NCERT NOTES

FOR SCIENCE
8th Standard
CONTENTS
Crop Production and Management ........................................................................................... 1 - 5

Microorganisms: Friend and Foe ............................................................................................. 6 - 10

Synthetic Fibres and Plastics ................................................................................................. 11 - 14

Materials: Metals and Non-Metals ........................................................................................ 15 - 16

Coal and Petroleum ................................................................................................................... 17 - 19

Combustion and Flame ............................................................................................................ 20 - 22

Conservation of Plants and Animals ................................................................................... 23 - 25

Cell - Structure and Functions ............................................................................................... 26 - 29

Reproduction in Animals ......................................................................................................... 30 - 34

Reaching the Age of Adolescence ....................................................................................... 35 - 39

Force and Pressure ................................................................................................................... 40 - 41

Friction .......................................................................................................................................... 42 - 43

Sound ............................................................................................................................................ 44 - 46

Chemical effects of Electric Current ..................................................................................... 47 - 47

Some Natural Phenomena ...................................................................................................... 48 - 52

Light ............................................................................................................................................... 53 - 56

Stars and the Solar system ..................................................................................................... 57 - 67

Pollution of Air and Water ...................................................................................................... 68 - 71

 CROP PRODUCTION
1 AND MANAGEMENT
When plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a Crop. In India,
crops can be broadly categorised into two types based on seasons - Kharif and Rabi crops.
· Kharif Crops: These are sown in the rainy season (June to September). For example: Paddy, maize,
soyabean, groundnut and cotton.
· Rabi Crops: These are grown in the winter season (October to March). For example: Wheat, gram, pea,
mustard, and linseed.
Crop production is concerned with growing crops for use as fibre and food while Crop management
involves group of agricultural practices used to improve the growth, development, and yield of agricultural
crops.

Basic Practices of Crop Production:

Cultivation of crops involves several activities undertaken by farmers over a period of time. These activities or
tasks are referred to as agricultural practices which are listed below:
· Preparation of soil
· Sowing
· Adding manure and fertilisers
· Irrigation
· Protecting from weeds
· Harvesting
· Storage

Preparation of Soil:
· The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. This is the first step
before growing a crop and is done by using a plough. The purpose is to turn and loosen the soil. The
benefits of the loosed soil are:
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Ø Roots can penetrate deep into the loose soil.

Ø Roots can breathe easily even when they go deep into the soil.
Ø Allows the growth of earthworms and microbes (friends of the farmers) present in the soil.
Ø Brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that plants can use these nutrients.
· Ploughed soil surface is then made even using the Leveller. This is known as Levelling. It is beneficial
for sowing as well as for irrigation.

Agricultural Implements:
The main tools used are the plough, hoe, and cultivator.
Plough: This is being used since ancient times for tilling the soil, adding fertilizers to the crop, removing the
weeds, and turning the soil.

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Hoe: It is a simple tool which is used for removing weeds and for loosening the soil.
Cultivator: Nowadays ploughing is done by tractor-driven cultivator which saves both labour and time.

Sowing:
It is the process of planting seeds in the ground. Before sowing, good quality, clean and healthy seeds of a
good variety (high yield) are selected.
Selection of Seeds: Damaged seeds become hollow, lighter and float on water. This principle is a good
method for separating good, healthy seeds from the damaged ones.
Tools: The tool used traditionally for sowing seeds is shaped like a funnel. Nowadays, the seed drill is used
for sowing with the help of tractors. Benefits of Seed drill are:
· It sows the seeds uniformly at equal distance and depth.
· It ensures that seeds get covered by the soil after sowing which protects seeds from being eaten by
birds.
· It saves time and labour.

Adding Manure and Fertilisers:

The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are
called manure and fertilisers.
· Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of plant or animal wastes by the
process called vermicomposting. Addition of manure to the field is called manuring.
· Fertilisers are chemicals which are rich in a particular nutrient. Some examples of fertilisers are - urea,
ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium).

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

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 Advantages of Manure: The organic manure is considered better than fertilisers because:
· it enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.
· it makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy.
· it increases the number of friendly microbes.
· it improves the texture of the soil.
Disadvantages of Fertilizers:
· Excessive use of fertilisers make soil less fertile.
· Fertilisers have become a source of water pollution.
Other methods of Nutrient Replenishment:
· Leave the field uncultivated (fallow) in between two crops.
· Use of crop rotation by growing different crops alternately. For example, growing legumes as fodder
in one season and wheat in the next season. Rhizobium bacteria present in the nodules of roots of
leguminous plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Irrigation:
The supply of water to crops at regular intervals is called irrigation. The time and frequency of irrigation
varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season.

Importance of irrigation water:

· Helps in dissolving the minerals and fertilisers which are absorbed by the plant roots.
· Essential for germination of seeds.
· Act as carrier of nutrients in the plant.
· Protects the crop from both frost and hot air currents.
· Maintain the moisture of the soil for healthy crop growth.
Sources of irrigation:
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

The sources of water for irrigation are - wells, tube wells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams, and canals.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation: The water available in wells, lakes and canals is lifted by different
methods for taking it to the fields by use of Cattle or human labour. These methods are cheaper but less
efficient. The various traditional ways are moat (pulley-system), chain pump, Dhekli, and Rahat (Lever
system). Nowadays, Pumps operated by Diesel, biogas, electricity, and solar energy are commonly used for
lifting water.
Modern Methods of Irrigation: Modern methods of irrigation help us to use water economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
· Sprinkler System: The perpendicular pipes, having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to the main
pipeline at regular intervals. When water flows through the main pipe under pressure with the help of a
pump, it escapes from the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining. Sprinkler is

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 very useful for lawns, coffee plantation and several other crops. This system is more useful on the
uneven land.

Fig. 1.1: Sprinkler system Fig. 1.2: Drip System

· Drip system: In this system, the water falls drop by drop directly near the roots. So, it is called drip
system. It is the best technique for watering fruit plants, gardens, and trees.

Protection from Weeds:

Undesirable plants that grow naturally along with the crop are called weeds. The removal of weeds is called
weeding. The best time for weeding is before crops plants produce flowers and seeds.
Disadvantages of weeds:
· Weeds compete with the crop for water, nutrients, space, and light.
· Weeds interfere even in harvesting and may be poisonous for animals and human beings.
Weed management:
It involves ways to remove weeds and control their growth.
· Tilling before sowing of crops helps in uprooting and killing of weeds.
· The manual removal includes physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting done with the help of

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

a khurpi.
· A seed drill is also used to uproot weeds.
· Weeds are also controlled by using certain chemicals, called weedicides, like 2,4-D. These are
sprayed in the fields to kill the weeds.
Ø Weedicides are sprayed during the vegetative growth of weeds before flowering and seed
formation.
Ø Spraying of weedicides may affect the health of farmers. So, it should be done carefully with nose
and mouth covered with a piece of cloth.
Harvesting:
The cutting of crop after it is mature is called harvesting.
· Harvesting is either done manually by sickle or by a machine called harvester.

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 · In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called
threshing.
· Threshing is carried out with the help of a machine called 'combine' which is in fact a harvester as well
as a thresher.
· Farmers with small land holdings do the separation of grain and chaff by winnowing.
· After harvesting, sometimes stubs are left in the field, which are burnt by farmer and it causes air
pollution.

Storage:
Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect them from pests and microorganisms. Harvested grains
have more moisture so before storage they are properly dried in the Sun to reduce their moisture content.
Various methods of Storage:
· Farmers store grains in jute bags or metallic bins.
· Large scale storage of grains is done in silos and granaries to protect them from pests like rats and
insects. Specific chemical treatments are done to protect grains.
· Dried neem leaves are used for storing food grains at home.

Interesting points

· Till 10,000 B.C.E. people were nomadic. They wandered in groups in search of food and shelter.
They ate raw fruits and vegetables and started hunting animals for food.
· Paddy requires a lot of water. Therefore, it is grown only in the rainy season.
· Seeds of a few plants such as paddy are first grown in a nursery. When they grow into seedlings,
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

they are transplanted to the field manually.

· Special festivals are associated with the harvest season: Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya
and Bihu.
· Animals reared at home or in farms, are provided with proper food, shelter, and care. When this is
done on a large scale, it is called animal husbandry.
· Fish is rich in vitamin D. Cod liver oil is extracted from the fish.

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 MICROORGANISMS:
2 FRIEND AND FOE
Living organisms around us which cannot be seen normally are called microorganisms or microbes.
Microorganisms are classified into four major groups: bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and some algae. Viruses
are also microscopic but are different from other microorganisms and reproduce only inside the host
organism: bacterium, plant, or animal cell.

Characteristics of Microorganisms:
· Microorganisms may be unicellular (bacteria, some algae, and protozoa), or multicellular (many algae
and fungi).
· Microorganisms live in all types of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs, and
deserts to marshy lands.
· Microorganisms are found in air, water and in the bodies of plants and animals.
· Some microorganisms grow on other organisms while others exist freely.

Microorganisms and Us:

Microorganisms play an important role in our lives. Some of them are beneficial in many ways whereas some
others are harmful and cause diseases.

Friendly Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are used for various purposes. Some of these are:

Making of Curd and Bread:

· The bacterium, Lactobacillus promotes the formation of curd.
· Bacteria are also involved in the making of cheese, pickles, and many other food items.
· Yeast is used in the baking industry for making breads, pastries, and cakes.

Commercial Use of Microorganisms:

Yeast is used for commercial production of alcohol and wine. It is grown on natural sugars present in grains

MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE

like barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juices, etc. This process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as
fermentation.

Medicinal Use of Microorganisms:

The source of many antibiotic tablets, capsules, or injections (such as penicillin) is microorganisms. These
medicines kill or stop the growth of the disease-causing microorganisms and are called antibiotics.
· Streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics which are
made from fungi and bacteria.
· Antibiotics are even mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry to check microbial infection in
animals.
· Antibiotics are also used to control many plant diseases.

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 Words of Caution
If antibiotic is taken unnecessarily, it may kill the beneficial bacteria in the body.
Antibiotics are not effective against cold and flu as these are caused by viruses.

Vaccine:
When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces antibodies to fight the invader. The body
also remembers how to fight the microbe if it enters again. This forms the basis for vaccine manufacturing.
· Several diseases, including cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox, and hepatitis can be prevented by
vaccination.
· Polio drops given to children is a vaccine.
· A worldwide campaign against smallpox has led to its eradication from most parts of the world.

Increasing Soil Fertility: Some bacteria can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen
and increase its fertility. These microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.
Cleaning the Environment: Some microorganisms decompose the organic waste and dead plants and
animals into simple substances and clean up the environment. (vermicomposting)
Harmful Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are harmful in many ways. Some of the microorganisms cause diseases in human beings,
plants, and animals. Such disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens. Some microorganisms
spoil food, clothing, and leather.
Disease causing Microorganisms in Humans: Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to
a healthy person through air, water, food, or physical contact are called communicable diseases. Some
insects and animals act as carriers of disease-causing microbes (pathogens). For example,
· Female Anopheles mosquito carries the parasite of Malaria (Plasmodium),
· Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of Dengue virus.
Some of the common diseases affecting humans, their mode of transmission and few general methods of
prevention are shown in the following Table:
MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE

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Disease causing Microorganisms in Animals: Several microorganisms cause diseases in animals. For
example, Anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a bacterium. Foot and Mouth disease
of cattle is caused by a virus.
Disease causing Microorganisms in Plants: Several microorganisms cause diseases in plants like wheat,
rice, potato, sugarcane, orange, apple, and others. The diseases reduce the yield of crops. They can be
controlled using certain chemicals which kill the microbes. Some such plant diseases are shown below:

MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE

Food Poisoning: Microorganisms sometimes produce toxic substances and make the food poisonous
causing serious illness and even death. Various methods used to protect food from being spoilt are termed as
Food Preservation techniques. Most common methods are:
· Chemical Method: Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth
of microorganisms. Therefore, they are called preservatives. For example,
Ø Salt or acid is added to pickles.
Ø Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are used in jams and squashes.
· Preservation by Common Salt: Common salt has been used to preserve meat and fish for ages.
Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
· Preservation by Sugar: Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by Sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture
content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
· Preservation by Oil and Vinegar: Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles. Vegetables,

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 fruits, fish, and meat are often preserved by this method.
· Heat and Cold Treatments: Boiling kills many microorganisms while Low temperature inhibits the
growth of microbes. The milk is heated to about 700 C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled
and stored. This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
· Storage and Packing: Dry fruits and even vegetables are sealed in airtight packets to prevent the
attack of microbes.

