with a definite
amount of energy or stationary energy
level.
 Neil’s Bohr atomic model (1913)

❖ Stationary energy levels: Different energy levels have been

represented by n which can have integer values like 1, 2, 3,…., called
principal quantum number by Bohr which is also represented as K, L, M,
N, etc.

❖ The energy associated with a certain energy level that increases with the
increase of its distance from the nucleus. Thus, if E1<E2<E3 etc.
 Neil’s Bohr atomic model (1913)
3. Jumping of electrons:
Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy (excited state)
and move to lower energy levels by losing or emitting its energy (ground
state).
Energy absorbed, ∆E = ɦν = E2 - E1
ɦ=Planck’s constant
ν= Frequency of the radiation absorbed.

4. Principle of quantisation of
angular momentum of the moving
electron:
Electrons can move only in its orbit in
which the angular momentum of
electron (=mvr) moving round the
nucleus is integral whole number
multiple of ɦ/2Π.

So mvr = n. ɦ/2Π
 Neil’s Bohr atomic model (1913)
Limitations:

1. No explanation of fine structure - Existence of additional quantum

numbers: Not only principal quantum number, there is another sub-
energy stationary levels under the principal energy level.

2. No explanation for the spectra of multi-electron systems.

3. Bohr’s theory proposed that the path of electron is circular, but modern
researches notify that the motion of election is occurred in three-
dimensional space.

4. No explanation of Zeeman (splitting of spectral lines due to magnetic

field) effect and Stark (Splitting of spectral lines further due to electric
field) effect.

5. Dual nature of electron and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

 Discussion ? Q & A
1. Who discovered Orbit?

2. What is principal quantum number?

3. Electron jumping does not involve any energy?

4. What is Zeeman effect?

5. Can Bohr’s atomic model explain multi-electron system?

 Sub-atomic particles
Proton:
❑ Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a
proton is 1e, which corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19 C
❑ The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-27 Kg
❑ Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.
❑ The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always
equal to the atomic number of the element.
 Sub-atomic particles
Neutron:
❑ The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton i.e.
1.674×10-24 Kg
❑ Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge.
❑ Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but
vary in the number of neutrons present in their respective nuclei.

All elements have

neutrons except one?

Hydrogen
 Sub-atomic particles
Electron:
❖ The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-
19Coulombs

❖ The mass of an electron is approximately 9.109 × 10-31 kg

❖ Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when
calculating the mass of an atom.
The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called PERIODS.
The vertical columns of the periodic table are called GROUPS, or FAMILIES.
Alkali Metals
Advance atomic theory: Electron arrangements
Electronic Configuration:

The electron configuration of an atomic species (neutral

or ionic) allows us to understand the shape and energy of
its electrons.

There are a set of general rules that are used to figure out
the electron configuration of an atomic species:

1. Aufbau's Principle
2. Hund's Rule
3. Pauli-Exclusion Principle

Before continuing, it's important to understand that each

orbital can be occupied by two electrons of opposite spin.
 Electronic Configuration: Aufbau’s Principle
The word 'Aufbau' is German Another way to view this
for 'building up'. The Aufbau order of increasing energy
principle, also called the is by using Madelung's
building-up principle, states Rule:
that electron's occupy orbitals
in order of increasing energy.
The order of occupation is as
follows:
1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<
4d<5p<6s<4f<5d<6p<7s<5f<6d<
7p
Sodium(Z=11):
1s22s22p63s1
Bromine(Z=35):
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
❑ Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri
Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials.
❑ The theory of radioactivie disintegration was proposed by
Rutherford and Soddy in 1903.
❑ In 1913 Soddy proposed the name ‘isotope’.
❑ In 1919 Rutherford observed and identified transmutation of one
element to another.
❑ Radium was the 1st radionuclide used in medicine, in 1901.
❑ Currently about 50 radionuclide are used.
❑ Radionuclides are used in medicine and pharmacy in two
different ways:
As radiation source and Radionuclides tracers
As radiation source: their principal roles are in
i. Therapy
ii. Calibration of radiation sources detection instrumentation
❑ Radioactive decay, also known as nuclear decay or radioactivity, is
the process by which a nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by
emitting particles of ionizing radiation.

