SLEEP

Sleep is characterized by absence of behavior as consciousness is lost and a period of

inactivity. It is phasal as well as cyclical in nature as stages progress cyclically from one
stage through REM then begin again with stage one. Sleep activity is measured through EMG
(Electromyogram), EOG (Electroocculogram) and EEG (Electroencephalogram).

Sleep and Somatic activity:

 Reduced somatic activity

 Responsiveness to stimuli decreases
 Consciousness is lost
 Can be aroused only with strong stimulation
 Muscles supporting body relax
 Eyes are closed
 There is elimination of afferent motor impulses

Sleep and Autonomic activity:

 Heart rate reduces and becomes 20-30 per minute

 Blood pressure decreases by 20-30mm
 Respiration becomes slow, deep and regular
 Body temperature lowers
 Gastric activity continues at a slow rate

Sleep and Reflex activity:

 Threshold to reflexes increases

 Propriocetive threshold which is responsible for movement and body posture
increases. E.g. Pupillary reflexes, Blink reflexes

STAGES OF SLEEP
1 2 3 4
 NREM (Non Rapid Eye Movement) SWS
(Slow wave sleep)

 REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

 Awake: Beta Waves (18-30Hz) / Desynchronized

 Before Sleep: Alpha Waves (8-13 Hz)/ Regular medium frequency

STAGE 1 (NREM 1 OR N1)

 It is the lightest stage of NREM sleep
 It’s the stage between wakefulness and sleep.
 It is the period of transition from relatively unsynchronized Beta waves(12-30Hz) and
Alpha waves (8-13Hz) to Theta waves (4-7Hz)
 Sometimes refers to as “Drowsy Sleep”. Muscle tone throughout the body relaxes and
brain wave activity begins to slow from that of wake. And the body rests quietly.
 Breathing becomes more regular
 Eyes roll around slowly and may open-close from time to time.
 Heart rate/ Muscle tension decreases
 Dreaming is rare
 It is characterized by Hypnic Jerks/Hypnogogic Jerks (Short micro awakening with
reduced sensation)
 The sleeper may be aware of sounds and conversation but feels unwilling to respond to
them
 Sleeper awakened during this stage would not acknowledge that he had been asleep
 It lasts for 10 min and accounts for 5% of total sleep time

STAGE 2 (NREM 2 OR N2)

 Brain wave is mainly Theta waves (As in stage 1)

 Muscle activity decreases further
 Conscious awareness of the outside of the outside world begins to fade
 It is characterized by 2 distinguished phenomena
*Sleep Spindles (Short bursts of Sigma waves in the region of 12-14Hz lasting for half a
second)
*K-Complexes (Short negative high voltage peaks followed by a slower positive complex
and then a final negative peak lasting for 1-2 minutes)
 It accounts for 45-50% of total sleep time

STAGE 3 (NREM 3 OR N3)

 Also known as Deep/Delta/Slow wave sleep (2-4Hz)

 Sleeper is even less responsive to the outside environment
 Includes Spindles mixed with large amplitude although much fewer than in stage 2
 Muscles relax
 Heart rate and respiration fall lower
 It accounts for 4-6% of total sleep time
 Dreaming starts

STAGE 4 (NREM 4 OR N4)

 Also known as Deep/Delta/Slow wave sleep (0.5-2Hz)

 Characterized by high amplitude slow waves
 It accounts for 12-15% of total sleep time
 Brain temperature/Breathing rate/Heart rate/ and BP are all at their lowest level
 Dreaming is more common but not as vivid and memorable as during REM sleep
 Night terrors/ Sleep walking/ Sleep talking and bedwetting occur
 Information processing and memory consolidation takes place

REM SLEEP STAGE

 After 40-80 minutes, the person enters into REM also known as “Paradoxical Sleep”
 Characterized by small amplitude Theta brain waves with fast activity
 Also known as Dream sleep
 EEG becomes desynchronized
 Breathing /Pulse rate becomes fast and irregular
 Eyes show rapid movement under closed lids
 Brain waves look awake but the muscles are deeply relaxed and unresponsive

NIGHT SLEEP

The total sleep time of a young adult is 7-8 hrs with 45-50% in stgae II. 25% of sleep time is
in REM. Adult sleep consists of repeating cycles of 90-110 minute duration and there are
total of 4-5 cycles. The sleep cycle of 90-110 min is known as Basic-Rest activity cycle.
Cycles early in night are shorter with greater amount of stage 3 and 4. But later cycles are of
REM with first REM lasting only for 5-10 min. Last REM period is of approximately 40 min
(Just before awakening).