Nitrogen Fixation
Some microorganisms reside in the root nodules of leguminous plants (pulses) and can fix nitrogen from air
into soil and increase the soil fertility such as bacterium Rhizobium forms symbiotic relationship with
legume plants. Circulation of nitrogen in nature occurs in various forms and is termed as Nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen Cycle:
· The atmospheric nitrogen cannot be taken directly by plants and animals.
· Certain bacteria and blue green algae present in the soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and
convert it into compounds of nitrogen.
· Once nitrogen is converted into these usable compounds, it can be utilised by plants from the soil
through their root system.
· Nitrogen is then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and other compounds.
· Animals feeding on plants get these proteins and other nitrogen compounds.
· When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil convert the nitrogenous wastes
into nitrogenous compounds to be used by plants again.
· Certain other bacteria convert some part of them to nitrogen gas which goes back into the
atmosphere.
· As a result, the percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains constant.
MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE

Fig. 2.1: Nitrogen Cycle

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 Interesting points

· In 1857, Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation.

· In 1929, Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic Penicillin.
· In 1798, Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox.
· In 1876, Robert Köch discovered the Anthrax disease causing bacterium (Bacillus anthracis).

MICROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE

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 SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS
3
Fabrics are made from fibres obtained from natural or artificial sources. Natural fibres like cotton, wool, silk,
etc., are obtained from plants or animals. The synthetic or man-made fibres, on the other hand, are made by
human beings.

Synthetic Fibres:
Like natural fibres, Synthetic fibres are made of very large units called polymers. Polymers are made up of
many smaller units. The word 'polymer' comes from two Greek words; poly meaning many and mer
meaning part/unit. So, a polymer is made of many repeating units.
All the synthetic fibres are prepared by several processes using raw materials of petroleum origin, called
petrochemicals.

Types of Synthetic Fibres:

Depending upon the types of chemicals used for manufacturing synthetic fibres, they are called Rayon,
Nylon, Polyester and Acrylic.

Rayon:
Rayon fibre is obtained by chemical treatment of wood pulp. It has properties similar to that of silk, so it is also
called artificial silk.
· It is cheaper than silk and can be woven like silk fibres.
· It can also be dyed in a wide variety of colours.
· It is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to make carpets.

Nylon:
It is the first fully synthetic fibre. It is prepared from coal, water, and air.
· Nylon fibre is strong, elastic, and light.
· It is lustrous and easy to wash.
· Many articles are made from nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents, toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping
bags, curtains, etc.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

· It is also used for making parachutes and ropes for rock climbing.
· A nylon thread is stronger than a steel wire.

Polyester and Acrylic:

Polyester is a synthetic fiber derived from coal, air, water, and petroleum. Polyester (Poly + ester) is made up
of the repeating units of a chemical called an ester. Esters are the chemicals which give fruits their smell.
· Polyester fibre is suitable as dress material since it does not get wrinkled easily, remains crisp and is
easy to wash. Terylene is a popular polyester.
· PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a form of polyester and is used for making bottles, utensils, films,
wires, etc.
· Sweaters and shawls or blankets used in the winter are prepared from another type of synthetic fibre

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 called acrylic. Clothes made from acrylic are relatively cheap and are available in a variety of colours.

Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres:

Synthetic fibres possess unique characteristics like they dry up quickly, durable, less expensive, readily
available, and easy to maintain. The different types of fibres differ from one another in their strength, water
absorbing capacity, nature of burning, cost, durability etc.

Plastics:
Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre. It has two type of arrangement of units: linear and cross-linked.

Fig. 3.1: (a) Linear (b) Cross-linked arrangements

· Plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily are known as thermoplastics. For
example, Polythene and PVC. These are used for manufacturing toys, combs, containers, etc.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

· Plastics which when moulded once, cannot be softened by heating. These are called thermosetting
plastics. For example, Bakelite and Melamine.
Ø Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It is used for making electrical switches, handles
of various utensils, etc.
Ø Melamine is a versatile material. It resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics. It is
used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire.

Characteristics and Use of Plastics:

· Plastics find multiple use ranging from household to industries like automobiles, aircrafts, etc. because
of their unique characteristics such as light weight, lower price, good strength, and easy handling, etc.
· Plastic is Non-reactive: Unlike Iron, plastics do not react with water and air thus they do not corrode

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 easily. So, they are used to store various kinds of material, including many chemicals.
· Plastics find extensive use in the healthcare industry - packaging of tablets, threads used for stitching
wounds, syringes, doctors' gloves, and several medical instruments.

Plastic is Light, Strong, and Durable:

· Plastic is very light, strong, durable and can be moulded into different shapes and sizes. Plastics are
generally cheaper than metals. They are widely used in industry and for household articles.
· Polythene (Poly+ethene) is also a plastic. It is used for making commonly used polythene bags.

Plastics are Poor Conductors:

Plastics are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
· Electrical wires have plastic covering and handles of screw drivers are made of plastic.
· Handles of frying pans are also made of plastic.
· Special plastic cookware is used in microwave ovens for cooking food.
Some plastics are Fire-proof: Although synthetic fibre catches fire easily, it is interesting to know that the
uniforms of firemen have coating of melamine plastic to make them flame resistant.

Plastics and the Environment:

Plastic waste is not environment friendly. On burning, they release poisonous gases and on dumping in the
ground they may take years to degenerate. This is because of their non-biodegradable nature.
Following table shows nature and degeneration time of various materials:
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

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Plastic Waste Management:
It involves activities and processes to handle plastic waste. Some of them are:
· Avoid the use of plastics as far as possible.
· Make use of bags made of cotton or jute for shopping.
· The biodegradable and nonbiodegradable wastes should be collected and dispose- off separately.
· Recycle plastic waste. Most of the thermoplastics can be recycled.
The 5 R principle - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover and Refuse is a golden rule for plastic waste
management and thus minimise the environmental hazards for the living communities.

Interesting points

· A material which gets decomposed through natural processes, such as action by bacteria, is called
biodegradable.
· A material which is not easily decomposed by natural processes is termed non-biodegradable.
· Polymers occur in nature also. For example, Cotton is a polymer called cellulose. Cellulose is made up
of many glucose units.
· Fabrics are sold by names like polycot, polywool, terrycot, etc. These are made by mixing two types
of fibres. For example,
Ø Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton.
Ø Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
· Teflon is a special plastic on which oil and water do not stick. It is used for non-stick coating on
cookware.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS

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 MATERIALS: METALS AND
4 NON-METALS
Metals (such as iron, copper) can be distinguished from non-metals (such as sulphur, carbon) based on
their physical and chemical properties.

Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals:

· Appearance: Metals are lustrous (shiny in appearance) whereas non-metals have no lustre.
· Malleability: It is the property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets. Generally,
Metals are malleable while Non-metals are not.
· Conductor of Heat and electricity: Generally, metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, but
non-metals are poor conductors.
· Ductility: It is the property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires. Generally, Metals are ductile
while Non-metals are not.
· Sonority: The things made of metals produce a ringing sound when struck hard. Since metals produce
ringing sounds, they are said to be sonorous. The materials other than metals are not sonorous.
Some Exceptions:
· Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife.
· Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature.

Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals:

· Reaction with Oxygen: Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are basic in nature.
Non-metals react with oxygen to produce non- metallic oxides which are acidic in nature.
· Reaction with Water: Some metals react with water to produce metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Generally, non-metals do not react with water. Because of this property, some non-metals which are
reactive in air are stored in water. For example, Phosphorus.
· Reactions with Acids: Metals react with acids and produce metal salts and hydrogen gas. Generally,
non-metals do not react with acids.
· Reactions with Bases: Some metals react with bases to produce hydrogen gas. Reactions of non-
metals with bases are complex.
METALS AND NON-METALS

· Displacement Reactions: More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their compounds in
aqueous solutions. For example, Zinc can displace Copper and Iron.

Atoms and Elements

· If a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by cooling, heating, or by
electrolysis, it is called 'element'. For example, Sulphur, Iron and Carbon.
· The smallest unit of an element is atom. Any element contains only one kind of atom.
THEATRE CRAFTS

· The atom of an element remains unaffected by physical changes in the element. For example, an atom
of liquid sulphur would be the same as the atom of solid or vapour sulphur.
MATERIALS:

· There are no more than 94 naturally occurring elements.

· Most of the elements are metals. The remaining are either non-metals or metalloids. Metalloids
possess character of both metals and non-metals.

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Uses of Metals and Non-metals:
Metals are used in making machinery, automobiles, aeroplanes, trains, satellites, industrial gadgets, cooking
utensils, water boilers, etc. Following are some of the uses of non-metals:
· Non-metal (Oxygen) is essential for our life.
· Non-metals (Nitrogen) is used in fertilisers to enhance the growth of plants.
· Non-metal (Chlorine) used in water purification process.
· Non-metal (Iodine) used as an antiseptic.
· Non-metals (Phosphorus) used in crackers.

Interesting points

· When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long, it acquires a dull green coating.
· Sodium metal is very reactive with oxygen and water. It is, therefore, stored in kerosene.

MATERIALS: METALS AND NON-METALS

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 COAL AND PETROLEUM
5
All the materials which are obtained from nature are called as natural resources. These can be broadly
classified into two kinds:
· Inexhaustible Natural Resources: These are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely
to be exhausted by human activities. For example, sunlight, air.
· Exhaustible Natural Resources: The amount of these resources in nature is limited. They can be
exhausted by human activities. For example, forests, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are exhaustible resources. These are formed from the
dead remains of living organisms (fossils) and thus called Fossil Fuels.

Coal:
Coal is one type of fossil fuel. It is as hard as stone and is black in colour. It is used as a fuel in both households
and various industries.

Process of Coal Formation:

· About 300 million years ago, the Earth had dense forests in low lying wetland areas.
· Due to natural processes, like flooding, these forests got buried under the soil.
· As more soil deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank
deeper and deeper.
· Under high pressure and high temperature, dead plants got slowly converted to coal.
· This slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.

When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide gas. Coal is processed in industry to get
some useful products such as Coke, Coal tar and Coal gas.

Coke: It is a tough, porous, and black substance. It is an almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in the
manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals.

Coal Tar: It is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of about 200 substances.
· Products obtained from coal tar are used for manufacturing various substances such as synthetic dyes,
explosives, plastics, paints, etc.
· These days, bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar for metalling the roads.
COAL AND PETROLEUM

Coal Gas: It is obtained during the processing of coal to get coke. It is used as a fuel in many industries.