❑ A material that spontaneously emits this kind of radiation - which

includes the emission of energetic alpha particles, beta particles, and
gamma rays - is considered radioactive.

❑ An example of spontaneous radioactive decay is that of carbon-14,

which takes place by loss of a beta particle to give nitrogen-14

❑ Basic characteristics:
➢ Spontaneous and irreversible emission
➢ Highly penetrating, can pass through thin sheets of glass and metals
➢ Can ionize the air or gas through which they pass
➢ Can produce black spots on photographic plates
❑ When a radioactive isotope decays, it does so with the emission
of certain particles or quantities of energy those are
characteristics of particular isotopes involved.

❑ The major decay particles of interest include:

➢ Alpha particles
➢ Beta particles including negatrons and positrons
➢ Gamma rays
➢ X- rays

❑ More recent work has shown that the decay of some nuclei
involves the emission of other particles:
➢ Neutrino
➢ Antineutrino etc.
 Penetrating Distances

 < 4cm air, will not penetrate

skin.
 - several mtrs in air, penetrates
skin ~ 0.8 cm, use ~ 6 mm plastic
shielding.
X - penetrating, speak of half-
thickness 1/2, use lead shielding.

 - more penetrating than X-rays, use lead or concrete shielding.

1. Radioactive dating
2. Space exploration
3. Nuclear reactors
4. Smoke detectors
5. Nuclear medicines
6. Magnetic resonance
Chemical Bonding
 Chemical Bonding
A chemical bond is defined as the attractive force that holds two or more
atoms together in a molecule or an ion.

Why do atoms combine?

1. Net attractive force between atoms
2. Octet rule
3. Lowering energy of combining atoms

1. Net attractive
force between
atoms
 Chemical Bonding
❑ When the two atoms approach each other, attractive or repulsive forces
occur.

❑ If attractive force> repulsion, combine together. (H2, O2, NaCl etc)

❑ If attractive force< repulsion force, do not combine each other. (He, Ne

etc)

Two hydrogen
atoms combine
each other to form
H2 molecule
 Octet rule
❖ Walther Kossel and Gilbert N. Lewis saw that noble gases did not have
the tendency of taking part in chemical reactions under ordinary
conditions. They concluded that atoms of noble gases are stable and
proposed a theory of valency known as "electronic theory of valency" in
1916:
During the formation of a chemical bond, atoms combine together
by gaining, losing or sharing electrons in such a way that they acquire
nearest noble gas configuration.

❖ The tendency of the atoms to have eight electrons in their outermost

shell is known as octet rule.

Helium 2 1s2
Neon 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
Argon 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Krypton 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Xenon 54 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p6
Radon 86 1s22s22p63s2 3p63d104s24p64d104f14 5s2 5p66s26p6
 Octet rule: Main points are-
❖ Atom with 8 electrons in the outer most shell are chemically stable.
❖ Less than 8 electrons are chemically active. The atoms possessing less
than 4 electrons , usually tend to lose them. The atoms possessing more
than 4 electrons, tend to gain electrons to attain the nearest noble gas
formation.

Atoms combine chemically

by transferring of electrons
or by sharing electrons.
Both of these two process,
gain them 8 electrons in
outer most shell.

The tendency of an atom

for transfer or share its
electron is a measure of
its chemical activity.
 Lowering energy of combining atoms
❖ When two atoms combine together to form a bond, there is an over all
decrease in the potential energy of the combining atoms.

❖ The process of chemical bonding between the atoms decreases the

energy of the combining atoms and gives rise to the formation of a
system which has lower energy and hence has greater stability.

❖ Two H atoms are attracted

each other. At the point Y,
the distance is minimum,
bond is established and
bond energy is minimum.

