Department of Industrial and Production

Engineering
Faculty of Science and Engineering

Full Module Specification

Module Title/Course Name Chemistry
Module Code: CHM-115
Module Level:
Academic Year:
Module Lecturer:
Contact Address:
Counseling Hour: Before or after class or by appointment
Module Credit 3 Credit Hour
Pre Requisites:
Co Requisites:
Duration of Module:
Grading: As outlined in the University policy
Teaching Methodology Class room lecturer, multimedia
presentation, discussion, group study,
assignment, presentation, etc.
Method of Evaluation Attendance = 20
Continuous Assessment = 20
Mid-term =30
Final =30
TOTAL =100

Ch Introduction
emistry 1
Introduction
Welcome to Chemistry module. This module is offered to the students of Civil
Engineering. It is evaluated on the basis of class tests, assignments, discussions,
presentations and the final examination.

Objectives
 On completion of this course, you will be able to:
 Understanding the basic knowledge of chemistry.
 Basic knowledge of elements.
 Basic knowledge of chemical bonding and chemical conversion.
 Basic concept of their use in field of engineering.
 Identify the key areas of material and elements in engineering.
 Basic knowledge of Chemical behavior of used substance in engineering.

Table of Content

2
1.Atomic Structure ------------------------------3
2. Electron Configuration and Periodicity----11
3. Chemical Bonding----------------------------17
4. Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metal------------23
5. Chemical kinetic------------------------------27
6.Acid Base--------------------------------------30 \
7.Water pollution-------------------------------32
8.Cement-----------------------------------------38
9. Solution----------------------------------------45

Atomic Structure

3
1.1 The Structure of the Atom

All matter is made of atoms. Whena substance contains only onekind

of atom it is known as an element. For example, the element gold only contains gold atoms.

Atoms contain a very small nucleus with electrons moving around outside the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus.

Subatomic Particles

As protons, neutrons and electrons collectively make up an atom they are individually called
subatomic particles. The following table gives some information about these particles.
Subatomic Charge Mass Location in
Particle Atom
proton positive 1 in nucleus
neutron neutral 1 in nucleus
electron negative almost outside
zero nucleus

ATOMIC MODELS
Observations obtained from the experiments mentioned in the previous sections have
suggested that Dalton’s indivisible atom is composed of sub-atomic particles carrying
positive and negative charges.

Table: Properties of Fundamental Particles

Relative
Mass Relative
Particle Symbol Mass (kg) Location
(proton = Charge
1)

4
 1.673 × inside
proton p+ 10−27 1 +1 the
nucleus
9.109 × outside
electron e− 0.00055 −1
10−31 nucleus
1.675 × inside
neutron 10−27 1 0 the
n0
nucleus

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of these charged
particles in an atom. Although some of these models were not able to explain the stability of
atoms, two of these models, proposed by J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford are discussed
below.

What are atomic number, mass number and isotope?

Atomic number (Z): Atomic number is defined as the number of unit of positive charges
on the nucleus of the atom of that element or as the number of protons present in the
nucleus.

Atomic number (Z) =No. of unit positive charges on the nucleus

= No. of protons in the nucleus (p)
= No. of electrons revolving in orbits(e)
Or, Z= p=e

Mass number (A): Mass is defined as the sum of the number of neutrons & protons present
in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number.
I.e. Mass number (A) = No. of protons (p) + No. of neutrons (n)
A=p+n

Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same numbers of protons
(atomic number), but different numbers of neutrons. They have same chemical properties
due to the same electron configuration, but different physical properties.

5
Fig: The three naturally-occurring isotopes of hydrogen. The fact that each isotope has
oneproton makes them all variants of hydrogen: the identity of the isotope is given by
thenumber of neutrons. From left to right, the isotopes are protium ( 1H) with zero
neutrons,deuterium (2H) with one neutron, and tritium (3H) with two neutrons.

Atomic Theory given by John Dalton

John Dalton (September 1766-27 July 1844) was an
English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for introducing the atomic
theory into chemistry, and for his research into color blindness, sometimes referred to as
Daltons in his honor.

John Dalton proposed atomic theory which state

• All Substances are made of atoms; atoms are small particles that can’t becreated,
divided ordestroyed.

• Atoms of the same elements are exactly alike, and atoms of different elementsare
different.

• Atoms join with other atoms to make newsubstances.

Describe model of an atom proposed by J. J. Thomson or Plum pudding atom model

proposed by J. J. Thompson
Thomson proposed that the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of positive
charge to balance the electrons’ negative charges.

Key Points
• J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron in 1897, proposed the plum pudding model
of the atom in 1904 before the discovery of the atomic nucleus in order to include the
electron in the atomicmodel.

• In Thomson’s model, the atom is composed ofelectrons

surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electrons’ negative charges,
like negatively charged “plums” surrounded by positively charged “pudding”.

Fig: Plum pudding atom model

6
He has given the name corpuscles not electron. In physics a discrete particle such as an
electron, photon, ion, or atom mean corpuscle.

Describe gold foil experiment performed by Geiger and Marsden under directions of
Rutherford and its implications for the model of the atom

Gold Foil Experiment or Rutherford atom model: Rutherford overturned Thomson’s

model in 1911 with his well-known gold foil experiment, in which he demonstrated that the
atom has a tiny, high- mass nucleus. Rutherford atomic model was the first step in the
evolution of the modern atomic model. Ernest Rutherford was a keen scientist who worked
to understand the distribution of electrons in an atom. He performed an experiment using
alpha particles and gold foil and made the following observations:
• Most of the alpha particles passed straight through the goldfoil.
• There was a deflection of the alpha particles by a smallangle.
• Very small amount of alpha particlesrebounded.

Rutherford’s Experiment From his experiment, he

came to following conclusions:
• Most of the space in an atom isempty.
• The space occupied by the positive charges is verysmall.
• The positive charges and mass of the atom were concentrated in a very smallvolume
with in anatom.

From these conclusions, he calculated that the radius of the nucleus is around 105 times less
than that of the atom.

Limitation/ drawbacks of Ernest Rutherford nuclear Atomic Model

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model: Although the Rutherford atomic model was
based on experimental observations it failed to explain certain things.

 Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called
orbits. According to Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations
7
and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation.
This radiation would carry energy from the motion of the electron which would come at the
cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collapse in the nucleus.
Calculations have shown that as per Rutherford model an electron would collapse in the
nucleus in less than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford model was not in accordance with
Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the stability of anatom.
 One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything
about the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theoryincomplete.

 Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain
experimental results, they were the base for future developments in the world of
quantummechanics.