Petroleum:
Petroleum is a naturally occurring dark oily liquid found beneath the Earth's surface. Both Petrol and Diesel
are obtained from petroleum. The word petroleum is derived from petra (rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined
from between the rocks under Earth as shown below:

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 Fig. 5.1: Petroleum and Natural Gas Deposits

Formation of Petroleum:
· Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea.
· As these organisms died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of
sand and clay.
· Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and high pressure transformed the dead
organisms into petroleum and natural gas.

Refining of Petroleum:
Petroleum is a mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin
wax, etc. The process of separating the various constituents/ fractions of petroleum is known as refining.
It is carried out in a petroleum refinery. Various constituents of petroleum and their uses are shown below:

COAL AND PETROLEUM

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 Natural Gas:
It is also an important fossil fuel.

Benefits of Natural Gas:

· It is easy to transport through pipes.
· It is a cleaner fuel.
· It can be used directly for burning in homes and factories.
· It is used as a starting material for the manufacture of several chemicals and fertilisers.
· It is stored under high pressure as CNG (compressed natural gas) which is used for power generation.
India has vast reserves of natural gas. In our country, natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and in the Krishna Godavari delta. A network of gas supply pipelines exists in Vadodara
(Gujarat), some parts of Delhi and other places.

Petrochemicals:
Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are termed as
'Petrochemicals'.
· These are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and
other man-made plastics.
· Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea).
Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called 'black gold'.

It took dead organisms millions of years to get converted into fossil fuels. Moreover, burning of these fuels is a
major cause of air pollution and is also linked to global warming. It is therefore necessary to use these fuels
judiciously. This will result in better environment, smaller risk of global warming and their availability for a
longer period.

Interesting points

· Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810 and in New York around
1820. Now a days, it is used as a source of heat rather than light.
· In India, the Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) advises people how to save
COAL AND PETROLEUM

petrol/diesel while driving.

· The world's first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight years later, in 1867, oil
was struck at Makum in Assam (India).
· In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river basins of Godavari and
Krishna.

19
 COMBUSTION AND FLAME
6
A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat is called Combustion. The
substance that undergoes combustion is said to be combustible. During the process, light is given off either
as a flame or as a glow.
· Oxygen is essential for combustion.
· The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
· Substances such as petrol, alcohol that have very low ignition temperature and are called
Inflammable substances.

Fire:
Fire is a state, process, or instance of combustion. To produce fire, there are three essential requirements:
fuel, air (to supply oxygen) and heat (to raise the temperature of the fuel beyond the ignition temperature).
Fire can be controlled by removing one or more of these requirements.

Fire Extinguisher:
A fire extinguisher is a fire protection device used to extinguish or control small fires.
· The most common fire extinguisher is water - Water cools the combustible material below its ignition
temperature and Water vapours helps in cutting off the supply of air.
· For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is
the best extinguisher - CO2 not only forms a blanket around the fire but also brings down the fuel
temperature.

Types of Combustion:
There are various types of combustions such as rapid combustion, spontaneous combustion, explosion.
· Rapid Combustion: In this, material burns rapidly and produces heat and light.
· Spontaneous Combustion: In this, material suddenly bursts into flames, without the application of any
apparent cause. For example, phosphorus burns in air at room temperature.
Ø Spontaneous combustion of coal dust has resulted in many disastrous fires in coal mines.
Ø Spontaneous forest fires may occur due to the heat of the sun or due to lightning strike.
· Explosion: When a material is ignited, a sudden reaction takes place with the evolution of heat, light, COMBUSTION AND FLAME
and sound. A large amount of gas formed in the reaction is liberated.

Flame:
A flame is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. The substances which vaporise during burning give flames. For
example, Kerosene oil and molten wax. There are three different zones of a flame - dark zone, luminous
zone, and non-luminous zone.

20
 Fig. 6.1: Different zones of candle flame

Fuel:
The sources of heat energy for domestic and industrial purposes are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol, kerosene
etc. These substances are called fuels.

Characteristics of a Good fuel:

· It is cheap.
· It is readily available.
· It is easy to transport.
· It produces a large amount of heat.
· It burns easily in air at a moderate rate.
· It does not leave behind any undesirable substances.

Fuel efficiency: It is expressed in terms of its calorific value which is expressed in units of kilojoule per kg.
COMBUSTION AND FLAME

The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value.

Harmful effects of Fuel Burning:

The increasing fuel consumption has harmful effects on the environment such as:
· Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous pollutants causing respiratory problems.
· Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
· Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause acid rain

21
 which is harmful for crops, buildings, and soil.
· Combustion of most fuel releases carbon dioxide in the environment. Increased percentage of carbon
dioxide in air has been linked to global warming. Global warming is the rise in temperature of the
atmosphere of the Earth and results in:
Ø Melting of polar glaciers.
Ø Rise in the sea level.
Ø Floods in the coastal areas.
Ø Submergence of Low-lying coastal areas.
The use of diesel and petrol as fuels in automobiles is being replaced by CNG (Compressed Natural Gas),
because CNG produces the harmful products in very small amounts, thus a cleaner fuel.

Interesting points

· In the Sun, heat and light are produced by nuclear reactions.

· The modern safety match was developed only about two hundred years ago.
· More than five thousand year ago, small pieces of pinewood dipped in sulphur were used as matches
in ancient Egypt.
· Head of the safety match contains antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing
surface has powdered glass and a little red phosphorus (less dangerous than white). When the
match is struck against the rubbing surface, some red phosphorus gets converted into white
phosphorus.

COMBUSTION AND FLAME

22
 CONSERVATION OF PLANTS
7 AND ANIMALS
Majority of the Earth's land animals and plants live in forests. They are essential for the well-being and
survival of mankind. Activities like deforestation threaten their habitats and leads to direct loss of these
organisms.

Deforestation and its causes:

Deforestation means clearing of forests and using that land for other purposes. Trees in the forest are cut
for some of the purposes mentioned below:
· Procuring land for cultivation.
· Building houses and factories.
· Making furniture or using wood as fuel.
Some natural causes of deforestation are forest fires and severe droughts.

Consequences of Deforestation:
· Increase in temperature and pollution level on the Earth.
· Increased Earth's temperature can disturb the water cycle and may reduce the rainfall which could
cause droughts.
· Increase in the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere causing global warming.
· Decrease in the water holding capacity of the soil. Ground water level also gets lowered.
· Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes the lower, hard, and
rocky layers. This soil has less humus and is less fertile. Gradually the fertile land gets converted into
deserts. It is called desertification.
· Increased chances of natural calamities such as floods and droughts.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife:

Wildlife sanctuary, national park and biosphere reserve are names given to the areas meant for
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

conservation and preservation of forest and wild animals.

· Biosphere Reserve:
Ø These are large areas of protected land for conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and
traditional life of the tribal living in the area.
Ø The biosphere reserves help to maintain the biodiversity and culture of that area.
Ø They may contain other protected areas in it. For example, Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park (Satpura) and two wildlife sanctuaries (Bori and Pachmarhi).

· Wildlife Sanctuary:
Ø Like reserve forests, these provide protection and suitable living conditions to wild animals.
Ø People living in wildlife sanctuaries can do certain activities such as grazing by their livestock,
collecting medicinal plants, firewood, etc.
Ø Some of the threatened wild animals like black buck, white eyed buck, elephant, golden cat, pink
headed duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, python, rhinoceros, etc., are protected and preserved in our

23
 wildlife sanctuaries.
· National Park:
Ø These reserves are large and diverse enough to protect whole sets of ecosystems.
Ø They preserve flora, fauna, landscape, and historic objects of an area. Wildlife in National Parks
can freely use the habitats and natural resources.
Ø Human activities such as grazing, poaching, hunting, capturing of animals or collection of firewood,
medicinal plants, etc. are not allowed.
Ø There are more than one hundred National Parks in India.
Ø Satpura National Park is the first Reserve Forest of India.

Government Initiatives for conservation of wildlife:

The government lays down rules, methods, and policies to protect and conserve them.
· Forest (Conservation) Act aims at preservation and conservation of natural forests.
· Project Tiger was launched by the government to protect the tigers in the country. The objective of
this project was to ensure the survival and maintenance of the tiger population in the country.
Ø Satpura Tiger Reserve is unique in the sense that a significant increase in the population of tigers
has been seen here. Earlier, animals like lions, elephants, wild buffaloes and barasingha were also
found in it.

Endemic Species:

These are those species of plants and animals which are found exclusively in a particular area. They are not
naturally found anywhere else. For example,
· Sal and wild mango are two examples of the endemic flora of the Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.
· Bison, Indian giant squirrel and flying squirrel are endemic fauna of this area.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Destruction of their habitat, increasing population and introduction of new species affect the natural
habitat of endemic species and endanger their existence.

Species: Species is a group of population which are capable of interbreeding.

· Members of a species have common characteristics.
· Members of a species can reproduce fertile offspring only with the members of their own species.

Endangered animals:

Those species whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face extinction are known as the
endangered animals.
· Small animals are much more in danger of becoming extinct than the bigger animals.

24
 Red Data Book:
· It is the source book which keeps a record of all the endangered animals and plants.
· Red Data Book is maintained internationally by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of
Nature).
· India also maintains Red Data Book for plants and animals found in India.

Migration:
· It is the phenomenon of movement of a species from its own habitat to some other habitat for a
particular time period every year for a specific purpose like breeding.
· Birds who cover long distances to reach another land are known as migratory birds.

Reforestation:
· Reforestation is restocking of the destroyed forests by planting new trees.
· The planted trees should generally be of the same species which were found in that forest.
· Reforestation can take place naturally also. If the deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-establishes
itself.
· In natural reforestation, there is no role of human beings.
To retain our green wealth for future generations, plantation of more trees is the only option.

Interesting points

· Plants and animals of a particular area are known as the flora and fauna of that area.
· Biodiversity is the variety of plants, animals and microorganisms generally found in an area.
· An ecosystem is made of all the plants, animals, and microorganisms in an area along with non-living
components such as climate, soil, river deltas etc.
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

· Biosphere is that part of the Earth in which living organisms exist or which supports life.
· A total of 55 rock shelters have been identified in Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. These are
evidences of prehistoric human life in these jungles.
· Rock paintings are found in these shelters. Figures of animals and men fighting, hunting, dancing,
and playing musical instruments are depicted in these paintings.
· It takes 17 full grown trees to make one tonne of paper.
· Paper can be recycled five to seven times for use.

25
 CELL - STRUCTURE AND
8 FUNCTIONS
All organisms are made of smaller parts called organs. The basic structural unit of an organ is the cell. Cells
were first observed in cork (part of the bark of a tree) by Robert Hooke in 1665.

The Cell:
· The smallest living part of an organism is a 'Cell'.
· Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues.
· A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a specific function.
· The tissues in turn are made up of cells. Thus, a cell act as the basic structural unit.

Cell Characteristics:
Organisms are of different shapes and sizes. Their organs and cells also vary in shape, size, and numbers.
Number of Cells: Number of cells varies from organism to organism.
· Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular (multi: many; cellular: cell) organisms
like Humans.
· The single-celled organisms are called unicellular (uni: one; cellular: cell) organisms like amoeba.
· The single cell of unicellular organisms performs all the basic functions performed by a variety of cells
in multicellular organisms.