DEPTH OF SLEEP

Auditory threshold is used to measure depth of sleep. Depth is not always uniform as person
passes cyclically through light and deep stages. They vary from individual to individual and
night to night.

SLEEP RHYTHMS

Babies sleep for 5-7 periods consisting of 3-4hrs of sleep known as Polyphasic sleep. Adults
sleep period consists of 7-8 hrs sleep and known as Monophasic.

NEURAL MECHANISM OF SLEEP AND WAKING

 CEREBRAL CORTEX

Dogs have a sleep pattern like humans, they are monophasic .Cerebral cortex is responsible
for monophasic sleep or wakefulness of choice. This is evident by studies of decorticates.
When dogs were decorticated they reverted back to pupphyhood sleep pattern. They woke up
occasionally only to be fed or take care of bodily needs, then they quickly went back to sleep.
Thus humans need cerebral cortex for development of monophasic sleep or wakefulness of
choice.

 HYPOTHALMUS

Hypothalamus is responsible for polyphasic sleep and wakefulness. Tumors and

inflammations in hypothalamic region were associated with abnormal tendencies to sleep.

Ranson did a lesion of posterior hypothalamus (Waking centre) in a monkey. Monkeys with
such lesion showed profound somnolence and slept continuously for 4-8 days after operation.
They could be aroused only after strong sensation but immediately fell asleep. They showed
marked drowsiness even after waking up for several months.

When the lesion of anterior hypothalamus (Sleeping centre) in rats was done, rats stayed
awake. On recovery from operations they carried out all normal activities effectively but
never slept properly .They developed problems of fatigue and went into coma and ultimately
died.

Stimulation of hypothalamus produced conflicting results. On one hand it induced sleep but
on the other hand it caused activity and excitement.

 RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)/ RETICULAR FORMATION(RF)

RAS is primary waking centre. RF is a network of nuclei and its pathways begin in the
hindbrain and extend till midbrain. Its electric stimulation caused arousal and activation of
cortical EEG. With such electric stimulation in cats, the resting synchronized characteristics
of relaxed wakefulness gave way to fast low voltage activity. This change in EEG is called
activation/arousal. It also occurred when a new a stimulus was presented to the animal or
when it was aroused from a state of relaxed wakefulness. Thus it was concluded that RAS
was responsible for wakefulness.

Lesions in reticular formation caused signs of somnolence. Thus RAS is the principle waking
centre of the brain.

Moruzzi and Morgan electrically stimulated RF and found that stimulation of it led to cortical
arousal and alertness. They also found that disruption of it produced a low level of alertness
and large wave synchronized EEG recordings characteristics of sleep.

 THALAMUS

There is a group of nuclei which project into cerebral cortex. It is called thalamic extension of
the reticular formation but it has certain projections different from RAS so it is separately
called Diffuse Thalamic Projection System (DTPS). Electrical stimulation of DTPS gives rise
to recruiting response (Increase in size of cortical response) in several areas of the cortex.
High frequency stimulation of DTPS gave rise to cortical arousal response but when the
frequency of electrical stimulation was lowered it had the opposite effect and induced sleep.
When the DTPS was destroyed, stimulation of RAS caused a cortical arousal response.

 BREMERS’S CERVEAU ISOLE PREPARATION

(Isolated forebrain preparation)

Bremer made a cut between the inferior and superior colliculi depriving the higher brain areas
of the sensory information arriving through the spinal cord and brainstem structure. Cats that
had undergone this operation slept continuously but over a long term period showed
desynchronized EEG. He on the basis of his “sensory stimulation hypothesis” of sleeping
and waking concluded that sleep is produced by the lack of sensory of sensory input to the
cerebral cortex, with wakefulness resulting from sensory stimulation.