Quantum Numbers
Answer: Reminder: quantum numbers specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the
properties of electrons in orbitals. There are four quantum numbers as follows-

◼ Principal quantum number (n) - describes the SIZE of the orbital or ENERGY
LEVEL of theatom.

◼ Angular quantum number (l) or sublevels - describes the SHAPE of theorbital.

◼ Magnetic quantum number (m) - describes an orbital's ORIENTATION inspace.

◼ Spin quantum number (s) - describes the SPIN or direction (clockwise or counter-
clockwise) in which an electronspins.

8
 Define the terms Aufbau Principle
The Aufbau principle states that electrons are added to the lowest energy orbitals first
before moving to higher energy orbitals.

The relative order of enrgy of various orbitals of an atom is given below: It depends on
(n+l), l= (s=0, p=1, d=2,f=3 )

For, 3d, n=3, l=2 that is, (n + l) =3+2=5

For4s, n=4, l=0 that is, (n + l) =4+0=4 So, 4s <3d.

9
1s< 2s< 2p< 3s< 3p< 4s< 3d< 4p< 5s< 4d< 5p< 6s< 4f< 5d< 6p< 5f<
5d……………………..
Example:
Ni(28) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
Cu(29) = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

10
2.Electron Configuration and Periodicity

Mendeleev’s arrangement of the elements, the periodic table, was originally based on the
observed chemical and physical properties of the elements and their compounds. We now explain
this arrangement in terms of the electronic structure of atoms. In this chapter we will look at this
electronic structure and its relationship to the periodic table of elements.

2.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

OttoSternandWaltherGerlachfirstobservedelectronspinmagnetismin1921.Theydirected
abeamofsilveratomsintothefieldof aspecially designedmagnet.Thesameexperiment can be done
with hydrogen atoms. The beam of hydrogen atoms is split into two by the magnetic
field;halfoftheatomsarebent inonedirectionandhalfintheother(seeFigure8.2). The fact
thattheatomsareaffectedbythelaboratorymagnetshowsthattheythemselvesactasmagnets.

Figure 7.1: The Stern–Gerlach experiment

2.2. Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams
An electron configuration of an atom is a particular distribution of electrons among available
subshells. The notation for a configuration lists the subshell symbols, one after the other, with a
superscript giving the number of electrons in that subshell. For example, a configuration of the
lithium atom (atomic number 3) with two electrons in the 1s subshell and one electron in the 2s
subshell is written 1s22s1.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
An orbital can hold at most two electrons, and then only if the electrons have opposite spins. Each
subshell holds a maximum of twice as many electrons as the number of orbitals in the subshell.
Thus, a 2p subshell, which has three orbitals (with ml = -1, 0, and +1), can hold a maximum of six
electrons.

Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table

Every atom has an infinite number of possible electron configurations. The configuration
associatedwiththelowestenergyleveloftheatomcorrespondstoaquantummechanicalstate called the
ground state. Other configurations correspond to excited states, associated 11 with
energylevelsotherthanthelowest.Forexample,thegroundstateofthesodiumatomisknown from
experiment to have the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s1. The electron configuration
1s22s22p63p1 represents an excited state of the sodiumatom.
 Building-Up Principle (Aufbau Principle)
a scheme used to reproduce the electron configurations of
the ground states of atoms by successively filling subshells
with electrons in a specific order (the building-up order).
Following this principle, you obtain the electron
configuration of an atom by successively filling subshells
in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f. This order reproduces the
experimentally determined electron configurations (with
some exceptions, which we will discuss later). You need
not memorize this order. As you will see, you can very
easily obtain it from the periodic table. You need the
building-up order to predict the electron configurations of
the ground states of atoms.

Exceptions to the Building-Up Principle

As we have said, the building-up principle reproduces most of the ground-state configurations
correctly. There are some exceptions, however, and chromium (24) is the first we encounter. The
building-up principle predicts the configuration [Ar]3d44s2, though the correct one is found
experimentally to be [Ar]3d54s1. Copper (29) is another exception to the building-up principle.

Electron Configurations and the PeriodicTable

By this time you can see a pattern develop among the ground-state electron configurations of the
atoms. This pattern explains the periodic table.

Periodicity of theElements
You have seen that the periodic table that Mendeleev
discovered in 1869 can be explained by the
periodicity of the ground-state electron configurations
of the atoms. Now we will look at various aspects of
the periodicity of the elements.

Atomic Radius
An atom does not have a definite size, because the 12
statistical distribution of electrons does notabruptly
endbutmerelydecreasestoverysmallvaluesasthe
distance from the nucleusincreases.
 1. Within each period (horizontal row), the atomic radius tends to decrease with increasing
atomic number (nuclear charge). The largest atom in a period is a Group IA atom and the
smallest is a noble-gasatom.
2. Within each group (vertical column), the atomic radius tends to increase with the period
number.

Figure: a. AtomicRadious b. IonizationEnergy

Ionization Energy
The first ionization energy (or first ionization potential) of an atom is the minimum energy
needed to remove the highest-energy (that is, the outermost) electron from the neutral atom
in the gaseous state.

Electron Affinity
The electron affinity is the energy change for the process of adding an electron to a neutral
atom in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.
When a neutral atom in the gaseous state picks up an electron to form a stable negative ion,
energyisreleased.Forexample,achlorineatomcanpickupanelectrontogiveachlorideion, Cl, and 349
kJ/mol of energy is released. You write the process as follows, with electron configurations noted
inparentheses:
Cl([Ne]3s23p5)+ e- → Cl-([Ne]3s23p6)
Periodicity in the Main-GroupElements
The chemical and physical properties of the main-group elements clearly display periodic
character.

Group IA Elements, the Alkali Metals (ns1)

The alkali metals are soft and reactive, with the reactivities increasing as you move down the
column of elements. All of the metals react with water to produce hydrogen.
2Li(s) 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
The vigor of the reaction increases from lithium (moderate) to rubidium (violent). All of the
alkali metals form basic oxides with the general formula R2O.

Group IIA Elements, the Alkaline Earth Metals (ns2)

The alkaline earth metals are also chemically reactive but much less so than the alkali metals.
Reactivities increase going down the group. The alkaline earth metals form basic oxides with the
general formula RO.
13
Group IIIA Elements (ns2np1)
Groups IA and IIA exhibit only slight increases in metallic character down a column, butwith
Group IIIA we see a significant increase. The first Group IIIA element, boron, is a
metalloid. Other elements in this group aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium are metals.
(Gallium is a curious metal; it melts readily in the palm of thehand.
 Group IVA Elements (ns2np2)
This group shows the most distinct change in metallic character.
It begins with the nonmetal carbon, C, followed by the metalloid’s silicon, Si, and germanium, Ge, and then
the metals tin, Sn, andlead, Pb. Both tin and lead were known to theancients. All the elements in
thisgroupformoxideswiththegeneralformulaRO2,whichprogress from acidic to amphoteric.