Shape of Cells: Cells exhibit a variety of shapes. Components of the cell are enclosed in a membrane called
cell membrane which provides shape to the cells of plants and animals.
· Amoeba has no definite shape and keeps on changing it. Projections of varying lengths protruding out
of its body are called pseudopodia (pseudo: false; podia: feet). These projections appear and
disappear as amoeba moves or feeds.
· White blood cell (WBC) in human blood is also a single cell which can change its shape.
· Cells such as blood, muscle, and nerve of human beings have different shapes because of their specific
functions.
Ø Generally, cells are round, spherical, or elongated.
Ø Some cells are long and pointed at both ends. They exhibit a spindle shape.
Ø Cells sometimes are branched like the nerve cell or a neuron.

CELL - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig. 8.1: (a) Spherical red blood cells (b) Spindle shaped muscle cells, (c) Long branched nerve cell

26
 Size of Cells: Cells also exhibit a variety of sizes. The size of cells may be as small as a millionth of a metre
(micrometre or micron) or may be as large as a few centimetres.
· Most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the unaided eye. They need to be
enlarged or magnified by a microscope.
· Some cells are big enough to be seen with the unaided eye. For example, Hen's egg.
· The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm,
is the egg of an ostrich.
· The size of the cells has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant.
· The size of the cell is related to its function. For example, nerve cells, both in the elephant and rat, are
long and branched. They perform the same function, that of transferring messages.

Cell Structure:
The cell has three main parts: (1) the cell membrane, (2) cytoplasm which contains smaller components
called organelles, and (3) the nucleus. The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm. It includes
the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

Cell Membrane: The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane, also called the plasma
membrane. The membrane separates cells from one another and the cell from the surrounding medium.
· The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both inward
and outward. The cell membrane gives shape to the cell.
· In plants, Cell membrane is covered by another thick covering called the cell wall. It gives shape and
rigidity to these cells.

Cytoplasm: It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Various other
components, or organelles, of cells are present in the cytoplasm such as mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
ribosomes, etc.
· Blank-looking structures in the cytoplasm is called vacuole. Large vacuoles are common in plant
cells. Vacuoles in animal cells are much smaller.
CELL - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

· Small, coloured bodies scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf cells are called plastids. They are of
different colours. Some of them contain green pigment called chlorophyll.
· Green coloured plastids are called chloroplasts. They provide green colour to the leaves. Chlorophyll in
the chloroplasts of leaves is essential for photosynthesis.

Nucleus: The central dense round body in the centre of cell is called the nucleus. Nucleus is separated from
the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane. This membrane is also porous and allows the
movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus.
· Smaller spherical body in the nucleus is called the nucleolus.
· Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes and help in
inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring. The chromosomes can be seen

27
 only when the cell divides.
· Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control centre of the activities of the cell.

Gene:
· It is a unit of inheritance in living organisms.
· It controls the transfer of a hereditary characteristic from parents to offspring.
· However, the different combination of genes from parents results in different characteristics.

Comparison of Plant and Animal Cells:

Fig. 8.2: (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell

· Plant cells differ from animal cells in having an additional layer around the cell membrane termed cell
wall.
· Coloured bodies called plastids are found in the plant cells only. Green plastids containing chlorophyll
are called chloroplasts.
· Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike several small vacuoles in animal cells.

CELL - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

28
 Interesting points

· The nerve cell receives and transfers messages, thereby helping to control and coordinate the
working of different parts of the body.
· The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed prokaryotic cells.
· The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro: primitive; karyon: nucleus).
Examples are bacteria and blue green algae.
· The cells having well-organised nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as
eukaryotic cells.
· All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called eukaryotes. (eu: true; karyon:
nucleus). Examples are onion cells and cheek cells.
CELL - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

29
 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
9
Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms - "offspring" - are produced from
their "parents". It is essential for the continuation of a species.

Modes of Reproduction:
There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are: (1) Sexual reproduction, and (2) Asexual
reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction:
· Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
· Males and Females have different reproductive parts or organs.
· These parts produce gametes that fuse to form a zygote.
· Zygote develops into a new individual.

Male Reproductive Organs: The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular: testis), two
sperm ducts and a penis.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Fig 9.1: Male reproductive organs in humans Fig 9.2: Human sperm

The testes produce the male gametes called sperms. Millions of sperms are produced by the testes. Each has
a head, a middle piece, and a tail. Each sperm is a single cell with all the usual cell components.
Female Reproductive Organs: The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian
tubes) and the uterus.

30
 Fig 9.3: Female reproductive organs in humans Fig 9.4: Human Ovum

The ovary produces female gametes called ova (eggs). In human beings, a single matured egg is released
into the oviduct by one of the ovaries every month. Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes
place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a single cell.

Fertilization: The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum. When
sperms meet an egg, one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and the sperm is called
fertilisation.
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Fig 9.5: Fertilization Fig 9.6: Zygote

31
During fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This results in the
formation of a fertilised egg or zygote. Based on the place of fusion, Fertilization is of two types:
· Fertilisation that takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilisation. This is observed in
human beings and other animals such as hens, cows, and dogs.
· Fertilisation that takes place outside the female body is called external fertilisation. This is very
common in aquatic animals such as frogs, fish, starfish, etc.

Test-tube Babies
· In some women, oviducts are blocked, and sperms cannot reach the egg for fertilisation.
· In such cases, freshly released egg and sperms are collected and kept together for a few hours for
IVF or in vitro fertilisation (fertilisation outside the body).
· Once fertilisation occurs, the zygote is allowed to develop for about a week and then it is placed in
the mother's uterus.
· Complete development takes place in the uterus and the baby is born like any other baby.
· Babies born through this technique are called test-tube babies.

Development of Embryo:
Fertilisation results in the formation of zygote which begins to develop into an embryo.
In Humans:
· The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells.
· The cells then begin to form groups that develop into different tissues and organs of the body. This
developing structure is termed an embryo.
· The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for further development.
· The embryo continues to develop in the uterus. It gradually develops body parts such as hands, legs,
head, eyes, ears etc.
· The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus.
· When the development of the foetus is complete, the mother gives birth to the baby.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Fig. 9.7: (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote;
(b) Ball of cells (enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
Fig. 9.8: Foetus in the uterus

32
 In Hens:
Internal fertilisation takes place in hens also, but they lay eggs. The embryo inside the eggshell takes about 3
weeks to develop into a chick. During this period, development of the chick takes place inside the eggshell.
After the chick is completely developed it bursts open the eggshell.

In Animals (external fertilisation):

Development of the embryo takes place outside the female body. The embryos continue to grow within their
egg coverings. After the embryos develop, the eggs hatch. Animals which lay eggs are called oviparous
animals such as hen, frog. While animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals such
as human beings.

Young Ones to Adults:

The new individuals which are born or hatched from the eggs continue to grow till they become adults. In
human beings, body parts like those present in the adults are present from the time of birth. But in some
animals, the young ones may look very different from the adults and have following lifecycle:
Silkworm: egg → larva or caterpillar → pupa → adult, Frog: egg → tadpole (larva) → adult
The features that are present in the adult are not found in these young ones (early stages of lifecycle). This
transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is called metamorphosis.

Asexual Reproduction:
The type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called asexual reproduction. There are
several types of asexual reproduction including Budding, Binary fission, etc.
Budding: In hydra, new individuals develop from buds. This method of asexual reproduction is called budding.
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Fig. 9.9: Budding in Hydra Fig. 9.10: Binary fission in Amoeba

33
Binary Fission: This type of asexual reproduction in which an animal reproduces by dividing into two
individuals is called binary fission.
· It begins the process of reproduction by the division of its nucleus into two nuclei.
· This is followed by division of its body into two, each part receiving a nucleus.
· Finally, two amoebae are produced from one parent amoeba.
Cloning: Modern genetic technology can also be used to create clones. Cloning is the production of an exact
copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the
first mammal to be cloned.

Interesting points

· The size of eggs in animals varies. The egg may be very small as in humans, much larger as in hens.
Ostrich egg is the largest.
· Fish and Frogs lay eggs in hundreds whereas a hen lays only one egg at a time.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

34
 REACHING THE AGE OF
10 ADOLESCENCE
Humans can reproduce only after a certain age. Various changes take place in the human body until a person
becomes capable of reproduction.

Adolescence and Puberty:

The period of life when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called adolescence.
The human body undergoes several changes during adolescence. These changes mark the onset of puberty.
Puberty ends when an adolescent reaches reproductive maturity.
· Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts up to 18 or 19 years of age.
· This age group covers the 'teens' so adolescents are also called teenagers.
· In girls, adolescence may begin a year or two earlier than in boys.

Changes at Puberty:
The onset of puberty brings about various changes in body such as increase in height, growth of
reproductive organs and hairs, change in body shape and voice, etc.

Increase in Height: The most conspicuous change during puberty is the sudden increase in height. Long
bones (arms and legs) elongate and make a person tall.
· Initially, girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of age, both reach their maximum height.
· The rate of growth in height varies in different individuals.
· All parts of the body do not grow at the same rate.
· Height of an individual is more or less like that of some family member.
Change in Body Shape: In boys, shoulders generally broaden while in girls, the region below the waist
becomes wider. In boys, the muscles of the body grow more prominently than in the girls.
Voice Change: Boys develop larger voice boxes or the larynx. The growing voice box in boys is the
protruding part of the throat called Adam's apple.
In girls, the larynx is hardly visible from the outside because of its small size. Generally, girls have a high-
pitched voice, whereas boys have a deep voice.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

Increased Activity of Sweat and Sebaceous Glands: During puberty, the secretion of sweat glands and
sebaceous glands (oil glands) increases. Many young people get acne and pimples on the face at this time.
Development of Sex Organs: At puberty, male sex organs like the testes and penis develop completely. The
testes also begin to produce sperms. In girls, the ovaries enlarge, and eggs begin to mature. Also, ovaries
start releasing mature eggs.
Reaching Mental, Intellectual and Emotional Maturity: Adolescence is also a period of change in a person's
way of thinking. Adolescents become more independent and self-conscious than before. Intellectual
development takes place, and they tend to spend considerable time thinking. Sometimes, however, an
adolescent may feel insecure while trying to adjust to the changes in the body and mind.
Secondary Sexual Characters:
Testes and Ovaries are the reproductive organs. They produce the gametes, that is, sperms and ova. In girls,
breasts begin to develop at puberty and boys begin to grow facial hair, that is, moustaches and beard. As

35
these features help to distinguish the male from the female, they are called secondary sexual characters.
Boys also develop hair on their chest. In both, boys and girls, hair grows under the arms and in the region
above the thighs or the pubic region.

Role of Hormones in initiating Reproductive Function:

The onset of puberty and maturity of reproductive parts are controlled by hormones. Hormones are
chemical substances and are secretions from endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
· The male hormone or testosterone begins to be released by the testes at the onset of puberty. This
causes changes in boys.
· Once puberty is reached in girls, ovaries begin to produce the female hormone or estrogen which
makes the breasts develop. Milk secreting glands or mammary glands develop inside the breasts.
The production of these hormones is under the control of another hormone secreted from an endocrine
gland called pituitary gland.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

Fig. 10.1: The onset of puberty is controlled by Hormones

Reproductive Phase of Life in Humans:

Adolescents become capable of reproduction when their testes and ovaries begin to produce gametes. The

36
 capacity for maturation and production of gametes lasts much longer in males than in females.
· In females, the reproductive phase of life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of age) and generally
lasts till the age of approximately 45 to 50 years.
· The ova begin to mature with the onset of puberty. One ovum matures and is released by one of the
ovaries once in about 28 to 30 days.
· During this period, the wall of the uterus becomes thick to receive the egg, in case it is fertilised and
begins to develop. This results in pregnancy.
· If fertilisation does not occur, the released egg, and the thickened lining of the uterus along with its
blood vessels are shed off. This causes bleeding in women which is called menstruation.
· Menstruation occurs once in about 28 to 30 days.
· The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is termed menarche.
· At 45 to 50 years of age, the menstrual cycle stops. Stoppage of menstruation is termed as
menopause.
· Thus, reproductive life of a woman lasts from menarche to menopause.