BRAIN AREAS RESPONSIBLE FOR REM SLEEP

 GIGENTOCELLULAR TEMENTUM FIELD (FTG)

They are a group of nerve cells in Pons near locus coeruleus. They increase their firing rate
during REM sleep.

 LOCUS COERULEUS

Locus coeruleus is important for cortical arousal and behavioral alertness and also for REM
sleep. Destruction of this structure produced increased sleep and decreased wakefulness.
Inactivation of anterior portion of locus coeruleus was found to induce sleep and stimulation
invariably produced wakefulness.

In addition its activity is highly correlated with levels of wakefulness in monkey: the greater
the activity, the higher the level of behavioral activity. Similar study showed the firing rate of
locus coeruleus neurons increase as an animal wakens and declines when it goes to sleep.

 PGO WAVES

PGO waves are brief phasic burst of electrical activity that originate in pons and propogates
to lateral geniculate nuclei and then to primary visual cortex. When electrodes were put in
LGN, the EEG became desynchronized and mascular activity ceased leading to REM sleep .

 ACETYLCHOLINERGIC AGONISTS

Acetylcholinergic agonists facilitate REM sleep in the peribrachial area. These neurons
initiate PGO waves and cortical arousal through their connection with the thalamus.
 PERIBRACHIAL NEURONS

They are present in the bottom of brain stem and also induce REM sleep through their
connection with motor neuron in tectum

REM sleep also begins when activity of nor adrenergic and seretonergic neuron ceases.

BRAIN AREAS RESPONSIBLE FOR NREM SLEEP

 RAPHE NUCLEI

In pons they control SWS sleep. When it was lesioned SWS reduced to 15%.

 VENTROLATERAL PREOPTIC AREA (VLPA)

It is group of GABAergic neuron in the preoptic area (VLPA) and their activity suppresses
alertness and behavioral arousal and promotes sleep.

The axons of VLPA neurons project to brain regions responsible for arousal and wakefulness,
specifically:

 Raphe nuclei

 Locus coeruleus

When the VLPA is active, its GABAergic neurons release GABA, which inhibits the activity
of the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus. This inhibition reduces arousal and allows sleep to
occur.

SLEEP DISORDERS
Sleep disorders are changes in the way that an individual sleeps. Some of the signs and
symptoms of sleep disorders include excessive daytime sleepiness, irregular breathing or
increased movement during sleep, and difficulty falling asleep.

INSOMNIA

 Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness. It is a sleep disorder where people have trouble
sleeping.
 They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired.
 Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a
depressed mood.
 Insomnia can be short term, lasting for days or weeks, or long term, lasting more than a
month.
 Insomnia can occur independently or as a result of another problem like psychological
stress, night shifts and sleep apnea.
 The sleep disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social,
occupational, educational, academic, behavioral, or other important areas of functioning.

Types

Insomnia can be classified as transient, acute, or chronic.

 Transient insomnia lasts for less than a week. It can be caused by another disorder, by
changes in the sleep environment, by the timing of sleep, severe depression, or by stress.
Its consequences – sleepiness and impaired psychomotor performance.

 Acute insomnia is the inability to consistently sleep well .Person also has difficulty
initiating or maintaining sleep. Sleep that is obtained is non-refreshing or of poor quality.
Acute insomnia is also known as short term insomnia or stress related insomnia.

 Chronic insomnia :People with high levels of stress hormones or shifts in the levels of
certain protiens are more likely than others to have chronic insomnia. They might include
muscular weariness, hallucinations, and/or mental fatigue.

SLEEP RELATED BREATHING DISORDER

SLEEP APNEA:

 Characterized by pauses in breathing or periods of shallow breathing during sleep

 Each pause can last for a few seconds to several minutes and they happen many times a
night
 There may be a choking or snorting sound as breathing resumes. As it disrupts normal
sleep, those affected are often sleepy or tired during the day
 Breathing is interrupted by a blockage of airflow or breathing stops due to a lack of effort
to breathe.

CENTRAL DISORDER OF HYPERSOMNALENCE

NARCOLEPSY

 Narcolepsy is a chronic, lifelong neurological disease.

 Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder caused by abnormalities in brain chemistry. Most

people with narcolepsy have lower levels of hypocretin, a brain chemical that promotes
wakefulness. People with type 1 narcolepsy (or narcolepsy with cataplexy) have
especially low levels of hypocretin.
 It may be caused when the body’s immune system attacks hypocretin-producing neurons
in the brain.
 Trauma to the hypothalamus region of the brain, involved in regulating sleep, may cause
narcolepsy. Brain tumors or lesions in this brain region may play a role as well.
 The primary symptom of narcolepsy is “Excessive daytime sleepiness” EDS, or the urge
to go to sleep throughout the day despite sleeping enough at night.
 The Periods of that usually last from seconds to minutes and may occur at any time.
 People may involuntarily fall asleep during normal activities.
 In addition, characteristics of narcolepsy include spontaneous “sleep attacks” lasting
anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes or longer.
 People with narcolepsy may experience changes in normal REM sleep cycles, fragmented
sleep, vivid or intense sleep-related hallucinations, and sleep paralysis. It cannot be
cured,

There are two types of narcolepsy:

 Type 1 narcolepsy (or narcolepsy with cataplexy). It involves suddenly becoming limp or
unable to move while awake (cataplexy). This sudden muscle weakness is often triggered
by strong emotions. People with type 1 narcolepsy have excessive daytime sleepiness and
may also experience sleep hallucinations and sleep paralysis.
 Type 2 narcolepsy (or narcolepsy without cataplexy). It is also characterized by excessive
daytime sleepiness, but does not feature the sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy) or
sleep attacks.

Type 1 and type 2 narcolepsy are not caused by another illness or medical condition.
Secondary narcolepsy occurs as a result of an injury to the hypothalamus, located deep inside
the brain.

CATAPLEXY

 It is a sudden loss of muscle strength or episodic loss of muscle function, slight weakness
such as limpness at the neck or knees or inability to speak clearly, to a complete body
collapse often immediately after strong emotions like happiness, fear, anger or
excitement.
 Cataplexy occurs on a spectrum from mild, involving minor muscle weakness or loss of
muscle tone, to severe, in which the entire body suddenly goes limp.
 Cataplexy resembles the paralysis or inhibition of muscle activity that typically occurs
during REM sleep. However, during episodes of cataplexy, the individual is fully awake.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHM SLEEP WAKE CYCLE
DELAYED SLEEP –WAKE PHASE DISORDER

 Delayed sleep-wake phase disorder occurs when the circadian rhythm shifts and sleep
occurs later in the 24-hour cycle. A person's sleep is delayed by 2 or more hours beyond
the socially acceptable or conventional bedtime. This delay in falling asleep causes
difficulty in waking up at the desired time.
 It is a neurological condition involving changes to the brain’s regulation of sleep patterns.
Because it appears most often in adolescents, scientists believe the circadian shift is
linked to naturally occurring changes in hormone levels after puberty.
 People with delayed sleep-wake phase disorder generally fall asleep after midnight, night
after night, and cannot wake up in the morning in time for work or school. They
experience experience excessive daytime sleepiness, which can result in depression and
behavioral problems.

ADVANCED SLEEP -- WAKE PHASE DISORDER

Advanced sleep-wake phase disorder (also called advanced sleep-phase syndrome) involves a
shift in the circadian rhythm that leads to early bedtimes and arousals. Characterized by early
evening bedtimes (approximately 6-9pm) and early morning awakenings (approximately 2-
5am).

These disrupted circadian patterns lead to fatigue, which makes staying awake until bedtime
more difficult.It is a neurological disorder with no known cause however age-related cz

IRREGULAR SLEEP – WAKE RHYTHM

People with these disorders have sleep times that seem to be out of alignment. Their sleep
patterns do not follow the “normal” sleep times at night. Irregular sleep-wake rhythm
disorder is a circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder involving disrupted sleep patterns that
don’t fit a normal circadian cycle.

Typically, the circadian rhythm governs sleep-wake cycles and regulates a predictable pattern
of sleep and wakefulness over the course of 24 hours.

People with this rare neurological condition lack a defined circadian rhythm or normal sleep
schedule.

They may get enough sleep overall with 8-9 hours of total sleep in a 24-hour period, but don’t
have a predictable sleep pattern.

