Here are the solutions to the problems you've presented on

blackbox:

### 1. Diameter of Dark Rings in a Plano-Convex Lens

The condition for dark rings in Newton's rings is given by the
formula:
\[
D^2 = m \lambda R / \mu
\]
where \(D\) is the diameter of the dark ring, \(m\) is the ring
order (an integer), \(\lambda\) is the wavelength of light, \(R\)
is the radius of curvature of the lens, and \(\mu\) is the
refractive index of the film. Thus, the diameter of the dark rings
can be expressed as:
\[
D = \sqrt{\frac{m \lambda R}{\mu}}
\]

### 2. Diameter of the First Dark Ring for Two Lenses

Using the formula derived above, we can calculate the diameter
of the first dark ring (\(m=1\)) for both lenses.
For Lens 1 (\(R_1 = 0.5 \, \text{m}\)):
\[
D_1 = \sqrt{\frac{1 \cdot 550 \times 10^{-9} \, \text{m} \cdot
0.5 \, \text{m}}{\mu}}
\]
\[
D_1 = \sqrt{\frac{275 \times 10^{-9} \, \text{m}^2}{\mu}}
\]

For Lens 2 (\(R_2 = 1.0 \, \text{m}\)):

\[
D_2 = \sqrt{\frac{1 \cdot 550 \times 10^{-9} \, \text{m} \cdot
1.0 \, \text{m}}{\mu}}
\]
\[
D_2 = \sqrt{\frac{550 \times 10^{-9} \, \text{m}^2}{\mu}}
\]

Comparing \(D_1\) and \(D_2\):

\[
D_2 = \sqrt{2} D_1
\]
This shows that the diameter of the dark rings increases with
the radius of curvature of the lens.

### 3. Diffraction Pattern from a Narrow Slit

(i) The intensity \(I\) at the center of the diffraction pattern is
given by:
\[
I = I_0 \left( \frac{\sin(\beta)}{\beta} \right)^2
\]
where \(\beta = \frac{\pi a \sin(\theta)}{\lambda}\) and \(I_0\)
is the maximum intensity.

(ii) The angular position of the dark regions (minima) occurs

when:
\[
\beta = n\pi \quad (n = 1, 2, 3, \ldots)
\]
This leads to:
\[
a \sin(\theta) = n\lambda
\]
Thus, the relationship between the slit width \(a\) and the
angular position of the dark regions is:
\[
\sin(\theta) = \frac{n\lambda}{a}
\]

### 4. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

According to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
\[
\Delta x \Delta p \geq \frac{\hbar}{2}
\]
If we confine an electron within a nucleus of radius \(10^{-15} \,
\text{m}\), then:
\[
\Delta x \approx 10^{-15} \, \text{m}
\]
Calculating the minimum uncertainty in momentum:
\[
\Delta p \geq \frac{\hbar}{2 \Delta x} \approx \frac{1.055 \times
10^{-34} \, \text{Js}}{2 \times 10^{-15} \, \text{m}} \approx
5.275 \times 10^{-20} \, \text{kg m/s}
\]
The corresponding uncertainty in velocity:
\[
\Delta v = \frac{\Delta p}{m} \quad (m \approx 9.11 \times
10^{-31} \, \text{kg})
\]
\[
\Delta v \geq \frac{5.275 \times 10^{-20}}{9.11 \times 10^{-31}}
\approx 5.79 \times 10^{10} \, \text{m/s}
\]
This is greater than the speed of light, indicating that confining
an electron within a nucleus is not possible.

### 5. Interference in Thin Films

(i) The conditions for constructive and destructive interference
are:
- Constructive: \(2t = (m + \frac{1}{2})\frac{\lambda}{\mu}\)
- Destructive: \(2t = m\frac{\lambda}{\mu}\)
(ii) Phase changes occur when light reflects off a medium of
higher refractive index. A phase change of \(\pi\) (or half a
wavelength) occurs for the reflected wave, affecting the
interference pattern by shifting the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference.