Adolescent Pregnancy
· It is the pregnancy in a female who is under the age of 20. In our country, the legal age for
marriage is 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys. This is because:
· Teenage mothers are not prepared mentally or physically for motherhood.
· Early marriage and motherhood cause health problems in the mother and the child.
· It also curtails employment opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental agony.

Sex of the New-born:

The instruction for determining the sex of the baby is inside the fertilised egg or zygote. This instruction is
present in the thread-like structures, called chromosomes.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

· Chromosomes are present inside the nucleus of every cell.

· All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells.
· Two chromosomes out of these are the sex chromosomes, named X and Y.
· A female has two X chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y chromosome.
· The gametes (egg and sperm) have only one set of chromosomes.
· The unfertilised egg always has one X chromosome. But sperms are of two kinds. One kind has an X
chromosome, and the other kind has a Y chromosome.
· When a sperm containing X chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote would have two X
chromosomes and develop into a female child.
· If the sperm contributes a Y chromosome to the egg (ovum) at fertilisation, the zygote will develop into
a male child.

37
 · Thus, Sex chromosomes of the father determine the sex of an unborn baby.

Fig. 10.2: Sex determination in humans Fig. 10.3: Position of endocrine glands in the human body

Hormones other than Sex Hormones:

Pituitary gland is an endocrine gland and is attached to the brain. The hormones secreted by the pituitary
stimulate testes and ovaries to produce their hormones. Apart from the pituitary, the testes and the ovaries,
there are other endocrine glands in the body such as thyroid, pancreas and adrenals.

REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

· Thyroid gland produces thyroxine hormone and its imbalance results into Goitre disease.
· Pancreas gland produces insulin hormone and its deficiency results into Diabetes disease.
· Adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the blood. Adrenals also
produce the hormone adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust to stress when one is very angry,
embarrassed, or worried.

Role of Hormones in completing the Life History of Insects and Frogs:

Insects and Frogs pass through various stages to become an adult moth. This change from larva to adult is
called metamorphosis.
· Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones.
· In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid. Thyroxine production requires
the presence of iodine in water.

38
 Reproductive Health:
The physical and mental well-being of an individual is regarded as an individual's health. To keep the body
healthy, every human being, at any age, needs to have a balanced diet. The person must also observe
personal hygiene and undertake adequate physical exercise.

Interesting points

· AIDS is caused by a dangerous virus, HIV. This virus can be transmitted:

Ø from an infected person by sharing the used syringes.
Ø to an infant from the infected mother through her milk.
Ø through sexual contact with a person infected.
· A few glands such as sweat glands, oil glands and salivary glands release their secretions through
ducts. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream and are also termed as
ductless glands.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE

39
 FORCE AND PRESSURE
11
A push or a pull on an object is called a force. Motion imparted to objects is due to the action of a force. At
least two objects must interact for a force to come into play.
· Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another.
· If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference
between the two forces.
· Net force on an object is zero if the two forces acting on it in opposite directions are equal.
· Force has magnitude as well as direction. Magnitude expresses the strength of a force.
· If the direction or the magnitude of the applied force changes, its effect also changes.

Force and the State of Motion:

· The state of motion of an object is described by its speed and the direction of motion.
· An object may be at rest or in motion; both are its states of motion. The state of rest is considered as the
state of zero speed.
· A change in either the speed of an object, or its direction of motion, or both, is described as a change in
its state of motion.
· A force may bring a change in the state of motion of an object.
Ø If the force applied on the object is in the direction of its motion, the speed of the object increases.
Ø If the force is applied in the direction opposite to the direction of motion, then it results in a decrease
in the speed of the object.

Force and the Shape of an Object:

The application of force on an object may change its shape. For example, shape of a ball of dough when it is
rolled to make a chapati.
It can be said that without the action of a force an object cannot move, change speed or direction or its shape
by itself.

Contact Forces:
Forces which can be applied only when it is in contact with an object are called contact forces such as
Muscular force, Friction, etc.
· Muscular Force: The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular force.
Ø Muscular Force enables us to perform all activities involving movement or bending of our body.
Ø Animals like bullocks, etc. also make use of muscular force to carry out physical activities.
FORCE AND PRESSURE

· Friction: It is the force exerted by any surface when an object moves across it.
Ø For example, friction between water and the boat brings it to a stop once rowing is stopped.
Ø The force of friction always acts on all the moving objects and its direction is always opposite to the
direction of motion.

Non-contact Forces:
Forces which can be applied without any contact with an object are called non-contact forces such as

40
 Magnetic force, Gravitational force, etc.
· Magnetic Force: A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with it.
Ø Poles of two magnets repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
Ø This attraction or repulsion between objects is another form of pull or push.
· Electrostatic Force: The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is
known as electrostatic force. This force comes into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
· Gravitational Force: Objects or things fall towards the Earth because it pulls them. This force is called
the force of gravity, or just gravity.
Ø It is an attractive force and acts on all objects. Earth's gravity acts on all of us all the time.
Ø Gravity is not a property of the Earth alone. In fact, every object in the universe, whether small or
large, exerts a force of gravity on every other object.

Pressure:
The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure. It can be expressed as:
Pressure = Force / Area on which it acts
The smaller the area, larger the pressure on a surface for the same force.
· Liquids exert pressure on the walls of the container. For example, fountains of water coming out of the
leaking joints is due to the pressure exerted by water on the walls of the pipes.
· Similarly, gases exert pressure on the walls of their container like inflated balloon.

Atmospheric Pressure:
It is the force exerted on a surface by the air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth. Pressure inside our
bodies is also equal to the atmospheric pressure and it balances the pressure from outside. This prevents
us from crushing under this force of gravity.

Interesting points

· Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of the 17th century, invented a pump to extract air out of a
vessel and demonstrated the force of the air pressure.
FORCE AND PRESSURE

41
 FRICTION
12
'Force of Friction' is the force exerted by any surface when an object moves across it. Friction opposes the
relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the surfaces.

Factors affecting Friction:

· Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have many minute irregularities on them. On rough surfaces, there are a larger
number of irregularities. So, the force of friction is greater if a rough surface is involved.
· Friction is caused by the interlocking of irregularities in the two surfaces. It is obvious that the force of
friction will increase if the two surfaces are pressed harder.

Types of Friction:
Following are the main types of friction:
Static Friction: Static friction comes into play when we try to move an object at rest.
Sliding Friction: Sliding friction comes into play when an object is sliding over another.
Rolling Friction: When one body rolls over another body, rolling friction comes into play.
Fluid Friction: Fluids (gases and liquids) exert force of friction on objects in motion through them. The
frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.
· Static, sliding, and rolling friction occur between solid surfaces.
· Fluid friction occurs in fluids, which are liquids or gases.
· Sliding friction is slightly smaller than the static friction.
· Rolling friction is smaller than sliding friction.

Friction: A Necessary Evil

Friction is important for many activities such as stopping vehicle. On the other hand, friction is an evil too:
· It wears out the materials whether they are screws, ball bearings or soles of shoes.
· Friction produces heat. In machine operation, heat generated causes wastage of energy.

Increasing and Reducing Friction:

Friction is desirable in many cases and thus increased by making a surface rough. For example, the sole of the
shoes and the tyres of the vehicle are treaded to increase friction.
In some situations, friction is undesirable and can be minimized by following ways:
· Use of Lubricants: The substances which reduce friction are called lubricants such as oil, grease. In
some machines, it may not be advisable to use oil as lubricant. An air cushion between the moving
parts is used to reduce friction.
· Wheels Reduce Friction: Since the rolling friction is smaller than the sliding friction, sliding is replaced
FRICTION

in most machines by rolling by the use of ball bearings. Common examples are the use of ball bearings
between hubs and the axles of ceiling fans and bicycles.

42
 Combatting Fluid Friction: The Fluid friction depends on the speed of object with respect to the fluid, shape
of the object and the nature of the fluid. When objects move through fluids, they must overcome friction
acting on them to avoid loss of energy and increase efficiency.
· Objects are given special shapes to minimise friction.
· Inspirations from natures are incorporated in designs such as shape of an aeroplane is like birds.

Interesting points

· Friction can never be entirely eliminated. No surface is perfectly smooth. Some irregularities are
always there.
FRICTION

43
 SOUND
13
Sound plays an important role in our lives. It helps us to communicate with one another.
Sound and Vibration:
The to-and-fro or back-and-forth motion of an object is called vibration. Sound is produced by vibrating
objects such as musical instruments like Guitar.

Propagation of Sound:
· Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid) and is carried in all directions.
· The sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Sound Produced by Humans:

In humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx.
· It is at the upper end of the windpipe.
· Two vocal cords are stretched across larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between them for
the passage of air.
· When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate and produce sound.
· Muscles attached to vocal cords can make the cords tight or loose to produce different voices.

Fig.13.1: Voice box in humans Fig. 13.2: Human ear

Hearing as a process:
The ear is the organ of hearing. The shape of the outer part of the ear is like a funnel. When sound enters it, it
travels down a canal at the end of which there is a thin stretched membrane. It is called the eardrum.
· The eardrum is like a stretched rubber sheet. It senses the vibrations of sound and start vibrating.
· The eardrum sends vibrations to the inner ear. Then the signal goes to the brain and the process of
hearing completes.
SOUND

Amplitude, Time Period and Frequency of a Vibration:

The to-and-fro motion of an object is known as vibration. This motion is also called oscillatory motion.

44
 Amplitude: It is the maximum distance moved by a point on a vibrating body from its equilibrium position.
· The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude.
· Larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder is the sound.
· Smaller the amplitude of vibration, the feeble is the sound.

Loudness
Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the vibration producing the
sound. For example, if the amplitude becomes twice, the loudness increases by a factor of 4.
· The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
· The following table gives some idea of the loudness of sound coming from various sources:

Normal breathing 10 dB

Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB

Normal conversation 60 dB

Busy traffic 70 dB

Average factory 80 dB

Above 80 dB the noise becomes physically painful.

Time Period: It is the time taken to complete one vibration or one oscillation.

Frequency: The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of oscillation. Frequency is
expressed in Hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of 1 Hz is one oscillation per second.
· The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound.
· Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
· Lower the frequency of vibration, the lower is the pitch.
· A bird makes a high-pitched sound whereas a lion makes a low-pitched roar. However, the roar of a
lion is very loud while the sound of the bird is quite feeble.
· The frequency of the voice of a child is higher than that of an adult. Usually, the voice of a woman has a
higher frequency than that of a man.

Audible and Inaudible Sounds:

FRICTION

For human ear, the range of audible frequencies is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Sounds outside this range
SOUND

are inaudible. Some animals like Dog can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.

45
Noise and Music:
Some sounds are pleasant to the ear, whereas some are not. Unpleasant sounds are called Noise. On the
other hand, Musical sound is one which is pleasing to the ear such as the string of a sitar gives out a musical
sound.

