HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER:

FUNDAMENTALS & APPLICATIONS

6th Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Çengel, Afshin J. Ghajar
Lecture PPT

Lecture slides by
Mehmet Kanoglu

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Chapter Number 2

HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION

McGraw-Hill | 2
Objectives
• Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat
transfer, and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem
can be approximated as being one-dimensional.
• Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional
case.
• Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions.
• Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux.
• Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve
heat generation.
• Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.

McGraw-Hill | 3
2-1 INTRODUCTION
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a
different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus
signs.

McGraw-Hill | 4
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
✔ rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
✔ cylindrical T(r, φ, z, t)
✔ spherical T(r, φ, θ, t).

5
 Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with
time at any point within the
medium
• Transient implies variation with
time or time dependence
• In the special case of variation
with time but not with position,
the temperature of the medium
changes uniformly with time.
Such heat transfer systems are
called lumped systems.

McGraw-Hill | 6
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
✔ one-dimensional
✔ two dimensional
✔ three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is
three-dimensional. However, some problems can be classified as two- or
one-dimensional depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer
rates in different directions and the level of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction
only and thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of
temperature and thus heat transfer in other directions are negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies
mainly in two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the third
direction (and thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible.

McGraw-Hill | 7
McGraw-Hill | 8
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction
(say, in the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as:

• Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the
positive x -direction.

McGraw-Hill | 9
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the
surface of the figure must be
perpendicular to the surface, and it
must point in the direction of decreasing
temperature
• If n is the normal of the isothermal
surface at point P, the rate of heat
conduction at that point can be
expressed by Fourier’s law as

10
• Examples:
✔ electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R, Heat
✔ fuel elements of nuclear reactors, Generation
✔ exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as
well as position within the medium.

11
2-2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
EQUATION
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a
house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of
a pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element,
an electrical resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a
spherical metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be
approximated as being one-dimensional since heat conduction through
these geometries is dominant in one direction and negligible in other
directions.
Next we develop the onedimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

McGraw-Hill | 12
 Heat Conduction
Equation in a Large
Plane Wall
(2-6)

McGraw-Hill | 13
McGraw-Hill | 14
 Heat
Conduction
Equation in a
Long Cylinder

McGraw-Hill | 15
McGraw-Hill | 16
Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere

McGraw-Hill | 17
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction
equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all
three equations can be expressed in a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable
r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat
generation cases as described before.

McGraw-Hill | 18
2-3 GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION
In the last section we considered one-dimensional heat conduction
and assumed heat conduction in other directions to be negligible.
Most heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be
approximated as being one-dimensional, and we mostly deal with
such problems in this text.
However, this is not always the case, and sometimes we need to
consider heat transfer in other directions as well.
In such cases heat conduction is said to be multidimensional, and in
this section we develop the governing differential equation in such
systems in rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.

McGraw-Hill | 19
Rectangular Coordinates

McGraw-Hill | 20
McGraw-Hill | 21
McGraw-Hill | 22
 Cylindrical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and cylindrical coordinate systems:

McGraw-Hill | 23
 Spherical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular
and spherical coordinate systems:

McGraw-Hill | 24
 2-4 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The description of a heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full
description of the thermal conditions at the bounding surfaces of the medium.
Boundary conditions: The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the
boundaries.

The temperature at any

point on the wall at a
specified time depends
on the condition of the
geometry at the
beginning of the heat
conduction process.
Such a condition, which
is usually specified at
time t = 0, is called the
initial condition, which
is a mathematical
expression for the
temperature distribution
of the medium initially.

McGraw-Hill | 25
 Boundary Conditions

• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition

• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions

McGraw-Hill | 26
1 Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
The temperature of an exposed surface can
usually be measured directly and easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to specify
the thermal conditions on a surface is to specify
the temperature.
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a
plane wall of thickness L, for example, the
specified temperature boundary conditions can
be expressed as

where T1 and T2 are the specified

temperatures at surfaces at x = 0 and x = L,
respectively.
The specified temperatures can be constant,
which is the case for steady heat conduction,
or may vary with time.

McGraw-Hill | 27
2 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the
medium, including the boundaries, can be expressed by

For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat

flux of 50 W/m2 into the medium from both
sides, for example, the specified heat flux
boundary conditions can be expressed as

McGraw-Hill | 28
Special Case: Insulated Boundary

A well-insulated surface can be modeled

as a surface with a specified heat flux of
zero. Then the boundary condition on a
perfectly insulated surface (at x = 0, for
example) can be expressed as

On an insulated surface, the first

derivative of temperature with respect
to the space variable (the temperature
gradient) in the direction normal to the
insulated surface is zero.