Group VA Elements (ns2np3)

The Group VA elements also show the distinct transition from nonmetal
(nitrogen, N, and phosphorus, P) to metalloid (arsenic, As,Figure : Gallium
andantimony,Sb)tometal(bismuth,Bi).Nitrogenoccursasacolorless,odorless,relativelyunreactive
gas with N2 molecules; white phosphorus is a white, waxy solid with P 4 molecules. Gray arsenic
is a brittle solid with metallic luster; antimony is a brittle solid with a silvery, metallic luster.
Bismuth is a
hard,lustrousmetalwithapinkishtinge.TheGroupVAelementsformoxideswithempiricalformulas
R2O3 and R2O5. In some cases, the molecular formulas are twice that is, R 4O6 andR4O10.

Group VIA Elements, the Chalcogens (ns2np4)

Theseelements,thechalcogens(pronouncedkal-ke-jens),showthetransitionfromnonmetal(oxygen,
O, sulfur, S, and selenium, Se) to metalloid (tellurium, Te) to metal (polonium, Po). Oxygen
occurs as a colorless, odorless gas with O 2 molecules. It also has an allotrope, ozone, with
molecular formulaO3. Sulfur is a brittle, yellow solid with molecular formula S 8. Tellurium is a
shiny gray, brittle solid; polonium is a silvery metal. Sulfur, selenium, and tellurium form
oxides with the formulas RO2 and RO3.

Group VIA Elements, the Chalcogens (ns2np4)

Theseelements,thechalcogens(pronouncedkal-ke-jens),showthetransitionfromnonmetal(oxygen,
O, sulfur, S, and selenium, Se) to metalloid (tellurium, Te) to metal (polonium, Po). Oxygen
occurs as a colorless, odorless gas with O 2 molecules. It also has an allotrope, ozone, with
molecular formulaO3. Sulfur is a brittle, yellow solid with molecular formula S 8. Tellurium is a
shiny gray, brittle solid; polonium is a silvery metal. Sulfur, selenium, and tellurium form
oxides with the formulas RO 2 and
RO3.Theseoxides,exceptforTeO2,areacidic;TeO2isamphoteric.PoloniumhasanoxidePoO2,which
is amphoteric, though more basic in character thanTeO2. 14
Group VIIA Elements, the Halogens (ns2np5)
The halogens are reactive nonmetals with the general molecular formula X 2, where X
symbolizes a halogen. Fluorine, F2, is a pale-yellow gas; chlorine, Cl 2, a pale greenish yellow
gas; bromine, Br2, a reddish-brown liquid; and iodine, I 2, a bluish black solid that has a violet
vapor. Little is known about the chemistry of astatine, At, because all isotopes are radioactive
with very short half-lives. It mightbe expected to be a metalloid. Each halogen forms several
compounds with oxygen; these are generally unstable, acidicoxides.

Group VIIIA Elements, the Noble Gases (ns2np6)

The Group VIIIA elements exist as gases consisting of uncombined atoms. For a long time
these elements were thought to be chemically inert, because no compounds were known. Then,
in the early
1960s,severalcompoundsofxenonwereprepared.Nowcompoundsarealsoknownforargon,krypton,
and radon. These elements are known as the noble gases because of their relativeunder activity.

15
 Module -3 Chemical Bonding

What is chemical bond?

Answer: Atoms tend to arrange themselves in the most stable patterns possible, which means that
they havea tendency to complete or fill their outermost electron orbits. They joinwith
otheratomsto do just that. The force that holds atoms together in collections known as
molecules is referred to as a chemicalbond.
A chemical bond is defined as the attractive forcethat holds two or more atoms together in
a molecule or an ion. For example, ifyou burn coal, the following main reaction willhappen.

C+ O2 CO2

Two important features of Chemical bonding

It is more useful to regard a chemical bond as an effect that causes certain atoms to join
Togetherto form enduring structures that haveunique physical and chemical properties.

Most important1: chemical bonding occurs when one or more electrons are
simultaneously attracted to twonuclei.
Most important 2: A chemical bond between two atoms forms if the resulting arrangement of the two
nuclei and their electrons has a lower energy than the total energy of the separate atoms.

Causes of chemical bonding

It is the force which keeps atoms together in a molecule. The causes of formation of a chemical
bond are:
• Tendency of atoms to complete their octets or duplets by rearrangement of their valence
electrons (octet theory).
• The system acquires minimum energy when atoms are at some equilibrium distance where
attractive forces dominate over repulsiveforces.

How do atoms combine?

Following ways atoms combine together

(i) Thetransferofoneormoreelectronsfromthevalenceshellofanatomtothe valence of16

another
atom takesplace.
 (ii) Thesharedelectronpairsmaybecontributedequallybeeither the atoms ormay contributed by
only one of thecombiningatoms.

Classification of chemical bond or Types of chemical bond Answer: The

classification of bonds can be illustratedasbelow:
a) Strongbond
i) Ionic
ii) Covalent
iii) Co-ordinate
iv) Metallic

b) Weakbond
i) Hydrogen
ii) Vander-waalsforces

 Whatis ionicbond? Writedowntheconditionofthistype ofbond

Answer: Ionic bond: The chemical bond formed between two atoms by the transfer of
onemorevalenceelectronsfromoneatom tothe otheriscalledionicbond.
How an ionic bond is established between two atoms can be explained by the Following Example:
NaClmoleculethe electronic configuration of Na &Clgiven below:

Loss of electron
Na(11) 1s2 2s22p63s1[Na ]+orNa+
(2,8,1)

Addition of electron
Cl(17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 [Cl-](2,8,7)

Combination of ions
Na+ + Cl Na+Cl-crystal
(2,8) (2,8,8)

17acquires the
Here, Na (2,8,1) transfer its excess one electron to Cl atom (2,8,7) and thus Na atom
configuration of Ne (2,8) and Cl acquires the configuration of Ar (2,8,8).
The electron lost by Na atom is accepted by Cl atom and consequently Na atom is converted into a
positively charged ion and Cl atom is converted into a negatively chargedion. The two ions thus
stormed attract each other by electro static force of attractionwhichleadsto
+ -
theformationofionicbondbetweenNa andCl .

Write down the properties of ionic compounds Answer:

(i) The ionic compounds are crystalline solids atroom temperature.