Noise Pollution:
The presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the environment is called noise pollution.
· Major causes of noise pollution are sounds of vehicles, explosions including bursting of crackers,
machines, loudspeakers etc.
· Some household sources of noise pollution are high volumes television, some kitchen appliances,
desert coolers, air conditioners, etc.
Harmful effects of Noise Pollution: Noise pollution may pose health problems for human beings such as
Lack of sleep, hypertension (high blood pressure), anxiety, etc. Exposure to loud sound continuously may
lead to temporary or even permanent impairment of hearing.

Hearing Impairment:
· It is the inability of an individual to hear sounds adequately.
· Total hearing impairment is rare and is usually from birth itself.
· Partial disability is generally the result of a disease, injury, or age.
· By learning sign-language, hearing impaired person can communicate effectively.
· Technological devices for the hearing-impaired has improved their quality of life.

Measures to Limit Noise Pollution: Attempts should be made to minimise noise pollution at the source point
such as installing silencing devices in aircraft engines, transport vehicles, industrial machines, and home
appliances. Reducing noise pollution in a residential area is utmost needful and can be done by:
· Setting up the noise producing industries away from such areas.
· Minimizing the use of automobile horns.
· Running TV and music systems at low volumes.
· Plantation of trees along the roads and around buildings.

Interesting points

· Musical instruments such as manjira (cymbals), the ghatam, and the noot (mudpots) and the kartal
are commonly used in our country. These instruments are simply beaten or struck.
· When the string of sitar is plucked, the produced sound is not just of the string, but it is the sound of
the vibration of the whole instrument.
· The vocal cords in men are about 20 mm long. In women, these are about 15mm long. Children
have very short vocal cords. This makes the voices of men, women, and children different.
· The ultrasound equipment, used in investigating and tracking many medical problems, works at
SOUND

frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.

46
 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
14 CURRENT
Key Terms and Facts:
· Materials which allow electric current to pass through them are good conductors of electricity such as
copper and aluminium.
· Materials which do not allow electric current to pass through them easily are poor conductors of
electricity such as rubber, plastic, and wood.
· Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor conductors.
· Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases, and salts.
· Distilled water is free of salts and is a poor conductor.
· When salt is dissolved in distilled water, the resulting salt solution is a conductor of electricity.
· An electrode is a solid electric conductor that carries electric current into non-metallic solids, or liquids,
or gases.
· The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution causes chemical reactions. This is
called the chemical effects of currents such as:
Ø Formation of gas bubbles on the electrodes.
Ø Deposition of metal on electrodes.
Ø Change of colour of solutions.
· The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material, by means of electricity, is
called electroplating. It is the most common applications of chemical effects of electric current.
· Electroplating is widely used in industry for coating metals with a thin layer of a different metal:
Ø Chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, bath taps, etc.
Ø Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on less expensive metals.
Ø Tin cans are made by electroplating tin onto iron.
Ø A coating of zinc is deposited on iron to protect it from corrosion and formation of rust.
· In the electroplating factories, the disposal of the used conducting solution is a major concern. It is a
polluting waste and there are specific disposal guidelines to protect the environment.
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Interesting points

· Small amounts of mineral salts present naturally in water are beneficial for human health.
· In 1800, a British chemist, William Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown that if electrodes were
immersed in water, and a current was passed, bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen were produced.
Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery and
hydrogen bubbles formed on the other electrode.
FRICTION

47
 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
15
A Natural Phenomenon is anything that occurs on its own in nature without any kind of human intervention
such as Weather, erosion, etc. Lightning and earthquakes are also natural phenomenon and are destructive
in nature.

Lightning:
Lightning is a kind of electric spark, but on a huge scale. It is caused by the accumulation of electric charges
in the clouds.
Electric Charge:
It is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric field. An
electroscope may be used to detect whether a body is charged or not.

Types of Charges and their Interaction:

There are two kinds of charges - positive charge and negative charge. Like charges repel and unlike
charges attract each other. Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other objects. The electrical
charges produced by rubbing are called static charges.

Transfer of Charge: Electrical charge can be transferred from a charged object to another through a metal
conductor.
· When charges move, they constitute an electric current.
· The process of transfer of charge from a charged object to the Earth is called earthing.
· Earthing is provided in buildings to protect residents from electrical shocks due to any leakage of
electrical current.

Lightning as a process:
· During the development of a thunderstorm, the air currents move upward while the water droplets
move downward.
· These vigorous movements cause separation of charges.
· The positive charges collect near the upper edges of the clouds and the negative charges accumulate
near the lower edges. SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
· There is accumulation of positive charges near the ground also.
· When the magnitude of the accumulated charges becomes very large, the air which is normally a poor
conductor of electricity, is no longer able to resist their flow.
· Negative and positive charges meet, producing streaks of bright light and sound.
· These streaks get visible in the form of lightning. The process is called an electric discharge.
· The process of electric discharge between clouds and the Earth or between different clouds causes
lightning.

48
 Fig. 15.1: Accumulation of charges leading to lightning

Lightning Safety: Lightning strike could destroy life and property. It is, therefore, necessary to take
measures for protection:
· During lightning and thunderstorm, no open place is safe including open vehicles, tall trees, etc.
· Carrying an umbrella is not at all a good idea during thunderstorms.
· If no shelter is available in an open field, shelter under shorter tress can be taken.
· It is advisable to stay away from poles or other metal objects and not to lie on the ground.
· Contact with electrical equipment must be avoided. It is safer to use mobile and cordless phones.
· Bathing should be avoided during thunderstorms to avoid contact with running water.
· Electrical appliances like computers, TVs, etc., should be unplugged.
· Electrical lights can remain on. They do not cause any harm.

Lightning Conductors: It is a device used to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. A metallic rod,
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

taller than the building, is installed in the walls of the building. One end of the rod is kept out in the air and the
other is buried deep in the ground. The rod provides easy route for the transfer of electric charge to the
ground.

Earthquakes:
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the Earth which lasts for a very short time. It is caused by
FRICTION

a disturbance deep inside the Earth's crust. Earthquakes can cause floods, landslides, and tsunamis. A major
tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26 December 2004.

49
Causes of an Earthquake: The tremors are caused by the disturbance deep down inside the uppermost layer
of the Earth called the crust. Crust is not in one piece. Each fragment of it is called a plate. These plates are in
continual motion.

Fig. 15.2: Structure of the Earth Fig. 15.3: Earth plates

· When these plates brush past one another, or a plate goes under another due to collision, they cause
disturbance in the Earth's crust.
· It is this disturbance that shows up as an earthquake on the surface of the Earth.
· Tremors on the Earth can also be caused when a volcano erupts, or a meteor hits the Earth, or an
underground nuclear explosion is carried out.
· However, most earthquakes are caused by the movement of Earth's plates.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

Fig. 15.4: Movements of Earth's plates Fig. 15.5: Movements of Indian earth's plate

50
 The boundaries of the plates are the weak zones where earthquakes are more likely to occur and are also
known as seismic or fault zones. In India, the most threatened areas are Kashmir, Western and Central
Himalayas, the whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch, Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane. Some areas of
South India also fall in the danger zone.

Measuring Earthquake: The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a scale called
the Richter scale. Destructive earthquakes have magnitudes higher than 7 on the Richter scale. Both Bhuj
(2001) and Kashmir (2005) earthquakes had magnitudes greater than 7.5.
· Richter scale is not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have one and half
times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
· In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive energy.
· Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more destructive energy than an
earthquake of magnitude 4.
The tremors produce waves on the surface of the Earth. These are called seismic waves. The waves are
recorded by an instrument called the seismograph.
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

Fig. 15.6: A seismograph Fig. 15.7: Map of the Earthquake

Protection against Earthquakes: Earthquakes cannot be predicted. Also, Major earthquakes are much less
frequent, but they can cause immense damage to buildings, bridges, dams, and people. It is, therefore,
important to take necessary precautions for protection.
FRICTION

· The buildings in these zones should be designed as 'Quake Safe' to withstand major tremors.
· In highly seismic areas, the use of mud or timber is better than using heavy construction material.

51
 · Buildings may catch fire due to an earthquake and must be equipped with firefighting equipment.
The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, has developed knowhow to make quake-resistant
houses.
In the event of an earthquake strike, an individual may take the following safety steps:
At home:
· Take shelter under a table and stay there till the shaking stops.
· Stay away from tall and heavy objects that may fall on you.
· If present in bed, do not get up and protect the head with a pillow.
In outdoors:
· Find a clear spot, away from buildings, trees, and overhead power lines. Drop to the ground.
· If in a car or a bus, do not come out. Ask the driver to drive slowly to a clear spot.

Interesting points

· As early as 600 B.C., ancient Greeks knew that when amber (a kind of resin) is rubbed with fur, it
starts attracting light objects such as hair.
· In 1752, Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist, showed that lightning and the spark from the
clothes are essentially the same phenomena.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA

52
 LIGHT
16
Light is reflected from all surfaces. The reflected light from an object enters our eyes and enables the vision.
Reflection:
A polished or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A mirror changes the direction of light that falls on it. This
change of direction by a mirror is called reflection of light.
· After striking the mirror, the ray of light is reflected in another direction.
· The light ray, which strikes any surface, is called the incident ray.
· The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as the reflected ray.
· A line making an angle of 90° to the line representing the mirror at the point where the incident ray
strikes the mirror is known as the normal to the reflecting surface at that point.
· The angle between the normal and incident ray is called the angle of incidence (∠I).
· The angle between the normal and the reflected ray is known as the angle of reflection (∠r).

Fig. 16.1: Angle of Incidence and Angle of Reflection

Laws of Reflection:
Following are two laws of reflection:
· The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
· Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting surface, lie
in the same plane.

Note: A ray of light is an idealisation. In reality, there is a narrow beam of light which is made up of
several rays. For simplicity, term ray is used for a narrow beam of light.
FRICTION
LIGHT

In an image formed by a mirror, the left of the object appears on the right and the right appears on the left.
This is known as lateral inversion.

53
 Type of Reflection: Following are two main types of reflection:
· Regular reflection: It takes place when light is incident on smooth, polished, and regular surfaces.
Images are formed by regular reflection.
· Diffused or irregular reflection: It takes place from rough surfaces. Incident parallel rays reflected from
a rough or irregular surface are not parallel.

Human Eye:
Eye is an important sense organ. Objects are seen when light coming from them enters our eyes.

Structure of an Eye: An eye consists of parts such as a cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve.
· An eye has a roughly spherical shape.
· The outer coat of the eye is white. It is tough and protects the interior of the eye. Its transparent front
part is called cornea.
· Behind the cornea, a dark muscular structure is present called iris.
· In the iris, there is a small opening called the pupil. The size of the pupil is controlled by the iris. Iris gives
our eyes their distinctive colour. It also controls the amount of light entering the eye.

Fig. 16.2: Human eye

· Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens which is thicker in the centre.
· The lens focuses light on the back of the eye on a layer called retina. The retina contains several nerve
cells.
· Sensations felt by the nerve cells are then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve. There are
LIGHT

two kinds of cells:

Ø Cones: These are sensitive to bright light. Cones sense colour.

54
 Ø Rods: These are sensitive to dim light.
· At the junction of the optic nerve and the retina, there are no sensory cells, so no vision is possible at
that spot. This is called the blind spot.
· The impression of an image persists there for about 1/16th of a second. Any object moving at a rate
faster than 16 per second is perceived by eye as moving.
· Eyes are provided with eyelids to prevent any object from entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out light
when not required.