McGraw-Hill | 29
Another Special Case: Thermal Symmetry
Some heat transfer problems possess thermal
symmetry as a result of the symmetry in imposed
thermal conditions.
For example, the two surfaces of a large hot plate
of thickness L suspended vertically in air is
subjected to the same thermal conditions, and thus
the temperature distribution in one half of the plate
is the same as that in the other half.
That is, the heat transfer problem in this plate
possesses thermal symmetry about the center
plane at x = L/2.
Therefore, the center plane can be viewed as an
insulated surface, and the thermal condition at this
plane of symmetry can be expressed as

which resembles the insulation or zero heat

flux boundary condition.

McGraw-Hill | 30
3 Convection Boundary Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction
in a plate of thickness L, the convection boundary
conditions on both surfaces:

McGraw-Hill | 31
4 Radiation Boundary Condition
Radiation boundary condition on a surface:

For one-dimensional heat transfer in the

x-direction in a plate of thickness L, the
radiation boundary conditions on both
surfaces can be expressed as

McGraw-Hill | 32
5 Interface Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions at an interface
are based on the requirements that
(1) two bodies in contact must have the
same temperature at the area of contact
and
(2) an interface (which is a surface) cannot
store any energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an interface must be
the same.
The boundary conditions at the interface
of two bodies A and B in perfect contact at
x = x0 can be expressed as

McGraw-Hill | 33
 6 Generalized Boundary Conditions

In general, however, a surface may involve convection,

radiation, and specified heat flux simultaneously.
The boundary condition in such cases is again obtained
from a surface energy balance, expressed as

McGraw-Hill | 34
2-5 SOLUTION OF STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL
HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEMS
In this section we will solve a wide range of heat
conduction problems in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical geometries.
We will limit our attention to problems that result in
ordinary differential equations such as the steady
one-dimensional heat conduction problems. We will
also assume constant thermal conductivity.
The solution procedure for solving heat
conduction problems can be summarized as
(1) formulate the problem by obtaining the
applicable differential equation in its simplest form
and specifying the boundary conditions,
(2) obtain the general solution of the differential
equation, and
(3) apply the boundary conditions and determine the
arbitrary constants in the general solution.

McGraw-Hill | 35
McGraw-Hill | 36
 37
McGraw-Hill |
McGraw-Hill | 38
McGraw-Hill | 39
McGraw-Hill | 40
McGraw-Hill | 41
McGraw-Hill | 42
 2-6 HEAT GENERATION IN A SOLID
Many practical heat transfer applications
involve the conversion of some form of energy
into thermal energy in the medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat
generation, which manifests itself as a rise in
temperature throughout the medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear
energies are converted to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer
radius ro and length L can be expressed as

McGraw-Hill | 43
The quantities of major interest in a medium with
heat generation are the surface temperature Ts
and the maximum temperature Tmax that occurs
in the medium in steady operation.

McGraw-Hill | 44
McGraw-Hill | 45
2-7 VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k(T)
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature in a specified temperature interval is
large, it may be necessary to account for this
variation to minimize the error.
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of
the thermal conductivity in the temperature range
between T1 and T2 can be determined from

McGraw-Hill | 46
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with temperature in the
temperature range of interest can often be approximated as a linear function and
expressed as

β temperature coefficient
of thermal conductivity.

The average value of thermal conductivity

in the temperature range T1 to T2 in this
case can be determined from

The average thermal conductivity in this

case is equal to the thermal conductivity
value at the average temperature.

McGraw-Hill | 47
 Summary
• Introduction
✔ Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
✔ Multidimensional Heat Transfer
✔ Heat Generation
• One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
✔ Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall
✔ Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder
✔ Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
✔ Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
• General Heat Conduction Equation
✔ Rectangular Coordinates
✔ Cylindrical Coordinates
✔ Spherical Coordinates
• Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Solution of Steady One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Problems
• Heat Generation in a Solid
• Variable Thermal Conductivity k (T )

McGraw-Hill | 48
Thank You!

For any queries or feedback contact us at:

support.india@mheducation.com

1800-103-5875

www.mheducation.co.in

McGraw-Hill |
McGraw-Hi 49