❖ For H2 molecule, bond

energy is 103.2 kcal/mole
and bond length is 0.74 Y
Angstrom.
 Types of Bonds

❖ Ionic: By transfer of one or more valence electrons from one to another

❖ Covalent: Sharing of one, two or three electron pair from each atom
❖ Co-ordinate: Both the electron donated by one atom and shared by both
❖ Metallic: Variable number of electron are shared across the metal atoms
❖ Hydrogen: Bonding of H with two strongly electronegative atoms i.e. N, O
❖ Van der Walls: Distance dependent interaction and dipole moment.
 Ionic Bond
❖ The chemical bond formed between two atoms by the transfer of one or
more valence electrons from one atom to the other atoms is called ionic
bond. Such as NaCl, MgO, CaF2, Al2O3 etc.
❖ Generally metal and non-metal atoms are participating in ionic bonds.
❖ Na (2, 8,1) transfer one electron to Cl atom (2, 8, 7) and thus Na atom
acquires the configuration of Ne (2, 8) and Cl acquires the configuration of
Ar (2, 8, 8).
 Properties of Ionic compounds
1. Physical state: They are crystal in normal temperature.
2. Electrical conductivity: Do not conduct electricity when they are in solid
state. However, they conduct electricity in water solution or in the fused
state.
3. They are quite hard, have low volatility and high melting and boiling
points.
4. Crystal structure: Ionic solids do not exist alone rather cations and
anions attract each other and compact. In order to occupy minimum
space, ions arrange themselves systematically, called crystal or lattice.
 Properties of Ionic compounds
5. Solubility: Freely soluble in polar solvents like water, ammonia. Ionic
solids are insoluble or slightly soluble in non-polar solvents (benzene,
chloroform).
6. Stability: Very stable compounds.
7. Highly brittle: Highly brittle, little external force is applied on ionic
crystals, they are easily broken.
8. Density: High density.
9. Reactions: They undergo ionic reactions.
10. Isomorphism: Ions with identical electronic configurations show an
identity of crystalline form which is called Isomorphism. Such as NaF and
MgO, CaCl2 and K2S
 Covalent Bond
❖ The chemical bond between two atoms in which the electrons (in pairs)
are shared by both the participating atoms is called covalent bond. H2, F2,
HF, H2O, H2S, NH3, BF3, CH4, O2, N2, CO2, C2H4, C2H2 etc.
❖ The covalent bond is established between the atoms of the same or
different elements. The follow the octet rule.
Covalent Bond
 Properties of Covalent compounds
1. Physical state: Most of them are gases, liquid or exists as soft solids only
when their molecular weight is high.

2. Melting or boiling points: Except the giant molecules, covalent solids

have relatively lower melting and boiling points than ionics. SiCl4 b.p. is
580C and NaCl is 14400C.

3. Crystal structures: Each atom is bonded with other atoms resulting in the
formation of giant molecules (diamond, silicone carbide) and those which
consist of separate layers or layer lattice structure.
 Properties of Covalent compounds
4. Electrical Conductivity: Giant molecules (diamond) are bad conductors,
but layer lattice structures are good conductors (graphite). Generally do
not ionized in water solution except HCl.
5. Solubility: Generally insoluble in polar solvents, but highly soluble in non-
polar solvents. They follow the rule ‘Like dissolves like’.
6. Neither hard nor brittle:
7. Molecular reactions: Undergo molecular reactions, these reactions are
slow and needs controlled temperature and pressure and also catalyst.
8. Isomerism: Covalent bonds are rigid and directional, can give different
rearrangement in three-dimensional space, that’s why they show
isomerism.
 Coordinate Bond
❖ A covalent bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of two electrons
both of which are provided entirely by one of the linked atom is called a
co-ordinate/ coordinate covalent/ dative bond.
❖ Examples: CO, N2O, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5, HNO3, NO–3, SO2, SO3, H2SO4,
H3PO4, H4P2O7, H3PO3, Al2Cl6 (Anhydrous), O3,, NH+4, [Cu(NH3)4]2+
Coordinate Bond
Hydrogen bond: The attractive electrostatic force between a
hydrogen atom which is already covalently attached with a
strongly electronegative atom of a molecule and another
electronegative atom of some Other molecule
(same/different) is known as H2 bond.
such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins.
• Intermolecular hydrogen bonding (fig.1) is responsible for
the high boiling point of water (100 °C).
• Intramolecular hydrogen bonding (fig.2)is partly
responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of
proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays an important role in
the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural.

Fig. 1

Fig.2