Eyes of the Animals

· Animals have eyes shaped in different ways:
· Eyes of a crab are quite small, but they enable the crab to look all around.
· Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up of thousands of little eyes. They can see not only in
the front and the sides but the back as well.
· A night bird (owl) can see very well in the night but not during the day.
Ø The owl has a large cornea and a large pupil to allow more light in its eye.
Ø Also, it has on its retina many rods and only a few cones.
Daylight birds (kite, eagle) can see well during the day but not in the night. They have more cones and fewer
rods.

Normal Human eye and its defects: A normal eye can see nearby and distant objects clearly. The most
comfortable distance at which one can read with a normal eye is about 25 cm. However, there could be
error in vision resulting into a defective eye:
· Some persons cannot see distant or near or both objects. With suitable corrective lenses, such defects
of the eye can be corrected.
· Sometimes, particularly in old age, eyesight becomes foggy due to the eye lens becoming cloudy. It is
known as Cataract. A new artificial lens is inserted to correct such defect.
· Lack of Vitamin A is responsible for many eye defects such as night blindness. Vitamin A rich sources
such as carrots, green vegetables, cod liver oil, etc. must be a part of diet.
· Some persons can be visually impaired (limited vision) or blind (no vision) since birth or by injury.

Remedy for Visual impairment:

Visually impaired persons develop their other senses more sharply to improve their interaction with their
environment. Also, Non-optical and optical aids can enable them to develop their capabilities further.
· Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch), auditory aids (using the
sense of hearing) and electronic aids.
FRICTION

· Visual aids: These can magnify words, provide suitable light intensity.
LIGHT

· Tactual aids: These include Braille writer slate and stylus.

· Auditory aids: These include cassettes, tape recorders, talking books, etc.

55
 · Electronic aids: These include talking calculators and computers, audio CDs, etc.
· Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers, and telescopic aids.

Braille System:
Visually impaired persons can read and write using the Braille system. Louis Braille developed this system
in 1821. The system in present format was adopted in 1932.
· There is Braille code for common languages, mathematics, and scientific notation. Many Indian
languages can be read using the Braille system.
· Braille system has 63 dot patterns or characters.
· Each character represents a letter, a combination of letters, a common word, or a grammatical sign.
· Dots are arranged in cells of two vertical rows of three dots each.
· Patterns of dots to represent some English letters and some common word as shown below:

Fig. 16.3: Example of dot patterns used in Braille System

· These patterns are embossed on Braille sheets and help visually challenged persons to recognise
words by touching. Dots are raised slightly for convenience.
Visually impaired people learn the Braille system by beginning with letters, then special characters and letter
combinations. Methods depend upon recognition by touching. Each character must be memorised.

Interesting points
· Reflected light can be reflected again by using two plane mirrors. This principle is used to make
Periscopes. These are used in submarines, tanks, army bunkers to see things outside.
· A plane mirror forms only a single image of an object.
· Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple images. This idea is used in a Kaleidoscope to make
numerous beautiful patterns.
· Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven colours. Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
known as dispersion. Rainbow is a natural phenomenon showing dispersion.
· The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects such as Sun. Their light falls
on our eyes and makes them visible.
· The objects which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects such as Moon. It
LIGHT

receives light from the Sun and reflects it towards our eyes making it visible.

56
 STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
17
The stars, the planets, the moon, and many other objects in the sky are called celestial objects. Stars are
those celestial bodies that emit light of their own. The Sun is also a star. The Sun and the celestial bodies
which revolve around it form the solar system.
Moon:
The moon is the brightest object in the night sky. It is the Earth's sole natural satellite and nearest celestial
body. The moon has no water and atmosphere.

Moon's Surface:
· The moon's surface is dusty and barren.
· There are many craters of different sizes.
· It has many steep and high mountains. Some of these are as high as the highest mountains on the
Earth.

Phases of the Moon:

There is a change in the shape of the moon every day.
· The day on which the whole disc of the moon is visible is known as the full moon day.
· Thereafter, every night the size of the bright part of the moon appears to become thinner and thinner.
On the fifteenth day the moon is not visible. This day is known as the 'new moon day'.
· The next day, only a small portion of the moon appears in the sky. This is known as the crescent moon.
Then again, the moon grows larger every day. On the fifteenth day once again, we get a full view of the
moon.
· The various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seen during a month are called phases of the
moon.
Occurrence of Phases:
· The moon does not produce its own light, whereas the Sun and other stars do.
· Moon is visible because the sunlight falling on it gets reflected towards us (Fig. 17.1).
· Only that part of the Moon is visible from which the light of the Sun is reflected towards us.
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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Fig. 17.1: Moon is visible due to reflected sunlight Fig. 17.2: Positions of the moon in its
orbit and its corresponding phases

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 · The size of the illuminated part of the moon visible from the Earth increases each day after the new
moon day.
· After the full moon day, the sunlit part of the moon visible from the Earth decreases in size every day.
· The moon revolves around the Earth. The Earth along with the moon, revolves around the Sun.
· The moon completes one rotation on its axis as it completes one revolution around the Earth.
· The time between one full moon to the next full moon is slightly longer than 29 days. In many
calendars this period is called a month.

Phases of the Moon and our Festivals

Phases of the moon play an important role in our social life. Almost all festivals in India are celebrated
according to the phases of the moon. For example,
· Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day.
· Budh Poornima and Guru Nanak's birthday are celebrated on full moon day.
· Maha Shivratri is celebrated on thirteenth night of waning moon.
· Eidul- Fitr is observed on the day following the sighting of crescent moon.

Stars:
· Stars are celestial bodies that emit light of their own. The Sun is also a star.
· Other stars are millions of times farther away than the Sun, so they appear to us like points.
· Stars are also present during the daytime but remain invisible because of the bright sunlight.
· Stars appear to move from East to West.
· The pole star appears to be stationary from the Earth because it is situated close to the direction of the
axis of rotation of the Earth.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig 17.3: The Pole star lies close to the axis of rotation of the Earth

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 Light Year: It is the distance travelled by light in one year. It is convenient to express large distances
such as of stars in light years.
The speed of light is about 300,000 km per second. Thus, the distance of the Sun from the Earth
may be said to be about 8 light minutes (150,000,000 kilometres).
The next nearest star is Proxima Centauri. The distance of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light
years (40,000,000,000,000 km).

Constellations:
These are groups of stars that appear to form recognisable shapes. The shape of the constellation
remains the same. They appear to move in the sky from East to West.
· A constellation has many stars but only the bright stars are visible with our naked eye.
· All the stars which make up a constellation are not at the same distance. They are just in the same line
of sight in the sky.

Fig. 17.4: Some constellations in the night sky

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Some Major Constellations

Ursa Major (Saptarshi):

· It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear.
· It can be seen in summertime in the early part of the night.
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· There are seven prominent stars in this constellation.

· It appears like a big ladle or a question mark. There are three stars in the handle of the ladle and four in
its bowl.

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 Fig. 17.5: Ursa Major (Saptarshi)

· Saptarshi has been associated with seven well known ancient Indian sages. According to ancient
mythology, the seven sages who form the Saptarshi, preserve the eternal knowledge of Vedas and
explain it to people in every new age.
· Pole Star can be located with the help of Ursa Major: Imagine a straight line passing through the two
stars at the end of Ursa Major. Extend this imaginary line towards the north direction. This line will lead
to a star which is not too bright. This is the Pole star.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig. 17.6: Locating the Pole star Fig. 17.7: Ursa Major around the Pole star

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 · With respect to Earth, Pole star does not move at all but other stars and constellations drift from east to
west. Since, Ursa Major also move from east to west, it appear to revolve around the Pole star. In fact,
all the stars appear to revolve around the Pole star.
· Pole star is not visible from the southern hemisphere. Some of the northern constellations like Ursa
Major may also not be visible from some points in the southern hemisphere.

Orion:
· It is also called the Hunter.
· It can be seen during winter in the late evenings.
· The three middle stars represent the belt of the hunter.
· The four bright stars appear to be arranged in the form of a quadrilateral.
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig. 17.8: Locating – Sirius

· The star Sirius is the brightest star in the sky and is located close to Orion. To locate Sirius, imagine a
straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion. Look along this line towards the east. This
line will lead you to a very bright star. It is Sirius.

Cassiopeia:
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· It is visible during winter in the early part of the night.

· It looks like a distorted letter W or M.

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The Solar System:
The Sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around it form the solar system. The solar system consists
of eight planets and a host of asteroids, comets, and meteors. The gravitational attraction between the
Sun and these objects keeps them revolving around it.
The objects which do not twinkle in the sky are planets. There are eight planets in the solar system. In
their order of distance from the Sun, these are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune.

Fig. 17.9: The Solar system (not to scale)

Note: Till 2006 there were nine planets in the solar system. Pluto was the farthest planet from the
Sun. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of a planet.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Pluto does not fit in this definition. So, it is no longer a planet of the solar system.

The Sun: It is the nearest star from us. It continuously emits huge amounts of heat and light. It is the main
source of heat and light for all the planets. Sun appears to rise in the East and set in the West as the Earth
rotates from West to East on its axis.

The Planets: Planets look like stars, but they do not have light of their own. They merely reflect the
sunlight that falls on them.
· Planets keep changing their positions with respect to the stars.
· A planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun. This path is called an orbit.

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 · The time taken by a planet to complete one revolution is called its period of revolution. The period of
revolution increases as the distance of the planet increases from the Sun.
· Besides revolving around the Sun, a planet also rotates on its own axis like a top. The time taken by a
planet to complete one rotation is called its period of rotation.
· Some planets are known to have moons/satellites revolving round them. Any celestial body revolving
around another celestial body is called its satellite. Usually, the term satellite is used for the bodies
revolving around planets. e.g., Moon is a satellite of the Earth.
· There are also man-made satellites revolving around the Earth. These are called artificial satellites.

Planet Groups:
Planets can be divided into two groups:
· Inner Planets: It comprise first four planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These are much nearer
the Sun than the other four planets. These have very few moons.
· Outer Planets: It comprises planets outside the orbit of Mars - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
These are much farther off than the inner planets. They have large number of moons. They have a ring
system around them.

Mercury (Budh):
· It is nearest to the Sun.
· It is the smallest planet of our solar system.
· Because Mercury is very close to the Sun, it is very difficult to observe it, as most of the time it is hidden
in the glare of the Sun. However, it can be observed just before sunrise or just after sunset, near the
horizon. So, it is visible only at places where trees or buildings do not obstruct the view of the horizon.
· Mercury has no satellite of its own.

Venus (Shukra):
· It is Earth's nearest planetary neighbour.
· It is the brightest planet in the night sky.
· Sometimes it appears in the eastern sky before sunrise. Sometimes it appears in the western sky just
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

after sunset. Therefore, it is also called a morning or an evening star, although it is not a star.
· It has no moon or satellite of its own.
· Its rotation on its axis is somewhat unusual. It rotates from East to West while the Earth rotates from
West to East.
· It shows phases just like the moon.

The Earth (Prithvi):

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· The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist. Some special
environmental conditions are responsible for the existence and continuation of life on the Earth. These
include just the right distance from the Sun, so that it has the right temperature range, the presence of

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 water and suitable atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.
· From space, the Earth appears blue-green due to the reflection of light from water and landmass on
its surface.
· The Earth has only one satellite i.e., Moon.
· The axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. The tilt is responsible for
the change of seasons on the Earth.
· The plane of the Equator is called equatorial plane. The plane in which the Earth revolves around the
Sun is called orbital plane of the Earth. These two planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.5°.
This means that the axis of the Earth is inclined to its orbital plane at an angle of 66.5°.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig. 17.10: Earth rotates on a tilted axis

Mars (Mangal):
· The next planet, the first outside the orbit of the Earth is Mars.
· It appears slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also called the Red planet.
· It has two small natural satellites.
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched India's first Mars orbiter mission - Mangalyaan, on
November 5, 2013. It was successfully placed into an orbit of Mars on September 24, 2014. With this
India became the first country in the world to do so in its first attempt.