People with irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder take multiple daytime naps, with
fragmented, shortened nighttime sleep. The naps vary in length, but often fall into several 1-4
hour sleep periods throughout the day or night.
The absence of regular exposure to light and mealtimes is thought to contribute to irregular
sleep-wake rhythm disorder. These “zeitgebers” act as cues that regulate biological rhythms,
including sleep.

Age-related changes to hormone levels are known to affect the body’s circadian rhythms, and
may play a role in irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder. Changes to the part of the brain
involved in regulating biorhythms may play a role in this condition

SHIFT WORK DISORDER

Shift work is defined as any regular work schedule that falls outside the standard work day of
9am to 5pm. Shift work includes swing shifts, which begin the afternoon and end around
midnight; and night or graveyard shifts, which begin in the late evening and end in the early
morning.

Shift work sleep disorder (SWSD) affects circadian rhythm, an internal timekeeper that
governs functioning over a 24 hr period. Symptoms of SWSD include insomnia, excessive
sleepiness and fatigue, headaches and lack of concentration

Characterized by insomnia and excessive sleepiness affecting people whose work hours
overlap with the typical sleep period.

JET LAG DISORDER

It is a temporary sleep problem that can affect anyone who quickly travels across multiple
time zones. Jet lag occurs with rapid travel across time zones, resulting in a misalignment
between the timing of body’s circadian rhythms with those of the external physical
environment. Brain uses cues from external environment to inform sleep-wake cycle. For
example, brain relies on the level of sunlight to recognize when it’s time to wake up and
when it’s time to go to bed, to determine when it should begin melatonin production, the
hormone responsible for inducing and regulating your sleep.

When an individual travels far distances, whether laterally or longitudinally, he finds himself
in an environment with different circadian cues than brain is used to. Travel east or far north,
and it gets darker sooner. Conversely, it gets darker later if he travels west or further south.

These symptoms usually last for several days until the traveler adapts to the new time zone.

PARASOMNIAS
Parasomnias are a group of sleep disorders involving undesirable behaviors or events during
sleep.

 NREM RELATED

NREM parasomnias, also called disorders of arousal, occur during the sleep-wake transition
and are initiated during non-rapid-eye-movement sleep or slow-wave sleep. People with
NREM parasomnias experience abnormal arousal during sleep because the transition between
sleep and wakefulness doesn’t function normally. Symptoms of NREM parasomnias include
engaging in behaviors during or just after sleep that mimic wakefulness. If the behaviors are
recalled later, the recollection is usually cloudy and inaccurate. NREM parasomnias may be
caused by neurological disorders or linked to another sleep disorder. The risk of NREM
parasomnias is strongly linked to family history. NREM parasomnias are more common in
children and usually outgrown by age 5.

SLEEP WALKING

It is known as somnambulism or noctambulism. It is a phenomenon of combined sleep and

wakefulness

Sleepwalking occurs during slow wave sleep stage in a state of low consciousness and
perform activities that are usually performed during a state of full consciousness. These
activities can be as benign as sitting up in bed, walking to a bathroom, and cleaning, or as
hazardous as cooking, driving.

During these episodes, the sleepwalker often appears uncoordinated and clumsy and may fall
or trip. Sleepwalkers are difficult to wake and generally don’t recall the episode afterward.

Sleepwalking may last as little as 30 seconds or as long as 30 minutes

SLEEP TERRORS/NIGHT TERRORS

Episodes of screaming, intense fear and flailing while still asleep

Often are paired with sleepwalking

These “attacks” last up to three minutes and usually end with the person returning to sleep.

People experiencing a night terror won’t recall the episode later.

Night terrors tend to happen during periods of arousal from delta sleep, also known as slow-
wave sleep.

Both adults and children can get night terrors, but they are more common in children,
especially in those age three to seven. Most children outgrow night terrors by age eight, but a
few will continue to experience night terrors into adulthood.

Night terrors are sometimes confused with nightmares. However, unlike nightmares, night
terrors involve motor activity (sitting up or thrashing) while nightmares usually don’t.
Night terrors are caused by overarousal of the central nervous system during transitions
between deep NREM sleep and lighter REM sleep.