(ii) Theioniccompoundsare goodconductorsof electricityinthemolten state
(iii) They arequitehard,havelowvolatilityandhighmeltingandboiling points.
(iv) Ionic compounds are freely soluble in polar solvents and insolublein non-
polar solvents or Slightly soluble solvents
(v) Ionic compounds are very stablecompounds.
(vi) Ionic compounds arehighly brittle.
(vii) They have highdensity.

What is covalent bond? Give example Answer: Covalent

bond:

The chemical bond between two atoms in which the electrons are shared by both the
participating atoms is called covalent bond.
Formation of Chlorine, Cl2

Each Cl atom (2, 8, 7) has seven valence electrons. The two Cl atoms achieve a stable electron
octet by sharing a pair of electrons.

Example: H2, F2, HF Molecule.

(i) Covalent compounds exist as gases or liquids under the normal conditions of
Temperature &pressure. 18
(ii) They are bad conductor ofelectricity
 (iii) They are not hand, have low boilingpoint
(iv) They areinsolubleinpolarsolventsbut solubleinnon-polarsolvent
(v) They are notbrittlebecausetheyaresoft&waxy

Co-ordinate bond

A coordinate bond (also called a dative covalent bond) is a covalent bond in which both electrons
come from the same atom. The bonding of metal ions to ligands involves this kind of interaction.

Example

In all metal aquo-complexes [M(H2O)n]x+, the bonding between water

and the metal cation is described as a coordinate covalent bond. Metal- ligand interactions in most
organometallic compounds and most coordination compounds are described similarly.

Fig.Formation of an adduct of ammonia and boron trifluoride, involving formation

of a coordinate covalent bond.

An example of a dative covalent bond is provided by the interaction between a molecule of ammonia,
a Lewis base with a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom, and boron

Trifluoride, a Lewis acid by virtue of the boron atom having an incompleteoctet of electrons. In
forming the adduct, the boron atom attains an octetconfiguration.

Properties of Co-ordinate compounds Answer:

(i) Co-ordinate covalent compounds have melting points, boiling pointsandviscosities.
(ii) They are semi-polar incharacter
(iii) They are semi-polar incharacter
(iv) They areusuallyinsolubleinpolarsolventsbutaresolubleinnon-polarsolvents
(v) They are not good conductor ofelectricity.
19
(vi) They are as stable as the covalentcompounds
(vii) They undergo molecular reactions which are veryslow.0
 What is metallic bond?
Answer: The attractive force that binds the metal ions to the mobile electrons is called metallic
bond.

Physical properties of metals Answer:

(i) Metals are good conductor ofelectricity.
(ii) They are good conductors ofheat
(iii) They are opaque and have lustiercolour.
(iv) They aremalleableorplastic&ductilemetalsformalloys
(v) Metals formalloys
(vi) They elasticity and possess high tensilestrength
(vii) Metals are solids &havehighdensity

What is hydrogen bond?

Answer: The attractive electrostatic force between a hydrogen atom which is already covalently
attached with a strongly electronegative atom of molecule and another electro negative atom of
some other molecule is known as hydrogen bond.
Or
Under appropriate conditions a hydrogen atom may be linked to two similar or different electronegative
atoms. It is bonded to one of the two atoms by a covalent bond whiletothe other atom it is
attached by a special type of bond which weaker than the covalent bond and is called
hydrogenbond.
For example, intermolecular hydrogen bonds can occur between NH3 molecules alone, between
H2O molecules alone, or between NH3 and H2Omolecules.

Significance of Hydrogen bonding Answer:

20
(1) Physical state ofwater:
Without H-bonding, H20would have existed as a gas like H2s. In that case no life would
 have been possible without liq H2o

(2) Explanation ofpolymerization:

Hydrogen bonding gives a satisfactory explanation for the mechanism of polymerization hence of
the formation of bigger aggregates of organic as well as inorganic nicemolecules.
(3) Applicationinbiologicalinvestigation&geology
(4) In point, dyesandclothing

What are Vander Waalsforces?

Answer: Vander Waals forces are very short livedintermolecularattractive foresee which are
believed to exist between all kinds of atoms, molecules &ions when they are sufficiently close to
eachother.

Types of Vander Waals forces

Answer: There are four types of Vander coalsforest.

(1) dipole-dipole interactions
(2) Ion-dipoleinteractions
(3) Dipole-induced dipoleinteractions
(4) instantaneous dipole-induced dipoleinteractions

21
Alkali andAlkaline Earth Metals : (Module –4)
What is alkali metal?
The alkali metals are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of the chemicalelements
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium(K), rubidium (Rb), caesium(Cs), and francium (Fr). This
group lies in the s-block of the periodic table of elements as all alkali metals have their outermost
electron in ans-orbital.

Electronic configuration of alkali metal:

Alkali Metal Properties

 Lower densities than othermetals

 One loosely bound valenceelectron
 Largest atomic radii in theirperiods
 Low ionizationenergies
 Low electronegativities
 Highly reactive

What elements are alkaline earth metals?

The elements of the alkaline earth metals include beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium,
barium, and radium. 22
Z Element No. of electrons/shell Electron configuration[n2]
4 beryllium 2, 2 [He] 2s2
12 magnesium 2, 8, 2 [Ne] 3s2
20 calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 [Ar] 4s2
38 strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 [Kr] 5s2
56 barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 [Xe] 6s2
88 radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 [Rn] 7s2

The alkaline earth metals are a group of elements in the periodic table. They are all in the second
column of the periodic table. They are sometimes referred to as the group 2 elements.

What are the similar properties of alkaline earth metals?

Alkaline earth metals share many similar properties including:

 They are silvery, shiny, and relatively softmetals.

 They are fairly reactive under standardconditions.
 They have two outer valence electrons which they readilylose.
 They all occur in nature, but are only found in compounds and minerals, not in their
elementalforms.
 They react with halogens to form compounds calledhalides.
 All of them except beryllium react strongly withwater.
 They tend to form ionic bonds, except for beryllium which forms covalentbonds.

Applications:

Beryllium

is used mostly for military applications, but there are other uses of beryllium, as well. In
electronics, beryllium is used as a p-typedopantin some semiconductors,andberyllium oxide is
used as a high-strength electrical insulator and heat conductor. Due to its light weight and other
properties, beryllium is also used in mechanics when stiffness, light weight, and dimensional
stability are required at wide temperature ranges.

Magnesium

has many different uses. One of its most common uses was in industry, where it has many
structural advantages over other materials such as aluminium, although this usage has fallen out of
favor recently due to magnesium's flammability.Magnesium is also often alloyed with aluminium
or zinc to form materials with more desirable properties than any pure metal.[64]

23
Magnesium has many other uses in industrial applications, such as having a role in the
production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium.

Calcium

also has many uses. One of its uses is as a reducing agent in the separation of other metals from
ore, such as uranium. It is also used in the production of the alloys of many metals, such as
aluminiumand copper alloys, and is also used to deoxidize alloys as well. Calcium also has a role
in the making of cheese, mortars, and cement.

Strontiumand barium do not have as many applications as the lighter alkaline earth metals, but
still have uses. Strontium carbonate is often used in the manufacturing of red fireworks,and pure
strontium is used in the study of neurotransmitter release in neurons.Barium has some use in
vacuum tubes to remove gases,andbarium sulfate has many uses in the petroleumindustry,as well
as otherindustries.

Radiumno longer has many applications, but it used to have many. Radium used to be used
often in luminous paints, although this use was stopped after workers got sick. As people used to
think that radioactivity was a good thing, radium used to be added to drinking water, toothpaste,
and many other products, although they are also not used anymore due to their health
effects.Radium is no longer even used for its radioactive properties, as there are more powerful
and safer emitters than radium.

Heavy metals :

Heavy metalsare generally defined as metals with relatively high densities, atomic weights,
oratomic numbers. The criteria used, and whether metalloids are included, vary depending on the
author and context. In metallurgy, for example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of
density, whereas in physics the distinguishing criterion might be atomic number, while a chemist
would likely be more concerned with chemical behaviour.
Example:
iron, copper, and tin, and precious metals such as silver, gold, and platinum—are heavy metals.
From 1809 onwards, light metals, such as magnesium, aluminium, and titanium, were discovered,
as well as less well-known heavy metals including gallium, thallium, andhafnium.

Physical and chemical characterisations of heavy metals:

Heavy metals tend to be less reactive than lighter metals and have much
lesssolublesulfides and hydroxides. While it is relatively easy to distinguish a heavy metal such
as tungsten from a lighter metal such assodium, a few heavy metals such as zinc, mercury, and
lead have some of the characteristics of lighter metals, and lighter metals such as beryllium,
scandium, and titanium have some of the characteristics of heavier metals.

Possible Questions:

24
Broad Questions: Short Questions:
1) What are the similar properties of alkaline a. What are alkali metal?
earth metals?
2) What are applicationsof alkaline earth b. What areHeavy metals?
metals?

c. Give electronic configuration of alkali

metal.

25
 (Module –5)
Chemical Kinetics

Kinetics: the study of how fast chemical reactions occur.

(in contrast to Thermodynamics: which determines if a reaction take place)
Our goal: is to understand chemical reactions at the molecular level.
Speed of a reaction: is measured by the change in concentration with time.

Important factors which affect rates of reactions:

– reactant concentration
– temperature
– action of catalysts
– surface area
– pressure of gaseous reactants or products

Rates of reactions can be determined by monitoring the change in concentration of either

reactants or products as a function of time t.
[A] = concentration of reactant A

Reaction Rate
• For the reaction “A  B” there are two ways of measuring rate:
(1) the speed at which the reactants disappear
(2) the speed at which the products appear
• Reactions are reversible, so as products accumulate they can begin to turn back into
reactants.
• Early on the rate will depend on only the amount of reactants present. We want to measure
the reactants as soon as they are mixed.
• The most useful (and general) way of measuring the rate of the reaction is in terms of
change in concentration per unit time…
Rate = ∆[A]/∆t limits to D[A]/Dt
Most Common Units… Rate = M/s
(Remember…Molarity (M) = moles/Liter)
26
Thermodynamics – does a reaction take place?
Kinetics – how fast does a reaction proceed?
Reaction rate is the change in the concentration of a reactant or a product with time (M/s).
 What is the rate of the reaction?
It might be helpful to see in a graph what is happening:

Here’s the math that we are attempting to do, without needing calculus to take the derivative.
H2 + I2 → 2HI

Factors that Affect Reaction Rate Constant:

1. Temperature: At higher temperatures, reactant molecules have more kinetic energy, move faster, and
collide more often and with greater energy
• Collision Theory: When two chemicals react, their molecules have to collide with each other
with sufficient energy for the reaction to take place.
• Kinetic Theory: Increasing temperature means the molecules move faster.
2. Concentrations of reactants
• As the concentration of reactants increases, so does the likelihood that reactant molecules will
collide.
3. Catalysts
• Speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
4. Surface area of a solid reactant
• Bread and Butter theory: more area for reactants to be in contact
5. Pressure of gaseous reactants or products
• Increased number of collisions
27
Concentration and Rate:

Each reaction has its own equation that gives its rate as a function of reactant concentrations.
this is called its Rate Law
To determine the rate law we measure the rate at different starting concentrations.
Rate Law
• In general, rates of reactions increase as concentrations increase since there are more collisions
occurring between reactants.
• The overall concentration dependence of reaction rate is given in a rate law or rate expression.
• Here’s what a general rate law for a reaction will look like…
Rate = k [A]m [B]n
- [A] & [B] represent the reactants.
- The exponentsm and n are called “reaction orders”.
- The proportionality constant k is called the rate constant.
- The overall reaction order is the sum of the reaction orders.
- The overall “order of reaction” is therefore… m + n + ….

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry

In general, for

aA +bB cC + dD

Reactants (decrease) Products (increase)

The Rate Law

The rate law expresses the relationship of the rate of a reaction to the rate constant and the
concentrations of the reactants raised to some powers.

reaction is xth order in A

reaction is yth order in B
reaction is (x +y)th order overall

Order of Reactions
• A reaction is zero order in a reactant if the change in concentration of that reactant28produces no effect.
• A reaction is 1st order if doubling the concentration causes the rate to double.
• A reaction is 2nd order if doubling the concentration causes a quadruple increase in rate.
-3rd order…doubling concentration leads to 23 (or 8 times) the rate.

aA + bB cC + dD
• Note-- The rate constant, k, does not depend on concentration!
• Once we have determined the rate law and the rate constant, we can use them to calculate initial
reaction rates under any set of initial concentrations.

Half-Life
• Half-life is the time taken for the concentration of a reactant to drop to half its original value.
• For a first order process, half life, t½ is the time taken for [A]0 to reach ½[A]0

t½= −ln(½) = 0.693 where k = the rate constant

k k
nd
• For a 2 order reaction, half-life depends on the reactant concentrations…
t½ = 1/ k[A]0
• For Zero order reactions…
t½ = [A]0 /2k

What is the half-life of N2O5 if it decomposes with a rate constant of 5.7 x 10-4 s-1?