### 6. Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation

The time-independent Schrödinger equation in one dimension
is given by:
\[
-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{d^2\psi(x)}{dx^2} + V(x)\psi(x) = E\
psi(x)
\]
where \(\hbar\) is the reduced Planck's constant, \(m\) is the
mass of the particle, \(V(x)\) is the potential energy, \(E\) is the
total energy, and \(\psi(x)\) is the wave function of the particle.

### 7. Optical Activity in Drug Solutions

The rotation of the plane of polarization when polarized light
passes through a chiral drug solution is due to optical activity.
This phenomenon occurs because chiral molecules interact
differently with left- and right-handed circularly polarized light.
The degree of rotation can be quantified using specific rotation,
which is defined as:
\[
[\alpha] = \frac{\alpha}{c \cdot l}
\]
where \([\alpha]\) is the specific rotation, \(\alpha\) is the
observed rotation in degrees, \(c\) is the concentration of the
solution in g/mL, and \(l\) is the path length in decimeters.
Optical rotation can be measured using a polarimeter.

### 8. Light Diffraction and Interference

The spreading of light through a tiny hole is a result of
diffraction, where waves bend around the edges of the
aperture, leading to a larger illuminated area. In contrast, the
formation of alternate bright and dark bands with two slits is
due to interference, where light waves from the two slits
combine constructively and destructively. The fundamental
difference lies in the nature of the phenomena: diffraction
involves the bending of waves, while interference involves the
superposition of waves.

### 9. De Broglie Wavelength of an Electron

To calculate the De Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at
relativistic speeds, we use the formula:
\[
\lambda = \frac{h}{p}
\]
where \(h\) is Planck's constant and \(p\) is the relativistic
momentum given by:
\[
p = \gamma mv
\]
with \(\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}\). For \(v =
0.9995c\):
\[
\gamma \approx 31.9
\]
Thus, the momentum is:
\[
p \approx 31.9 \cdot 9.11 \times 10^{-31} \cdot 0.9995 \cdot
3 \times 10^8 \approx 9.25 \times 10^{-22} \, \text{kg m/s}
\]
Calculating the De Broglie wavelength:
\[
\lambda \approx \frac{6.626 \times 10^{-34}}{9.25 \times 10^{-
22}} \approx 7.15 \times 10^{-13} \, \text{m}
\]
For the non-relativistic case at \(v = 10^6 \, \text{m/s}\):
\[
p \approx mv = 9.11 \times 10^{-31} \cdot 10^6 \approx 9.11 \
times 10^{-25} \, \text{kg m/s}
\]
\[
\lambda \approx \frac{6.626 \times 10^{-34}}{9.11 \times 10^{-
25}} \approx 7.27 \times 10^{-10} \, \text{m}
\]
The De Broglie wavelength decreases significantly at relativistic
speeds compared to the non-relativistic case.

### 10. Uncertainty in Electron's Momentum and Velocity

(i) The minimum uncertainty in the electron's momentum is
calculated as:
\[
\Delta p \geq \frac{\hbar}{2 \Delta x} \approx \frac{1.055 \times
10^{-34}}{2 \times 2.0 \times 10^{-10}} \approx 2.64 \times
10^{-25} \, \text{kg m/s}
\]

(ii) The minimum uncertainty in the electron's velocity is given

by:
\[
\Delta v = \frac{\Delta p}{m} \approx \frac{2.64 \times 10^{-25}}
{9.11 \times 10^{-31}} \approx 2.90 \times 10^5 \, \text{m/s}
\]
This indicates a significant uncertainty in the electron's velocity
when confined to a small region.
Here are the solutions to the problems you've presented on