 REM RELATED

In the case of REM parasomnias, abnormal behaviors arise during rapid-eye-movement

(REM) sleep. These conditions are thought to indicate psychological disorders, but
researchers state that parasomnias are common conditions that occur during the transitions
between REM sleep, NREM sleep and wakefulness. Because REM parasomnias occur during
lighter-stage REM sleep, they are most common in the second half of the night when they
body spends more time in REM sleep. In contrast to NREM parasomnias, which arise out of
deeper, non-rapid-eye-movement sleep, REM parasomnias do not involve arousals from
sleep. People experiencing a REM parasomnia (like a nightmare) are considered to be asleep,
while people experiencing a NREM parasomnia (like a night terror) are considered to be
partially awake. REM parasomnias run in families. Stress, trauma, sleep deprivation and
fragmented sleep can increase the risk of REM parasomnias. REM sleep behavior disorder is
thought to relate to neurodegenerative conditions.

NIGHTMARE

Also called a bad dream, is an unpleasant dream that can cause a strong emotional response
from the mind, typically fear but also despair, anxiety and great sadness. The dream may
contain situations of discomfort, psychological or physical terror or panic.

Unlike night terrors, nightmares are experienced while completely asleep and are often
recalled the next day.

Nightmares don’t involve motor activity like sleepwalking, kicking, thrashing or eating.

Nightmares are more common in children than adults

Sufferers often awaken in a state of distress and may be unable to return to sleep for a small
period

REM SLEEP BEHAVIOR DISORDER

In REM behavior disorder, the normal suspension of motor activity during sleep (called sleep
atonia) doesn’t occur, allowing people to act out their dreams. However, the dreams acted out
are often violent and frightening, even if this is out of character for the person experiencing
RBD.

RBD occurs when you act out vivid dreams as you sleep. These dreams are often filled with
action. They may even be violent. Episodes tend to get worse over time. Early episodes may
involve mild activity. Later episodes can be more violent.

REM sleep behavior disorder is most common in older adults. The disorder usually begins
between age 50 and 60, and is more common in men.
RBD episodes occur during rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep. Normal sleep consists of a
series of REM dream episodes. They occur about every 1 ½ to 2 hours each night.

 E.G – Grabbing, Punching, kicking

OTHER PARASOMNIAS

SLEEP ENURESIS /BED WETTING

Involves involuntary urination while asleep after the age at which bladder control usually
occurs

Bedwetting, or nocturnal enuresis, happens to a lot of children. Boys are more likely to
suffer from enuresis than girls, and the condition often runs in families. Children with
enuresis have more fragmented sleep and more daytime sleepiness than other children.

In adults, enuresis can be caused by medical conditions (including diabetes, urinary tract
infection, or sleep apnea) or by psychiatric disorders.

There are two kinds of enuresis:

 Primary : In primary enuresis, a person has been unable to have urinary control
from infancy onward. This usually indicates that the child’s bladder control is
developing a little slower than normal
 Secondary. In secondary enuresis, a person has a relapse after previously having
been able to have urinary control. Emotional factors, including stress, insecurity or
even depression may play a role, but more often a specific cause cannot be
pinpointed.

Sleep Disorders - Types, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatments | Tuck

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 THEORIES OF SLEEP

 REPAIR AND RESTORATION THEORY OF SLEEP:

According to the repair and restoration theory of sleep, sleeping is essential for revitalizing
and restoring the physiological processes that keep the body and mind healthy and properly
functioning. This theory suggests that NREM sleep is important for restoring physiological
functions, while REM sleep is essential in restoring mental functions.

Research shows that periods of REM sleep increase following periods of sleep deprivation
and strenuous physical activity. During sleep, the body also increases its rate of cell division
and protein synthesis, further suggesting that repair and restoration occurs during sleeping
periods.

Researchers have uncovered that repair and restoration theory allows the brain to perform
"housekeeping" duties also brain utilizes sleep to flush out waste toxins. This waste removal
system is one of the major reasons why we sleep.

The restorative function of sleep enhances removal of potentially neurotoxic waste products
that accumulate in the awake central nervous system.

According to this theory, the body restores itself during sleep. Researchers know that
neurotoxins are neutralized during sleep and have reported that cell division, tissue synthesis
and growth hormones are released during slow wave sleep

 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY OF SLEEP

Evolutionary theory, also known as the adaptive theory of sleep, suggests that periods of
activity and inactivity evolved as a means of conserving energy. According to this theory, all
species have adapted to sleep during periods of time when wakefulness would be the most
hazardous.