How do you know decomposition is first order? units of k (s-1)

29
 Module-6 Acids and Bases
Acids and bases were first recognized by simple properties, such as taste. Acids have a sour taste;
bases are bitter. Also, acids and bases change the color of certain dyes called indicators, such as
litmus and phenolphthalein.

Acid–BaseConcepts
Arrhenius concept–
a) Acid – An acid is a substance which gives hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution i.e. when
dissolved inwater
Ex. HCl ===== H++Cl–(aq.)
CH3COOH<—->CH3COO–+H+(aq.)
b) Base – A base is a substance which gives hydroxide ion (OH–) in aqueoussolution.
Ex. KOH(aq.) –> K++OH–
NH4OH(aq.) –> NH4++OH–
c) According to arrhenius concept acids & bases which ionises completely inaqueous
solution are called strong acids & strong bases respectively.
Strong Acid HCl(aq.) –> H++Cl–
WeakAcid CH3COOH(aq.)<—-> CH3COO–+H+
Strong Base NaOH (aq)–> Na++OH–
Weak Base NH4OH(aq.) –> NH4++OH–
d) Water is amphoteric because it gives both H+& OH– in solution
H2O–>H++OH–

Bronsted Lowryconcept

a) Acid An acid is a substance (molecule or cation or anion) that gives proton i.e. H+ or acid
is proton donor
HCl –> H++Cl–
HCO3––> H++ CO3––
[Al(H2O)6]3+ –>H++[Al(H2O)5OH)2+
b) Base-A base is a substance (molecule or cation or anion) that accepts proton i.e. H+or
base is proton acceptor. 30

H2O+H+–>H3O+

CO3–– +H+ –>HCO3–

CN–+H+ –>HCN
c) Conjugate Acid-Basepair
Conjugate Acid- Chemical species, that is formed from the base by the gain of proton or
H+ Base + H+ –>[Conjugate Acid]
Ex. H2O+H+ –>H3O+ (ConjugateAcid)
Conjugate Base-Chemical species that is formed from the acid by the loss of proton i.e
H+ Acid –>H++[Conjugate base]
HCl–>H++Cl– (Conjugate base)

What ispH?
The term “pH” is an abbreviation for the “potential of hydrogen .”pH is aunit of
measurement which represents the concentration of hydrogen ions in asolution.
The pH Scale: Acidic, Neutral, and Basic
The pH scale describes the acidity of the solution: acidic, neutral, or basic A solution with a
pH less than 7 is an acid, exactly 7 is a neutral solution, and above 7 is a base. Bases
haveless hydrogen ions but more hydroxide ions, represented by the pOH or “potential of
hydroxide ions.”

How to Calculate pH
Note: Please use a scientific calculator.
pH is determined by the concentration of H+, which is frequently summarized as [H+].
This can be calculated by the following equation:

Conversely, the hydrogen concentration can be found by a given pH. The [H+] can
be calculated by the following equation.

The determination of the concentration of hydrogen

ions and pH will later be used to show the relationship
between pH and pOH.

Example:
What is the [OH-] of a solution whose [H+] =
0.001M What is the pH of a solution whose pOH
is 11.09?
The [H+] of an acid solution that has a pH of 3 is:
What is the pOH of a solution whose [H+] is 2.75 x 10-4 31
M? What is the pH of a solution whose [H+] is 2.75 x
10-4 M?
 Water pollution: (Module –7)

What do you know about water pollution?

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs whenpollutants are directly or
indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compounds.

Causes of Water Pollution

Let us now study the causes of water pollution:

1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste such as lead, mercury, sulphur,

asbestos, nitrates and many other harmful chemicals. The toxic chemicals have the capability

to change the color of water, increase the amount of minerals, also, change the temperature of

water and pose serious hazard to waterorganisms.

2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household

is chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful

bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious healthproblems.

3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other

minerals from underground. These elements when extracted can increase the amount of toxic

elements when mixed up with water which may result in healthproblems..

5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the sea
and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as fish,
birds and sea

Impurities in water:
Ionic and dissoloved : Ca2+ , Mg2+, Na+, K+, NH4+, Fe2+,Mn2+
Non ionic and Undissoloved : Turbidity, silt, mud, dirt and other suspended matter,
color, organic matter, colloidal silica, Microorganism, oil,grease. 32
Gaseous: CO2, H2S, NH3, O2,Cl2
 Problems due to water impurities:
a) Scale
b) Corrosion
c) Problem inpriming
d) Foaming
e) Slime &sludge
f) Health&Safety

Uses of Industrial Water:

Water in industry is used for the following purposes:
1. For Cooling: e.g. heat exchanger, condensers, turbines, compressors,etc.
2. For Steam generation: e.g.Boilers
3. For Processing : e.g. production of H2, H2SO4, NaOHetc.
4. Miscellaneous: e.g. Washing, finishing, drinking, sanitation, fire fightingetc.

Water Treatment Techniques:

Sedimentation:
First the water is received in settling basin & allowed to settle down where mud, suspended
solids, silts etc. gradually separate from water & deposit at the bottom.

Clarification:

The clarification is a technique for purification. It is a process for removal of suspended solids,
finer solids appearing as turbidity and color, also other colloidal materials.

Chemicals used in clarifier:

i) Aluminum sulphateAl2 (SO4)3. 18 H2O ascoagulant.
ii) Na2CO3 to increase the pH value of treated water if it isacidic.
iii) Liq. Cl2 for removal of bacteria &algae.

Disinfection:
Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and also by
adding disinfectant chemicals.
For disinfection any of the following operations are used: a) Ozonation b) Ultraviolet radiation and
c) Chlorination.

33
 Filtration:
At this stage only fine soluble materials are left in the water, which are typical suspended solids
less than 10 ppm . So filtationis required to remove this residualmaterial.
The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste andodour.

Reverse osmosis process:

Reverse osmosis process is used to remove dissolved organic & inorganic materials as well as microorganism.

Demineralization:
In demineralization plant ion exchange resins are used to demineralize the water. Otherwise
following problems will occur in boilers: scale formation, corrosion, loss of heat transfer,
excess fuel consumption etc.

Water quality parameter:

pH: pH express the intensity of the acid and alkaline condition of solution. It is a measure of
hydrogen ion concentration.
pH = - log [H+], where [H+] is the hydrogen ion concentration.

Acidity

Acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with a strong base to a designated pH. It may be
defined as the power of water to neutralise hydroxyl ions.Acidity usually caused by the presence of
free carbon dioxide, mineral acid and weakly dissociated acids.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids. The predominant chemical
system present in natural waters is one where carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides are present.
BOD:
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, also called biological oxygen demand) is the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed (i.e., demanded) by aerobic biological organisms to breakdown
organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period.
{CH2O} + O2 CO2 +H2O

34
COD: The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the
amount of organic compounds in water. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which
indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution.