Google Gemini:
1. Newton's Rings:
The diameter of the mth dark ring is given by:
D_m = 2 * sqrt(m * λ * R / μ)
where:
 m is the order of the dark ring (m = 0, 1, 2, ...)
 λ is the wavelength of the light
  R is the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens
 μ is the refractive index of the film
2. Newton's Rings with Different Lenses:
For the first lens (R1 = 0.5 m), the diameter of the first dark ring
(m = 1) is:
D_1 = 2 * sqrt(1 * 550 * 10^-9 m * 0.5 m / 1) ≈ 1.05 * 10^-3 m
For the second lens (R2 = 1.0 m), the diameter of the first dark
ring is:
D_1 = 2 * sqrt(1 * 550 * 10^-9 m * 1.0 m / 1) ≈ 1.48 * 10^-3 m
The radius of curvature affects the size of the rings. The larger
the radius of curvature, the larger the diameter of the rings.
3. Diffraction:
(i) The intensity of the central bright spot is given by:
I_0 = I_max * (sin(β/2) / (β/2))^2
where:
 I_max is the maximum intensity at the center
 β = (2π/λ) * a * sin(θ) is the phase difference
 a is the slit width
 θ is the angle to the point on the screen
At the center (θ = 0), β = 0, and I_0 = I_max.
(ii) The dark regions occur when:
a * sin(θ) = m * λ
where:
 m = ±1, ±2, ±3, ... is the order of the dark region
4. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
The uncertainty principle states:
Δx * Δp ≥ ħ/2
where:
 Δx is the uncertainty in position
 Δp is the uncertainty in momentum
 ħ is the reduced Planck constant
If the electron is confined within a nucleus of radius 10^-15 m,
then Δx = 10^-15 m. The minimum uncertainty in momentum
is:
Δp ≥ ħ / (2 * Δx) ≈ 5.27 * 10^-20 kg m/s
The minimum uncertainty in velocity is:
Δv = Δp / m_e ≈ 5.79 * 10^10 m/s
where m_e is the mass of the electron. This velocity is greater
than the speed of light, which is impossible. Therefore, it is not
possible for an electron to be confined within a nucleus.
5. Thin Film Interference:
(i) The condition for constructive interference in reflected light
is:
2 * μ * t * cos(r) = (m + 1/2) * λ
The condition for destructive interference in reflected light is:
2 * μ * t * cos(r) = m * λ
where:
 t is the thickness of the film
 r is the angle of refraction in the film
 m = 0, 1, 2, ... is the order of interference
(ii) Phase changes at the interfaces affect the interference
pattern. When light reflects from a medium with a higher
refractive index, it undergoes a phase change of π radians.
6. Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation:
The time-independent Schrödinger equation in one dimension
is:
-ħ^2 / (2m) * d^2ψ(x)/dx^2 + V(x)ψ(x) = Eψ(x)
where:
 ψ(x) is the wave function
 V(x) is the potential energy
 E is the energy of the particle
7. Optical Activity:
Optical activity is the phenomenon where a substance rotates
the plane of polarization of light passing through it. This occurs
when the substance contains chiral molecules, which are
molecules that are not superimposable on their mirror images.
The amount of rotation is measured by the specific rotation,
which is defined as:
[α] = α / (l * c)
where:
 [α] is the specific rotation
 α is the observed rotation
 l is the path length
 c is the concentration
8. Diffraction vs. Interference:
Diffraction is the bending of light waves as they pass through an
aperture or around an obstacle. Interference is the
superposition of two or more light waves to form a new wave
pattern.
When light passes through a tiny hole, it diffracts and spreads
out. When light passes through two thin slits, it diffracts and
then interferes to form an interference pattern of bright and
dark bands.
9. De Broglie Wavelength:
The De Broglie wavelength of a particle is given by:
λ=h/p
where:
 h is Planck's constant
 p is the momentum of the particle
For the relativistic case:
λ = h / sqrt(E^2 - (m_0 * c^2)^2)
where:
 E is the relativistic energy
 m_0 is the rest mass
For the non-relativistic case:
λ = h / (m * v)
where:
 m is the mass
 v is the velocity
10. Uncertainty Principle:
(i) The minimum uncertainty in the electron's momentum is:
Δp ≥ ħ / (2 * Δx) ≈ 2.64 * 10^-25 kg m/s
(ii) The minimum uncertainty in the electron's velocity is:
Δv = Δp / m_e ≈ 2.89 * 10^5 m/s