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 Jupiter (Brihaspati):
· Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It is so large that about 1300 Earths can be placed
inside this giant planet. However, the mass of Jupiter is about 318 times that of our Earth.
· It rotates very rapidly on its axis.
· Jupiter has many satellites.
· It also has faint rings around it. It appears quite bright in the sky.

Saturn (Shani):
· Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears yellowish in colour.
· It has beautiful rings, but these rings are not visible with the naked eye.
· Saturn also has many satellites.
· Saturn is the least dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of water.

Uranus (Arun) and Neptune (Varun):

· These are the outermost planets of the solar system.
· They can be seen only with the help of large telescopes.
· Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from East to West.
· The rotational axis the of Uranus is highly tilted rotational axis. As a result, it appears to roll on its side
in its orbital motion.
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig. 17.11: Uranus in its orbital path

Other members of the solar system:

There are some other bodies which revolve around the Sun and are also members of the solar system.
Asteroids: There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This gap is occupied by many
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small objects that revolve around the Sun. These are called asteroids. Asteroids can only be seen
through large telescopes.

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 Fig. 17.12: The Asteroid belt Fig. 17.13: Different position of a Comet

Comets: Comets revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. However, their period of revolution
round the Sun is usually very long.
· A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
· The length of the tail grows as it approaches the Sun.
· The tail of a comet is always directed away from the Sun.
· Many comets are known to appear periodically. For example, Halley's comet appears after nearly
every 76 years.

Meteors and Meteorites: At night, when the sky is clear and the moon is not there, bright streaks of light in
the sky are visible. These are commonly known as shooting stars, although they are not stars. They are
called meteors.
A meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the Earth's atmosphere. At that time, it has a
very high speed. The friction due to the atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates quickly. That is
why the bright steak lasts for a very short time.

STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Fig. 17.14: Streak of a Meteor

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 Some meteors are large, so they reach the Earth before they evaporate completely. The body that reaches
the Earth is called a meteorite. Meteorites help scientists in investigating the nature of the material from
which the solar system was formed.

Meteor showers:
When the Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are seen. These are known as
meteor showers.

Artificial Satellites: Artificial satellites are man-made. They are launched from the Earth. They revolve
around the Earth much closer than Earth's natural satellite, the moon.
· Aryabhata was the first Indian satellite.
· Some other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1, EDUSAT, etc.
· Artificial satellites are used for forecasting weather, transmitting television and radio signals. They
are also used for telecommunication and remote sensing. Remote sensing means collecting
information from a distance.

Astronomy
· The study of celestial objects and associated phenomena is called astronomy.
· The practice of astronomy in ancient India is mentioned in Rig Veda which was composed about
4000 years ago.
· Aryabhata is the most well-known Indian astronomers. His work on astronomy can be found in
his writing 'Aryabhatiya'. Its major highlights are:
4The diameter of the Earth is close to its presently known value.
4Disregarding the popular view that Earth is 'achala' (immovable), he stated that Earth is sphere
and rotates on its own axis.
4His estimate about the sidereal period of Earth was 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds,
which is very close to the presently known value.
4 He also correctly stated that the moon and the planets shine due to reflected sunlight.
4He also gave a scientific explanation for solar and lunar eclipses. When the shadow of the Earth
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

falls on the moon, it causes lunar eclipse. When the shadow of the moon falls on the Earth, it
causes solar eclipse.
4He also found the distance between the Earth and the Moon, which is very close to the known
value today.

Interesting points
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· On July 21, 1969 the American astronaut Neil Armstrong, landed on the Moon for the first time. He
was followed by Edwin Aldrin.

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 POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER
18
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment while Pollutants are the substances
which contaminate the air and water. The impact of the falling quality of air and water can be felt in our lives
as the number of people suffering from diseases of the respiratory system, for example, is steadily rising.

Air Pollution:
It is the contamination of air by impurities which may have a harmful impact on the living organisms and
the non-living components.
The substances which contaminate the air are called air pollutants. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
carbon dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide are major pollutants of air. Some sources of pollutants are:
· Natural sources: Smoke and dust arises from forest fires or volcanic eruptions.
· Human activities: Factories, power plants, automobile exhausts and burning of firewood and dung
cakes.

Causes of Air pollution:

· Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides and
smoke.
· Vehicles also produce tiny particles which remain suspended in air for long periods. They reduce
visibility. When inhaled, they cause diseases. Such particles are also produced during industrial
processes like steel making and mining. Power plants give out tiny ash particles which also pollute the
atmosphere.
· Carbon monoxide is produced from incomplete burning of fuels such as petrol and diesel. It is a
poisonous gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
· During winters, a thick fog-like layer in the atmosphere is observed. This is smog which is made up of
smoke and fog. Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen which combine with other air pollutants and fog
to form smog. The smog causes breathing difficulties such as asthma, cough and wheezing in children.
· Petroleum refineries are a major source of gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is produced by combustion of fuels like coal in power plants. It can cause
respiratory problems, including permanent lung damage.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

Case Study: The Taj Mahal
· Experts have warned that pollutants in air are discolouring its white marble of Taj mahal.
· The industries located in and around Agra like rubber processing, automobile, chemicals and
especially the Mathura oil refinery, have been responsible for producing pollutants like sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
· These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric
acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain.
· Acid rain corrodes the marble. The phenomenon is also called “Marble cancer”.
· Suspended particulate matter, such as the soot particles emitted by Mathura oil refinery, has

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 contributed towards the yellowing of the marble.
· The Supreme Court has taken several steps to save the Taj. It has ordered industries to switch to
cleaner fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas). Moreover,
the automobiles should switch over to unleaded petrol in the Taj zone.

Greenhouse Effect:
The Sun's rays warm the Earth's surface. A part of the radiation that falls on the Earth is absorbed by it
and a part is reflected into space. A part of the reflected radiation is trapped by the atmosphere. The
trapped radiations further warm the Earth. It is called the greenhouse effect.
Gases such as CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapour that contribute towards this effect are
called greenhouse gases.

Global Warming: A Serious Threat

· CO2 traps heat and does not allow it to escape into space. As a result, the average temperature of the
Earth's atmosphere is gradually increasing. This is called global warming.
· Global warming can cause sea levels to rise dramatically. Many coastal areas have already been
flooded.
· It could result in wide ranging effects on rainfall patterns, agriculture, forests, plants, and animals.
· Majority of people living in regions which are threatened by global warming are in Asia.
· An increase in the Earth's temperature by even as little as 0.5 °C can have such a serious effect.
· Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas has started melting because of global warming.
· A recent climate change report gives us only a limited time to keep the greenhouse gases at the present
level. Otherwise, the temperature may rise by more than 2 degrees Celsius by the end of the century, a
level considered dangerous.

Measures to combat air pollution:

· Switch to cleaner vehicle fuels like CNG and unleaded petrol. These measures have resulted in cleaner
air in Delhi.
· Switch over to alternative fuels instead of the fossil fuels for our energy requirements such as solar
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

energy, hydropower, and wind energy.

· Regular monitoring of the air quality by government and other agencies at various locations.
· Generate awareness about air pollution among friends and neighbours.
· Exploring various options of commuting such as walking, bicycle, public transport, carpool.
· Plant trees and nurture the ones already present in the neighbourhood.
· Put dry leaves in a compost pit rather than burning.
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Water Pollution:
· It is the contamination of water by substances harmful to life.
· Sewage, agricultural chemicals, and industrial waste are some of the major contaminants of water. The

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 substances that pollute water are called water pollutants.

Causes of Water pollution:

· Throwing of large quantities of garbage, untreated sewage, dead bodies, and many other harmful
things, directly into the river.
· People bath, wash clothes, and defecate in the river. They also throw garbage, flowers, idols of gods
and goddesses and nonbiodegradable polythene bags into the river.
· Many industries discharge harmful chemicals into rivers and streams. For example, oil refineries,
paper factories etc. The chemicals released include arsenic, lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity in
plants and animals.
· Industries are supposed to treat the waste produced before discharging it into waters, but quite often
the rules are not followed.
· The pesticides and weedicides are important for the protection of crops. However, all these chemicals
dissolve in water and are washed into water bodies from the fields. They also seep into the ground to
pollute ground water.
· Ponds look green from a distance because of algae growing in them. This is caused by excessive
quantities of chemicals which get washed from the fields. These act as nutrients for algae to flourish.
Once these algae die, they serve as food for decomposers like bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a decrease in the oxygen level which may kill aquatic organisms.
· Water contaminated with sewage may contain bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites which cause
diseases like cholera, typhoid, and jaundice.
· Hot water from power plants and industries is released into the rivers. It raises the temperature of the
waterbody, adversely affecting the animals and plants living in it.

Case Study: The Ganges river

· A study by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) found that Ganga is one of the ten most
endangered rivers in the world.
· The river is 'dead' at many places where the pollution levels are so high that aquatic life cannot
survive.

POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

· Only Kanpur has more than 5000 industries. These include fertiliser, detergent, leather, and paint
industries. These industrial units discharge toxic chemical wastes into the river.
· An ambitious plan to save the river, called the Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1985. It aimed to
reduce the pollution levels in the river.
· Now, the Government of India has launched a new initiative known as National Mission for Clean
Ganga (NMCG) in 2016.

Potable water and water purification:

Water which is purified and fit for drinking is known as potable water. Water which looks clean may still
have disease carrying microorganisms and dissolved impurities. So, it is essential to purify water before

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 drinking.
Various physical and chemical processes in the sewage treatment plants help to clean water before
discharging it into water bodies. Similarly, municipal bodies treat the water before supplying it to
households. Water can be made safe for drinking:
· By using physical method of removing impurities. A popular household filter is a candle type filter.
· Adopting boiling as a method for obtaining safe drinking water. Boiling kills the germs present in the
water.
· Chlorination is a commonly used chemical method for purifying water. It is done by adding chlorine
tablets or bleaching powder to the water.

Measures to prevent water pollution:

· Laws for industrial units should be strictly implemented so that polluted water is not disposed-off
directly into rivers and lakes.
· Water treatment plants should be installed in all industrial areas.
· At our individual levels, one should consciously save water and not waste it.
· Reduce, reuse, and recycle should be the mantra. For example, water used for washing vegetables
may be used to water plants in the garden.
Water is a precious natural resource. It is becoming scarce due to increase in population, industries, and
agricultural activities. The need of the hour is to conserve it.
Pollution is no longer a distant phenomenon. It is affecting the quality of our daily lives. Unless everyone realises
their responsibility and start using environment-friendly processes, the very survival of our planet is in danger.

Interesting points

· 25% of the world's population is without safe drinking water.

· If the vehicles registered in Delhi are lined up one after the other, the total length would be nearly
equal to the combined lengths of the two longest rivers in the world - Nile and Amazon.
· Van Mahotsav is celebrated in July every year when lakhs of trees are planted.
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER

· During winters, a thick fog-like layer in the atmosphere is observed. This is smog which is made
up of smoke and fog. Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen which combine with other air
pollutants and fog to form smog. The smog causes breathing difficul es such as asthma, cough
and wheezing in children.
· Petroleum refineries are a major source of gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is produced by combus on of fuels like coal in power plants. It can cause
respiratory problems, including permanent lung damage.
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