DO:

Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an
aqueous solution. Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration
(rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis.

Hardness of water:

Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"). Hard water is
formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone and chalk which are largelymade up
of calcium and magnesiumcarbonates.
The following equilibrium reaction describes the dissolving and formation of
calciumcarbonate :
CaCO3 (s) + CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3− (aq)

Temporary hardness:
Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by the presence
ofdissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate and magnesium bicarbonate). When
dissolved, these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations(Ca2+, Mg2+) and carbonate and
bicarbonate anions (CO32−, HCO3−). This "temporary" hardness can be reduced either by boiling
the water, or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide) through the process of limesoftening.
Permanent hardness:
Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that cannot be removed by boiling. When
this is the case, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium
sulphateand/ormagnesiumsulphatesin the water, which do not precipitate out as the temperature
increases.
Total Permanent Hardness = Calcium Hardness + Magnesium Hardness
Possible Questions:
Broad Questions: Short Questions:
1) What are Techniques of waste water a. what are theProblems due to water
treatment? impurities?

35
2) What do you know about water pollution? b. What are uses of industrial water?
Give Causes of Water Pollution.

c. Explain : pH, DO, BOD, COD, Acidity

etc.

36
 MODULE-8 CEMENT
CONTENTS
Cement is a binding material which makes a bond
between aggregates and reinforcing materials
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTSOF PORTLANDCEMENT
together. With the development of technology, quality
TYPES OF CEMENT and types of cement have also developed. So, there
CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
FLY ASH are different types of cement for different construction
works.
The cement production process consists of three
processes; raw material process, clinker burning
process and finish grinding process. The raw
material process and clinker burning process are
classified into wet process and the dry process
SETTLING TIME OF consumes les energy while keeping running cost
CEMENT
to its minimum. The processes are selected with
ENVIRONMENTAL consideration given to the properties of raw
EFFECT DUE TO materials, costs of fuel, conditions of location and
CEMENT otherfactors.
MANUFACTURING Naturally cements are nothing but a mixture of a
PROCESS
burnt silicates & lime.

Silicates (SiO2) + Lime (CaO) CaO.SiO2

5.1 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

OF PORTLANDCEMENT
Lime (CaO) 60 to 67%
Silica (SiO2) 17 to 25%
Alumina (Al2O3) 3 to 8%
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 to 6%
Magnesia (MgO) 0.1 to 4%
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1 to 3%
Soda and/or Potash (Na2O+K2O) 0.5 to 1.3%

37
 Types of Cement
Followings are the types of cement:
(8) High AluminaCement
(1) Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC) (9) WhiteCement
(2) Portland Pozzolana Cement(PPC) (10) Coloredcement
(3) Rapid HardeningCement (11) Air EntrainingCement
(4) Quick settingcement (12) Expansivecement
(5) Low HeatCement (13) Hydrophobiccement
(6) Sulphatesresistingcement

Uses of High Alumina Cement

1. Due the property of rapid hardening and strength, it is widely used in marine
construction and sewer infrastructure.
2. High alumina cement is also used in refractory concretes where it requires
more strength at very high temperature.

Uses of white cement:

White Portland cement is used in combination with white aggregates to
produce white concrete for prestige construction projects and decorative
work. White concrete usually takes the form of pre-cast cladding panels, since it
is not economical to use white cement for structural purposes.

Use of Colored cement:

Colored cement for use as mortars, grouts, stuccos or pool plasters that uses a
colored cement produced from clinkers formed with pigment prior to sintering
and a naturally occurring colored or pigmented inert filler.

Use of air entraining cement:

1. The primary use of air-entraining concrete is for freeze-thaw resistance.
The air voids provide pressure relief sites during a freeze event, allowing the
water inside the concrete to freeze without inducing large internal stresses.
Another related use is for deicer-scaling resistance.

Uses of Expansive Cement

2. This cement is used in large, continuous floor slabs without joints
3. It work well to fill holes in foundations and to create self-stressed concrete
that is stronger than conventional portland cement concrete.
4. Pre-stressed concrete components for bridges and buildings are made using
this material.
Uses of Hydrophobic Cement
1. Uses in longer storage periods and extremely wet climatic conditions.
2. Majorly used in the Tunnel construction as the underground repairs are
difficult and costly.
3. These cements are used in construction of dams, spillways, under water
constructions.
4. Used in the structures that are exposed to rain or rain puddling, such as green
roofs, other kinds of roofs, parking structures, and plazas.
5. Used in drainage system works and manholes.

CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Basically, cement is produced in two steps: first, clinker is produced from raw materials.
In the second step cement is produced from cement clinker. The first step can be a dry,
wet, semi-dry or semi-wet process according to the state of the raw material.

Making clinker

The raw materials are delivered in bulk, crushed and homogenised into a mixture which
is fed into a rotary kiln. This is an enormous rotating pipe of 60 to 90 m long and up to 6
m in diameter. This huge kiln is heated by a 2000°C flame inside of it. The kiln is
slightly inclined to allow for the materials to slowly reach the other end, where it is
quickly cooled to 100-200°C.

Four basic oxides in the correct proportions make cement clinker: calcium oxide (65%),
silicon oxide (20%), alumina oxide (10%) and iron oxide (5%). These elements mixed
homogeneously (called “raw meal” or slurry) will combine when heated by the flame at
a temperature of approximately 1450°C. New compounds are formed: silicates,
aluminates and ferrites of calcium. Hydraulic hardening of cement is due to the
hydration of thesecompounds.

The final product of this phase is called “clinker”. These solid grains are then stored in
huge silos. End of phase one.

From clinker to cement

The second phase is handled in a cement grinding m ill, which may be located in
different place to the clinker plant. Gypsum (calcium s ualphates) and possibly
cementitious (such as blastfurnace slag, coal fly ash, n additional aturalpozzolanas,
etc.) or inert
materials (limestone) are added to the clinker. All constituents are ground leading to a
fine and homogenous powder. End of phase two. The cement is then stored in silos
before being dispatched either in bulk or bagged.

Fig: Cement manufacturing process with unit process

18
Difference between Wet processes and Dry process of cement Manufacturing:

Wet process

1. Mixing of Raw materials in wash mill with 35 to 50% water.

2. Materials exiting the mill are called “slurry” and have flow-ability characteristics.
3. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing of cement is bigger.
4. Raw material can be mixed easily, so a better homogeneous material can be obtained
5. Fuel consumption is high i.e., 350 kg of coal per tonne of cement produced.
6. Cost of production is high.
7. Capital cost (Cost of establishment) is comparatively less.

Dry process

1. Mixing of raw material in dry state in blenders.

2. The dry materials exiting the mill are called “kiln feed”.
3. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing of cement is smaller.
4. Difficult to control mixing of Raw materials, so it is difficult to obtain a better
homogeneous material.
5. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 100 kg of coal per tonne of cement produced.
6. Cost of production is less.
7. Capital cost is high due to blenders.

19
20
 FLY ASH
Fly ash is one of the naturally-occurring products from the coal combustion process and
is a material that is nearly the same as volcanic ash. When coal is burned in today’s
modern electric generating plants, combustion temperatures reach approximately
2800°F. The non-combustible minerals that naturally occur from burning coal form
bottom ash and fly ash.

Use of fly ash

The most common use of fly ash is as a partial replacement for portland cement used in
producing concrete. Replacement rates normally run between 20% to 30%, but can be
higher. Fly ash reacts as a pozzolan with the lime in cement as it hydrates, creating
more of the durable binder that holds concrete together. As a result, concrete made with
fly ash is stronger and more durable than traditional concrete made exclusively with
portlandcement.

Why Use Fly Ash?

Fly ash concrete has increased strength and durability, which means it can handle
greater loads, is more resilient and lasts longer. Fly ash concrete can withstand harsher
service environments than straight portland cement concrete. It is less susceptible to
chemical attacks (de-icing salts, soil sulfates, etc.) and mitigates the negative impact of
deleterious aggregates. The improved flowability, reduced hydration temperatures and
delayed setting time of fly ash concrete are the main factors that contribute to ease of
placement of concrete. Fly ash concrete also has lower permeability than traditional
concrete, which means less water and chemicals can enter the concrete. Therefore, fly
ash concrete has a longer service life and doesn’t need to be repaired or replaced as
often. Some states require the use of fly ash concrete to prevent premature
deterioration

SETTLING TIME OF CEMENT

Cement when mixed with water forms paste which gradually becomes less plastic, and
finally a hard mass is obtained. In the process of setting a stage is reached when the cement
paste is sufficiently rigid to withstand a definite amount of pressure. The time to reach this

21
 stage is termed as setting time. The initial setting time for different types of cements is as
follows:

 For OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) 33 Grade as per IS 269:1989 30 minutes

 For OPC 43 Grade as per IS 8112:1989 30minutes
 For OPC 53 Grade as per IS 12269:1987 30minutes
 For PPC (Portland-Pozzolana Cement) as per IS 1489:1991 30minutes

What is the purpose of adding gypsum in cement?

Gypsum is a mineral and is hydrated calcium sulfate in chemical form. Gypsum plays a
very important role in controlling the rate of hardening of the cement. During the cement
manufacturing process, upon the cooling of clinker, a small amount of gypsum is introduced
during the final grinding process.Gypsum is added to control the “setting of cement”. If
not added, the cement will set immediately after mixing of water leaving no time for
concreteplacing.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT DUE TO CEMENT

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Main pollutions of cement productions include; cement dust, air pollution, water
pollution, solid waste pollution noise pollution, ground vibration and resources
depletion due to raw material extraction. Gases from the kiln and preheat are combined
and used to dry and preheat the raw materials. Fuel gases consist of the components
such as CO2, N2, 02, S02, water vapor and micro components i.e. CO and NOx
formation. Gases are emitted in two stages; (a) Calcinations (b) Fuel combustion. Other
sources of dust emissions include the crushers, grinding clinker coolers and material
handling equipment. The priority in the cement industry is to minimize the mass load
emitted from thestacks.

22
 MODULE-9 Solution Chemistry

Introduction

There are various practical reasons for preparing solutions. For instance, most chemical reactions
are run in solution. Also, solutions have particular properties that are useful. When gold is used
for jewelry, it is mixed, or alloyed, with a small amount of silver. Gold–silver alloys are not only
harder than pure gold, but they also melt at lower temperatures and are therefore easier to cast.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two substances: a solute and a solvent.
Solute: substance being dissolved; present in lesser amount.
Solvent: substance doing the dissolving; present in larger amount.
Solutes and solvents may be of any form of matter: solid, liquid or gas.

TYPES OFSOLUTIONS

Solutions form between solute and solvent molecules because of similarities between them.
23
(Like dissolves Like)
Ionic solids dissolve in water because the charged ions (polar) are attracted to the polar
water molecules.
Nonpolar molecules such as oil and grease dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as kerosene.
Saturated Solution: A solution with solute that dissolves until it is unable to dissolve anymore,
leaving the undissolved substances at the bottom.
 Unsaturated solution: A solution
(with less solute than the saturated
solution) that completely dissolves,
leaving no remaining substances.
Supersaturated Solution: A
solution (with more solute than the
saturated solution) that contains more
undissolved solute than the saturated
solution because of its tendency to
crystallize and precipitate.

Ways of ExpressingConcentration
Concentration Unit
The concentration of a solute is the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
orsolution.Thequantityofsolventorsolutioncanbeexpressedintermsofvolumeorinterms of mass or
molar amount. Thus, there are several ways of expressing the concentration of a solution.
Mass Percent

Mass percent of a solution is the mass of solution divided by the mass of solution.

Mass of Solution = Mass of solute + massof solvent................(eq)

We, Know
Here ,
Solution = Solute+ Solvent
Amount of solute : 8 g of NaOH
= 8g + 50g
Amount of Solvent: 50 g of H2O
= 58g of solution
Mass% = ?
Again,

Mass% =mass of solute/mass of solutiom*100

=8/58
13%

Molarity
Molarity is defined as the moles of solute divided by liters of solution.
24
25
 Molality
Molality is defined as the moles of solute divided by kilograms of solvent.

Molality,m = moles of solute / kilograms of solvent.

Colligative properties:
Freezing-point lowering is a colligative property. Colligative properties of solutions are
properties that depend on the concentration of solute molecules or ions in solution but not on
the chemical identity of the solute (whether it is ethylene glycol or urea, for instance). In the
nextsections,wewilldiscussseveralcolligativeproperties,whichareexpressedquantitatively in
terms of various concentrationunits.

Freezing point depression:

Addition of a nonvolatile solute to a solvent lowers its freezing point. This freezing point
depression is proportional to the amount of solute in a solution.

Mathematically, Tf = m Kf
Tf = freezing-point depression
Kf = freezing-point depression constant
m = molality of solution

Tf = m Kf = 4.36 m × 1.86 0C/m= 8.11 0C 26

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