Evolutionary explanations suggest 4 possibilities:

o FORAGING REQUIREMENTS
Sleep is a necessity but the time spent in sleeping is constrained by food requirements. An
animal must gather food. Herbivores such as cows or horses spend their time eating plants
that are relatively poor in nutrients and thus must spend a great deal of time eating and
consequently can’t “afford” to spend time sleeping. Carnivores such as cats and dogs eat food
that is high in nutrients and so do not need to eat continuously therefore they can afford to
rest much of the time which in turn conserves energy.

o PREDATOR AVOIDANCE
Sleep is constrained by predator risk. If an animal is a predator then it can afford to sleep for
longer whereas prey species have less time to sleep due to risk of being killed.

Meddis proposed this theory and suggest that sleep helps animal stay out of the way of
predators during the parts of the day when they are most vulnerable.

Siegal concurs with this view suggesting an animal is more at risk when awake and likely to
be injured. The only possible explanation he suggested could be that sleep enables both
energy conservation and avoiding dangers.

o ENERGY CONSERVATION
Humans need to expend a great deal of energy in maintaining body temperatures. All
activities use energy and animals with high metabolic rates require more energy. Therefore
sleep can serve the purpose of providing a period of inactivity to conserve energy.

o WASTE OF TIME
Sleep has no vital function and it actually interferes with the man’s function

INFORMATION CONSOLIDATION THEORY OF SLEEP

The information consolidation theory of sleep is based on cognitive research and suggests
that people sleep in order to process information that has been acquired during the day. In
addition to processing information from the day prior, this theory also argues that sleep
allows the brain to prepare for the day to come.

Some research also suggests that sleep helps cement the things we have learned during the
day into long-term memory. Support for this idea stems from a number of sleep deprivation
studies demonstrating that a lack of sleep has a serious impact on the ability to recall and
remember information.

PROGRAMMING-REPROGRAMMING THEORY

This theory holds that unimportant information is "erased" and important information is
locked into more permanent memory. Infants, who are acquiring information at a rate faster
than at any other point during life, sleep most. All sleep may not be equal for reinforcing
learning, however recent research indicates that REM sleep may be the key. Babies and
children experience a larger portion of REM sleep than adults, and adults who are in school
or undergoing intense intellectual training increase their amount of REM sleep. When people
are deprived of REM sleep they are less adept at creative problem solving.

HABITUATION THEORY

Sokolove and Rogers (1960): The basis of this theory is normal habituation that leads to
boredom and which in turn leads to loss of arousal and finally sleep.

FUNCTIONS OF SLEEP
 Function of sleep is to eliminate behavioral responsiveness during spare time when the
organism is not well adapted.
 Sleep helps to preserve the rest phase of the sleep-inactivity cycle.
 Sleep is Essential for Learning and Memory
 Sleep improves Neurobehavioral and Neurocognitive Performance
 sleep helps to avoid exhaustion, and sleep functions for the recovery of the nervous
system from synaptic use.
 Sleep has a major role in the recovery from neuronal plasticity associated with learning
and memory.
 The function of REM sleep is to “activate, select, instruct or release important motor
activity.”
 Neuronal activities that occur during REM sleep are important for proper maturation of
genetically programmed behaviors.
 Interactive genetic programming during REM sleep reinforces psychological
individuation.
 REM sleep occurs predominantly in infancy hence most of the neurologic development
happens in that age. Presence of REM sleep in adulthood suggests REM sleep related
networks are also necessary to maintain the behaviors at a mature level.
 Activity dependent neuronal maturation occurs during REM sleep.
 Sleep is a recovery and/or recuperative process
 SWS functions for general body restitution and REM sleep functions as brain “repair.”
 Sleep favors anabolism.
 “The function of REM is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in the
network of cells in the cerebral cortex.”
 REM sleep regulation function is emphasized.
 REM sleep is necessary for “unlearning “ or “reverse learning” of unwanted behaviors by
removing “parasitic ” modes of neuronal interconnections.
 REM sleep erases unnecessary memory.