SOLUTION NOTES

MOHAMMED.ILIAS

VP/HOS BOYS MES INDIAN SCHOOL

 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures containing two or more components.

 Solutions containing only two components are called binary solutions
 Types of solutions

 Concentrations
 Mole fraction (χ): It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a particular
component to the total number of moles of the solution
 in a given solution sum of the mole fractions of all the components is unity
 Molarity (M): It is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of
solution.
 Molality (m): It is defined as the number of moles of the solute present per kilogram (kg)
of the solvent
 Molarity is temperature dependent. This is because volume of solution depends on
temperature and the mass does not
 Henry’s law. : “The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a
liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas”. Or, “the partial pressure of the
gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (χ) in the solution”
and is expressed as: p = KH χ
 Here KH is the Henry’s law constant. The value of KH depends on the nature of the gas
and temperature. TEMP  KH  SOLUBILITY 
 As the temperature increases solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases. since dissolution of
gas is exothermic It is due to this reason that aquatic species are more comfortable in
cold water rather than in warm water
 Applications of Henry’s law 1. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda
water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure. 2. A medical condition known as bends
in scuba divers. To avoid bends, the cylinders used by scuba divers are filled with air
diluted with helium (The composition of the air in the cylinders used by scuba divers is
32.1% oxygen, 56.2% nitrogen and 11.7% helium). 3. A medical condition known as
anoxia in people living at high altitudes and in mountaineers or climbers
 vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapour in equilibrium with its
own liquid. It depends on the nature of the liquid and the temperature. As the
temperature increases, the vapour pressure also increases
 Solution Of Volatile Liquids – Raoult’s Law
 For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component in the

p 1 = 𝑝 1 0 . χ1
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

p2= 𝑝2 0 . χ2
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure (ptotal) will be the
sum of the partial pressures of the components of the solution

 If y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of the components 1 and 2 respectively in the
vapour phase then, using Dalton’s law of partial pressures:

 Raoult’s Law as a special case of Henry’s Law

 Only the proportionality constant KH differs from p1 0 . Thus, Raoult’s law becomes a
special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to p1 0
 Ideal solutions
 These are solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of
concentration
 For ideal solution

 If the A-A and B-B interactions are nearly equal to the A-B interaction, the
solution behaves ideally
 n-hexane and n-heptane, bromoethane and chloroethane, benzene and toluene
 Non-ideal solutions: These are solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law over the entire
range of concentration. The vapour pressure of such a solution is either higher or lower
than that predicted by Raoult’s law

Solutions which show positive deviation from Solutions which show negative deviation from
Raoult’s law: Raoult’s law
 The vapour pressure of such a solution is The vapour pressure of such a solution is either
either higher that predicted by Raoult’s higher or lower than that predicted by Raoult’s law
law
 For such solutions For such solutions

 Here A-B interactions are weaker than

Here A-B interactions are stronger than A-A and B-B
A-A and B-B interactions
interactions
 solutions of ethanol and acetone,
solution of phenol and aniline, chloroform and
acetone and CS2, acetone and CCl4 e
aceton
Azeotropes [Constant Boiling Mixtures] These are binary mixtures having the same composition in
liquid and vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature

There are two types of azeotropes:

minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope. The solutions which show a large
positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a particular composition.
E.g. 95% aqueous ethanol solution by volume at 78.20C [351.35 K]. The solutions which show large
negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a particular composition.
E.g. a mixture of 68% Nitric acid and 32% water by mass forms a maximum boiling azeotrope at
393.5 K.

Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids

e Raoult’s law can be stated as, for any solution, the partial vapour pressure of each volatile
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND DETERMINATION OF MOLARMASS The properties which depend only
on the relative number of solute particles and not on their nature are called Colligative properties.
The important colligative properties are: Relative lowering of Vapour pressure, Elevation of Boiling
point, Depression of Freezing point and Osmotic Pressur

Relative lowering of Vapour Pressure When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the
vapour pressure (V.P) of the resulting solution is lower than that of the pure solvent. The difference
between the vapour pressure of pure solvent and that of the solution is called lowering of vapour
pressure (∆p)

2. Elevation of Boiling Point (∆Tb) When a liquid is heated, its vapour pressure increases. At a
particular temperature, the vapour pressure becomes equal to the external pressure (atmospheric
pressure). This temperature is called boiling point of the liquid. So boiling point is the temperature at
which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. When a non-volatile solute is
added to a pure solvent, the boiling point of the resulting solution is always greater than that of the
pure solvent. The difference between the boiling point of solution (∆Tb) and that of the pure solvent
(Tb 0 ) is called elevation of boiling point (Tb

Constant. It is defined as the elevation of boiling point for 1 molal solution (i.e. it is the increase in
boiling point of a solution containing 1 mol of a solute in 1 kg of the solvent). The unit of Kb is K
kg/mol. For water, Kb = 0.52K kg/m

Depression of Freezing point (∆Tf) Freezing point is the temperature at which the solid phase and
liquid phase of a substance has the same vapour pressure. According to Raoult’s law, when a non-
volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, its vapour pressure decreases. So the freezing point (f.p) of
the solution is less than that of the pure solvent. The difference between the freezing point (f.p) of
pure solvent (Tf 0 ) and that of the solution (Tf) is called depression of freezing point (∆Tf).

Where Kf is a constant called Freezing point depression constant or Molal depression constant or
Cryoscopic constant. It is defined as the depression of Join Now: https://join.hsslive.in Downloaded
from https://www.hsslive.in ® Solutions - Notes by ANIL KUMAR K L, PHSS VANDIPERIYAR, IDUKKI
Page 9 freezing point for 1 molal solution. i.e. it is the depression in freezing point of a solution
prepared by dissolving 1 mol of solute in 1 kg of solvent. The unit of Kf is K kg/mol. For water, Kf =
1.86 K kg/mol.

Osmosis is the process of flow of solvent molecules from pure solvent to the solution through a
semi-permeable membrane

brane. E.g. egg membrane, parchment, pig’s bladder, all animal and plant membrane. Cellulose
acetate is an example for artificial semi-permeable membrane
Osmotic pressure is defined as the excess pressure that must be applied on solution side to stop
osmosis

Advantages of osmotic pressure measurement over other colligative property measurement 1.

Osmotic pressure measurement can be done at room temperature. 2. Here molarity of the solution
is used instead of molality, which can be determined easily. 3. The magnitude of osmotic pressure is
large even for very dilute solutions. 4. This method can be used for the determination of molar
masses of Biomolecules (which are generally not stable at higher temperatures) and for polymers
(which have poor solubility). Examples for osmosis: a) Raw mango placed in concentrated salt
solution loses water and shrink. b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water c) Blood cells
collapse when suspended in saline water. d) The preservation of meat by salting and fruits by adding
sugar protect against bacterial action. Through the process of osmosis, a bacterium on salted meat
or candid fruit loses water, shrinks and dies.

Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature are called isotonic solutions. When such solutions are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane, no osmosis occurs. For e.g. our blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium
chloride solution, called normal saline solution. So it is safe to inject intravenously.

Reverse osmosis and water purification The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger
than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side.

It is used in desalination of sea water

ABNORMAL MOLARMASS The molar mass obtained by colligative property measurement is

incorrect, if there is association or dissociation of particles. Such molar masses are called abnormal
molar masses.

In order to correct the abnormal molar masses, van’t Hoff introduced a factor called van’t Hoff factor
(i). It is defined as: