solutions Parts per million =

Number of parts of component ×10

Total number of parts of all components of the solution

Types of solutions
No.of moles of component
Mole fraction (x) =
Total number of moles of all
Types of
solutions
solute solvent Examples components
Mixture of oxygen and
Gas Gas
Gaseous nitrogen gases Sum of mole fractions =1
Liquid Gas
Solutions Chloroform in nitrogen gas
Solid Gas
Camphur in nitrogen gas
Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolvd in water
Liquid
Solutions
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water No.of moles of solute
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water Molality (m) = Mass of the solvent in kg
Solutions of hydrogen in
Gas Solid palladium
Solid
Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury wih
Solutions
Solid Solid sodium
Copper dissolved in gold
No.of moles of solute
Molarity (M) = Volume of the solution in litre
Concentration of Solutions
The amount of solute present in given amount
of solvent or solution. Expressing concentra-
Solubility
tion of solutions in terms of
It is the maximum amount of solute particle
1. Mass percentage dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at a
2. Volume percentage given temperature.
The concentration of saturated solution at a
3. Mass by volume percentage given temperature.
4. Parts per million
5. Mole fraction SATURATED & UNSATURATED SOLUTIONS
6. Molarity A solution in which no more solute can be dis-
solved at the same temperature and pressure
7. Molality is called a saturated solution.
A solution in which more solute can be dis-
solved at the same temperature is called an
unsaturated solution.
Mass of the component
Mass %= Total mass of the solution ×100

Solubility of solid in
Vaolume of the component
liquid depends on:
Volume %= Total volume of the solution
1 Nature of solute/solvent
 It is observed that polar solutes dissolve in
polar solvents and non polar solutes in non
Mass of the component polar solvents - "like dissolves like".
Mass by Volume %=Total volume of the solution×100

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 3

 02. Effect of temperature  KH↑ Solubility ↓
 If the dissolution process is endothermic  Temp ↑ Solubility ↓
(ΔH>0), The solubility should increase with
rise in temperature.  Temp↓ KH↓

 If it is exothermic (ΔH<0) the solubility  y=mx+c

should increase with decrease in tempera-  P=kHx + 0
ture.
 The value of KH depends on the nature of
03. Effect of Pressure the gas and temperature.
 Since solids and liquids are highly incom-  As the value of KH increases, the solubility
pressible, pressure does not have any sig- of the gas in the liquid decreases.
nificant effect on solubility of solids in liq-
uids.  As the temperature increases solubility of
a gas in a liquid decreases.
 It is due to this reason that aquatic species
Solubility of gas in liquid are more comfortable in cold waters rath-
er than in warm waters.
depends on: APPLICATIONS OF HENRY'S LAW

 Nature of solute / solvent - "like dissolves  To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft
like". drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed
under high pressure.
 Temperature : Solubility of gases in liquids
decreases with rise in temperature.  Scuba divers carry oxygen cylinders to
breath under deep sea. At high pressure
 Pressure under water, the solubility of gases in blood
increases. When the divers come towards
surface, the pressure gradually decreas-
Effect of Pressure es. This releases the dissolved gases and
leads to the formation of bubbles of ni-
trogen in the blood.This blocks capillaries
Henry's Law & creates a medical condition known as
It states that the solubility of gas in liquid at a bends. To avoid bends the cylinders used
particular temperature is directly proportional by scuba divers are filled with air diluted
to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with with helium( 11.7%He,56.2%" " N&32.1%o).
the liquid at that temperature.
 At high altitudes the partial pressure of ox-
P∝X ygen is less than that at the ground level.
P = kHX This leads to low concentrations of oxygen
in the blood and tissues of people living at
high altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxy-
gen causes climbers to become weak and
Henry's Law unable to think clearly. This condition is
known as anoxia.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 4

Vapour pressure  If the A-A and B-B interactions are near-
ly equal to the A-B interaction, the solution
It is the pressure exerted by the vapours of behaves ideally.
the liquid in equilibrium with the liquid at that  That is, solvent-solvent interactions and
temperature. solute-solute interactions are nearly equal
to solute-solvent interaction.

Raoult’s Law  A perfectly ideal solution is rare. But some

solutions are nearly ideal in behaviour.
For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial  Eg: solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane,
vapour pressure of each liquids is directly bromoethane and chloroethane, benzene
proportional to its mole fraction. and toluene etc.

PA ∝ XA
PA = PA0xA Non-ideal solutions showing
Positive deviation
Raoult's Law as a special case of
Henry's Law
PB̊
According to Henry's law,

P∝x PÅ
P = KHx PB

According to Raoult's law, PA

PA = XA
PA = PA0xA

Thus, Raoult's law becomes a special case of  PA > PA0XA

Henry's law in which becomes equal to pAo.  PB > PB0XB
 P > PA + PB
 Δmix V > 0
Ideal solutions  Δmix H > 0

 PA = PA0 XA  In the case of positive deviation from

Raoult's law, A-B interactions are weaker
 PB = PB0XB + PB
P = PA than A-A and B-B interactions.
 P = PA + PB  That is, in this case solute-solvent interac-
 ΔmixV = 0 PB tions are weaker than solvent-solvent and
solute-solute .
 Δmix H = 0
PA  So more molecules are escaped to vapour
phase and hence the vapour pressure of
the solution increases.
XA = 1 XA = 0
 Eg: solutions of ethanol and acetone, ace-
XB = 0 XB = 1
tone and CS2, acetone and CCl4 etc.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 5

Non-ideal solutions showing Colligative Properties
Negative deviation Colligative properties are the properties of
dilute solutions of non-volatile solute, whose
 PA < PA0XA values depends upon the amount of solute
 PB < PB0XB particles present in the solution, but not on the
individual identity of the solute.
 P < PA + PB
PA0 1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
 Δmix V < 0 PB
2. Elevation of boiling point
 Δmix H<0
3. Depression in freezing point
PA
4. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
01. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
When a non-volatile solute dissolved in a Vol-
 In case of negative deviation from Raoult's atile liquid, the vapour pressure of the solvent
law, the A-B interactions are stronger than is lowered.
A-A and B-B interactions.
 Lowering of vapour pressure, ΔP=PA-PAo
 That is, solute-solvent interactions are
 Relative lowering of Vapour pressure
stronger than solute-solute interaction and
ΔP
solvent-solvent interaction. = o
PA
 So number of molecules escaped to va-  Molar mass of Solute,
pour phase decreases and hence the va- WBMAPAo
pour pressure of the solution decreases. MB = W ΔP
A

 Eg: solution of phenol and aniline, chloro- 02. ELEVATION OF BOILING_POINT

form and acetone etc.  Change in boiling point is directly propor-
tional to the amount of solute present in a
given amount of solvent.
Azeotropes  Boiling point of a liquid is the tempera-
ture at which its vapour pressure becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure.
 They are binary mixtures having the same
composition in liquid & vapour phase and ΔTb ∝ m
boil at a constant temperature. ΔTb = Kbm
K W ×1000
 For such solutions, it is not possible to sep- MB = b B
ΔTbWA
arate the components by fractional distil-
lation.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF AZEOTROPES: 1atm
 Minimum boiling azeotropes (showing
+ve deviation)
The solutions which show a large positive
Vapour pressure

deviation from Raoult's law form minimum

t
boiling azeotrope at a particular compo-
v en
sition. Eg: 95% ethanol solution by volume.
Sol
 Maximum boiling azeotropes (showing tion
-ve deviation) S olu
The solutions which show large negative
deviation from Raoult's law form max-
imum boiling azeotrope at a particular
o
composition. Eg: a mixture of 68% Nitric Temp Tb Tb
acid and 32% water by mass.
ΔTb = Tb - Tb∘
ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 6
03. DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT Advantages of osmotic pressure measure-
ΔTf ∝ m ment over other colligative property mea-
ΔTf = kfm surement :
k W × 1000  Osmotic pressure measurement can be
MB = f B
ΔTfWA done at room temperature.
 Here molarity of the solution is used instead
1atm of molality, which can be determined easily.
 The magnitude of osmotic pressure is large
even for very dilute solutions.
Solvent
 This method can be used for the determina-
Vapour pressure

tion of molar masses of biomolecules and

nt

for polymers.
lve
So

Solution
en

Reverse Osmosis
oz
Fr

 The direction of osmosis can be reversed if

a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure
Tf Tf∘ is applied to the solution side.
 Now the pure solvent flows out of the solution
ΔTf = Tf∘- Tf through the semi permeable membrane.
 This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis
and is used in desalination of sea water.
04. OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 The passage of solvent from solution of Piston
lower concentration to the solution of high- Water outlet
Pressure > Osmotic pressure
er concentration through a semipermeable
membrane.
Fresh Water Salt Water
 Excess hydrostatic pressure which must be
applied to the solution of higher concentra-
tion to prevent the passage of solvent to it
through a semipermeable membrane

Isotonic Solutions
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure
at a given temperature are called isotonic
Solution Solution of solutions. When such solutions are separated
of Higher SPM Lower
Concentration Concentration
by a semi-permeable membrane, no osmosis
occurs.

Hypertonic/Hypotonic Solutions :
A solution having higher osmotic pressure than
π ∝ CT
another is called hypertonic solution. While a
π = CRT
solution having lower osmotic pressure than
W RT another is called hypotonic solution.
MB = B
πV

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 7

 E = electrode Potential
ELECTROCHEMISTRY E = standard electrode Potential
R = universal gas constant = 8.314
T = absolute temperature = 298 K
SEQUENCE OF DEVELOPMENT PROCESS F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 C

IN PLANT CELL n = No. of electrons

[Mn+] = concentration of electrolyte
[M] = concentration of metal = 1
Cell reaction;

At anode : _____________

At cathode : _____________
ELECTRODE POTENTIAL
Cell representation: _____________

Cell potential:
(Expression) _____________

CELL EMF USING NERNST EQUATION -

DANIELL CELL

Cell Potential
Electrode Potential
Standard Electrode Potential
Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

NERNST EQUATION EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT FROM NERNST

Nernst equation gives the relationship between
EQUATION
the electrode potential of the given electrode
and the concentration of the electrolyte.

E=E

Nernst equation gives the relationship between

the electrode potential of the given electrode
and the concentration of the electrolyte.
0.34 V
-0.76 V
+0.80 V

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ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL & GIBBS FOR WEAK ELECTROLYTES
ENERGY CHANGE
kohlrausch law
“ It state that limiting molar conductivity of an
electrolyte can be represented as the sum of
limiting molar ionic conductivities of cation and
anion”

CONDUCTANCE OF ELECTROLYTIC APPLICATIONS:

SOLUTIONS
1. Calculation of λ m for weak electrolytes

Electrolytes : Acids , Bases, Salts 2.Calculation of degree of dissociation

It depends on ;
Nature of electrolytes
3.Calculation of dissociation constant
Size of ions & their solvation
Nature of solvent and its viscosity
Concentration of electrolytes
Temperature

VARIATION OF CONDUCTIVITY WITH λ m for NaCl, HCl and CH COONa are 126.4,
425.9 and 91.0 Scm²/mol respectively. Calculate
CONCENTRATION λ m for CH COOH.

On dilution :
Concentration
Conductivity (k)
k x 1000
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN NACL
Molar conductivity, λ m =
Molarity
On infinite dilution ;
Molar conductivity is maximum
Limiting Molar conductivity = λ0m

FOR STRONG ELECTROLYTES :

Debye Huckel Onsager equation

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ELECTROLYSIS OF NACL SOLUTION DRY CELL

It is compact form of Laclanche cell

Anode : Zinc container
Cathode : Graphite rod surrounded by MnO2
and Carbon
A paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2 act as electrolyte
The cell has a potential of nearly 1.5 V.

FARADAY’S 1ST LAW

“ The amount of chemical reaction occurs at
any electrode during electrolysis by a current is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed
through the electrolyte ”

Anode : Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e-

FARADAY’S 2ND LAW Cathode : MnO2 + NH + + e- MnO(OH) + NH3

“ The amount of various substances liberated

by the same quantity of electricity passed
through the electrolytic solution is proportional
MERCURY CELL
to the chemical equivalent weight
Anode - Zinc Amalgam
Cathode - A paste of HgO and Carbon
BATTERIES Electrolyte A paste of KOH and ZnO
The cell has a constant potential of 1.35 V.
A battery is basically a galvanic cell in which a
chemical energy of the redox reaction is Anode reaction: Zn(Hg) + 2OH¯ ZnO(s) + H2O
converted to electrical energy + 2e¯
Two types Cathode reaction: HgO + H2O + 2e¯ Hg(I ) + 2
OH¯
The overall reaction is : Zn(Hg) + HgO(s)
ZnO(s) + Hg(1)
Primary Secondary
batteries batteries

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SECONDARY CELLS HYDROGEN – OXYGEN FUEL CELL
A secondary cell can be recharged by passing
current throughit in opposite direction
It can be reused again and again.
Here the cell reaction can be reversed by
passing current through it in the opposite
direction.
Eg: Lead storage battery , Nickel cadmium cell

LEAD STORAGE BATTERY

Anode : Lead plate
Cathode :Grid of lead plate coated with lead
dioxide (PbO2)
A solution of H2SO4 (38% by mass) act as H2 and O2 are bubbled through porous
electrolyte
electrode into aqueous NaOH (or KOH)
Anode: Pb(s) + SO4- (aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e-
Cathode: PbO2(s) + SO ²¯(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e-
PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (I) ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS
overall cell reaction is: Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4
(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) The cell works continuously as long as the
On charging the battery, the reaction is r reactants are supplied.
eversed. It has higher efficiency as compared to other
conventional cells.
It is eco-friendly (i.e. pollution free) since water
NICKEL- CADMIUM CELL is the only product formed
Used in the Apollo space programme.
Anode : Cadmium
Cathode : A metal grid of NiO2
KOH act as electrolyte CORROSION
Cd (s)+2Ni(OH)3 (s) CdO (s) +2Ni(OH)2 (s) +
H2O(I) Slow destruction of metals due to attack of
atmospheric gases and moisture on thier
surface resulting in the formation of compound
FUEL CELLS such as oxides , sulphides , carbonates etc is
called corrosion
These are galvanic cells which convert the Examples :
energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, The rusting of iron.
methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical
Tarnishing of silver.
energy
Formation of green coating on copper and
Eg : H2-O2 fuel cell bronze.

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 CHEMICAL KINETICS FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF A
REACTION
The important factors which affect the rate of
a chemical reaction are :

1. Nature of the reactants

2. Concentration of the reactants
3. Temperature
4. Pressure (for gaseous reaction only)
5. Effect of catalyst
6. Influence of radiation

DEPENDENCE OF RATE OF REACTION ON

RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION CONCENTRATION – RATE LAW

The rate of a chemical reaction is the change aA + bB → cC + dD

in concentration of any one of the reactant or
product in unit time. Rate α [Α]a [Β]b
Decrease in concentration of any one of the Rate α [Α]x [Β]y
reactant in unit time
Increase in concentration of any one of the Rate = k [Α]x [Β]y
product in unit time.

aA + bB → cC + dD order = x+y
Avg.Rate = .......................

Inst.Rate = .......................
ORDER OF REACTION
Order is the sum of the powers of the
concentration terms of the reactants in the
rate law.
It is an experimental quantity.

It can have the values 0,1,2,3,...... or a fraction.

It is applicable to both elementary and
complex reactions

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MOLECULARITY OF A REACTION INTEGRATED RATE LAW EQUATION FOR
It is the total number of reacting species
A ZERO ORDER REACTION
collides simultaneously in a chemical reaction.
It is a theoretical quantity. For a first order reaction,
It cannot be zero or fractional. The rate of the reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the reactant.
It can have values 1,2,3 etc.
Consider a first order reaction, R → P
It is applicable only to elementary reactions

aA + bB → cC + dD

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORDER AND

MOLECULARITY
Order Molecularity

It is the sum of the powers of the It is the total number of reactant

concentration terms in the rate species collide simultaneously in
law expression a chemical reaction

It is an experimental quantity It is a theoretical quantity

It can be zero or fractional It cannot be zero or fractional

It is applicable to both elementary It is applicable only to elementary

INTEGRATED RATE LAW EQUATION FOR
and complex reactions reactions
A FIRST ORDER REACTION

UNIT OF RATE CONSTANT For a first order reaction,

The rate of the reaction is proportional to the
concentration of the reactant.
Different ordered reactions have different units
for k
Consider a first order reaction, R → P
For an nth order reaction, unit of k =

Zero order reaction; n=0 ....................................

1st order reaction; n=1 ....................................

2nd order reaction; n=2 ....................................

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HALF LIFE OF A REACTION (t1/2) PSEUDO FIRST ORDER REACTION
The half-life of a reaction is the time taken for These are reactions which appear to follow
the concentration of a reactant is reduced to higher order, but actually follow first order
one half of its initial concentration. It is kinetics.
represented as tl/2. In these reactions the concentration of one of
the reactants is large excess and so its change
in concentration does not affect the rate of the
reaction.
1. Hydrolysis of ester (ethyl acetate)

2. Inversion of cane sugar

HALF LIFE OF A ZERO ORDER REACTION
(t1/2)

RATE OF REACTION AND TEMPERATURE

Most of the chemical reactions are accelerated
by increase in temperature.
It is found that for a chemical reaction,
When the temperature is increased by 10°, the
rate of the reaction and the rate constant is
nearly doubled.
The temperature dependence of the rate of a
HALF LIFE OF A 1ST ORDER REACTION chemical reaction can be explained by
Arrhenius equation
(t1/2) The equation is:

k = rate constant
A = Arrhenius factor
Ea = Activation energy
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature

For a first order reaction, half-life period is

constant. It is independent of initial
concentration of the reacting species.

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ACTIVATION ENERGY EFFECT OF CATALYST
According to Arrhenius, A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate
of a reaction without itself undergoing any
a chemical reaction occurs by the collision of
permanent chemical change.
reactant molecules.
A catalyst increases the rate of a chemical
All the molecular collisions are not effective. reaction by reducing the activation energy
For effective collision, the colliding molecules between reactants and products.
should have a minimum kinetic energy called
activation energy.

THE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF

A CATALYST ARE
1) A small amount of the catalyst can catalyse
a large amount of reactants.
2) It catalyses the spontaneous reactions but
does not catalyse non spontaneous
reactions.
2) A catalyst does not change the equilibrium
constant of a reaction, but it helps to attain
the equilibrium faster by increasing the rate
of both forward as well as the backward
reactions.

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 Exceptional Electronic
d&f block elements Configuration
Chromium : [Ar]3d54s1
Transition metals Copper: [Ar]3d10 4s1

 A transition metal is defined as the one "Half filled and fully filled configuration is more
which has incompletely filled d orbital in its stable than partially filled configuration".
ground state or in any one of its oxidation
states
 Zinc, cadmium and mercury are not re-
garded as transition metals
 General electronic configuration is (n-1)d1-10 03. Name two elements of 3 d series which
n1-2 show anomalous electronic configura-
tion.

01. Zn (atomic number=30) is not a tran-

sition element, though it is a d block
element. Why?

General Characteristics
ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII
 In a given transition series, the atomic and
ionic radii first decreases, then become
constant and increases towards the end of
the series.
 The atomic and ionic radii of 2 nd and 3 rd
row transition metals are quite similar. This
is due to the Lanthanide contraction.
02. Define transition elements. Which of
the d-block elements may not be re-
garded as the transition elements ?

04. Zr and Hf are of almost identical atom-

ic radii. This is due to .......

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 3

MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT OXIDATION STATE
 In a given transition series the melting and  The ionisation enthalpy of transition ele-
boiling points Ist increases up to the middle ments generally increases from left to right.
and then decreases. This is due to increase in nuclear charge.
 As the number of unpaired electron increas- But the increase is not regular.
es, the metallic bond strength increases.  The first ionisation enthalpies of Cr and Cu
Hence the melting point also increases. are low. This is because the removal of one
 In a given transition series, the number of electron does not change their d configu-
unpaired electrons increases up to the mid- ration.
dle and then decreases.  The 2 nd ionisation energy of Cr and Cu are
very high.This is because the removal of one
more electron from these metals disrupted
their stable configuration (d5 or d10)
 The 2n ionisation enthalpies of Mn and Zn
05. Why do the transition elements exhibit are lower than the Ist lonisation enthalp-
higher enthalpies of atomisation? ies, this is because after the removal of one
more electron, they attain the stable half
filled or completely filled electronic config-
uration.

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +1 +2
+3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +2
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
+5 +5 +5
+6 +6 +6
+7
IONISATION ENTHALPY
 The ionisation enthalpy of transition ele- MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
ments generally increases from left to right. Paramagnetism is due to the presence of
This is due to increase in nuclear charge. unpaired electrons.
But the increase is not regular. As the number of unpaired electrons increas-
 The first ionisation enthalpies of Cr and Cu es paramagnetism increases.
are low. This is because the removal of one
electron does not change their d configu- Spin Magnetic moment: μ =√n(n+2)
ration.
 The 2 nd ionisation energy of Cr and Cu are
very high.This is because the removal of one
more electron from these metals disrupted
their stable configuration (d5 or d10)
 The 2n ionisation enthalpies of Mn and Zn
are lower than the Ist lonisation enthalp-
ies, this is because after the removal of one
more electron, they attain the stable half
filled or completely filled electronic config-
uration.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 4

 FORMATION OF COMPLEXES
Transition metals form a large no. of complex-
06. Calculate the ‘spin only’ magnetic mo- es.
ment of a divalent ion of a metal M in This is due to:
aqueous solution. The atomic number
1. Comparatively smaller size
of the metal M is 25 .
2. High ionic charge
3. Presence of partially filled d orbitals
4. Ability to show variable oxidation state

CATALYTIC PROPERTY
 Transition metals act as catalysts in a large
no. of chemical reactions.
 This is due to their large surface area and
their ability to show variable oxidation state.
FORMATION OF COLOURED IONS OR
COMPOUNDS
 Due to the presence of unpaired electrons
in d orbitals. 08. Which property of transition metals
 When an electron from a lower energy d or- enables them to behave as catalysts?
bital is excited to a higher energy d orbit-
(a) High melting point
al, ( - d transition) the energy of excitation
corresponds to the frequency of light ab- (b) High ionisation enthalpy
sorbed. (c) Alloy formation
(d) Variable oxidation states

07. Sc3+ is colourless whereas Ti3+ is

coloured in an aqueous solution.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 5

 M2+/M ELECTRODE POTENTIAL
Element (M) ΔdH⊖(M) ΔiH1⊖ ΔiH2⊖ ΔhydH⊖(M2+) E⊖/V
09. Transition elements show variable
oxidation states and many of the Ti 469 661 1310 -1866 -1.63

transition metal ions are attracted by a V 515 648 1370 -1895 -1.18
magnetic field. Cr 398 653 1590 -1925 -0.90

Give reason for variability of oxidation Mn 279 716 1510 -1862 -1.18
state Fe 418 762 1560 -1998 -0.44
Co 427 757 1640 -2079 -0.28
Ni 431 736 1750 -2121 -0.25
Cu 339 745 1960 -2121 0.34
Zn 130 908 1730 -2059 -0.76

Copper has positive potential - The high

energy to transform Cu(s) to Cu2+ (aq) is not
balanced by its hydration enthalpy

INTERSTITIAL COMPOUND FORMATION 10. Copper has exceptionally positive

EM∘2+/M value. Why?
 These are formed when smaller atoms like
H,N,C,B etc. are trapped inside the crystal
lattice of the metal.
 They are usually non-stoichiometric and
neither typically ionic nor covalent.
 Examples: Fe3H, Mn4N, TiC, VH0.56, TiH1.7 etc
1. They have high melting point.
2. They are very hard.
3. They retain metallic conductivity.
4. They are chemically inert.

ALLOY FORMATION
 Alloys are homogeneous solid solutions of
elements in which at least one element is a 11. Cu+ ion is unstable in aqueous solution.
metal. Why?

 Because of similar radii and other charac-

teristics of Transition metals, they readily
form alloys.
 The alloys formed are hard and have high
m.p.
 Examples: Bronze ( Cu,Zn), Stainless steel
( Fe,C,Ni,Mn and Cr ).

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 6

Some Important Compounds of
Transition Elements
POTASSIUMDICHROMATE (K2CR2O7)
Preparation

 Potassium dichromate is generally pre-

pared from chromite ore ( FeCr2O4).
 It involves three steps,
™ Conversion of chromite ore to sodium
chromate
4 FeCr O + 8 Na CO + 7O → 8 Na CrO + 2 Fe O + 8CO
2 4 2 3 2
Roasted
2 4
sodium chormate
2 3 2
Oxidising Properties
™ Acidification of sodium chromate to  6I- + Cr2O72 + 14Ht+ ⟶ 3I2 + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
sodium dichromate
 6Fe2+ + Cr2O72 + 14H+⟶6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
2 Na2CrO4 + H 2 SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + Na2 SO4 + H 2O
Sodium dichromate
 3S2- + Cr2O72- + 14H+⟶3S + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
 Sn2+ + Cr2O72 + 14H+⟶3Sn3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
™ Conversion of sodium dichromate to
potassium dichromate Structure of
chromate ion and dichromate
Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K Cr O
2 2 7 + 2 NaCl Potassiumpermanganate (KMnO4)
Potassium dichormate

PREPARATION
 Potassium permanganate is prepared by
Structure of chromate ion and fusion of MnO2 with an alkali metal hydrox-
ide and an oxidising agent like KNO3.
dichromate ion  KMnO4 is commercially prepared from py-
rolusite(MnO2).
The preparation involves two steps.

2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 → 2 K2MnO4 + 2H2O

Then K2MnO4 is electrolytically oxidised to
potassiu permanganate.
3K2MnO4 + 4H+ → 2KMnO4 + MnO2 + 2H2O

Structure of Manganate ion and

Permanganate ion

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 7

OXIDISING PROPERTIES
 5C2O42-+2MnO4+16H+⟶10CO2 +2Mn2++8H2O
13. Write the equations involved in the
 Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ ⟶ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O preparation of KMnO4 from Pyrolusite
 5NO2- + 2MnO4- +6H+⟶5NO3- +2Mn2++ 3H2O ore (MnO2).
 5SO32- +2MnO4- +6H+⟶5SO42-+2Mn2++3H2O
 10I-+2MnO4-+16H+⟶5I2+2Mn2++8H2O
USES
 It is used as an oxidising agent in acidic,
basic and neutral medium.
 It is used as a primary standard in volu-
metric analysis.

12. Potassium dichromate is a very useful

oxidizing agent.
14. Draw the structures of chromate and
(i) Name the ore of Potassium dichro- dichromate ions.
mate.
(ii) Explain the preparation of Potas-
sium dichromate from Sodium chro-
mate.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 8

 THE INNER TRANSITIONELEMENTS
15. Potassium permanganate and Potas- (f-BLOCK)
sium dichromate are oxidising agents.
(a) Name the ores of the above com- The Lanthanoids or lanthanides
pounds from which they are prepared The 14 elements after lanthanum of the 6 th
(b) Give one example each for the ox- period are called lanthanides or lanthanoids
idising property of them. Write down the or lanthanones or rare earths.
balanced chemical equation.
(n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2

ATOMIC AND IONIC RADII - LANTHANIDE

CONTRACTION
In lanthanides, the atomic and ionic radii de-
crease regularly from lanthanum to lutetium.
This regular decrease in the atomic and ionic
radii along lanthanide series is called lantha-
nide contraction.

LANTHANIDE CONTRACTION-REASON

 In lanthanides, as the atomic number in-

creases, the nuclear charge increases one
by one and the electrons are added to the
16. What is Baeyer’s reagent anti-penultimate f subshell.
 Due to its diffused shape, f orbitals have
poor shielding effect.
 So the nucleus can attract the outer most
electrons strongly and as a result the radii
decreases.

LANTHANIDE CONTRACTION-CONSEQUENCES

 Due to Lanthanide Contraction the 2nd and

3rd row transition series elements have
similar radii. Eg: 2r-160 pm and Hf-159pm
 Lanthanides have similar physical proper-
ties and they occur together in nature. So
their isolation is difficult.
 The basic character of their hydroxides
decreases from lanthanum to lutetium. ie,
La(OH)3 is more basic than Lu(OH)3.

Space for Keynotes

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 9

THE ACTINOIDS OR ACTINONES Applications of d-and f-block
 The 14 elements after actinium in the 7 th
period of modern periodic table are called
elements
actinides or actinoids or actinones.
 Most of them are artificially prepared and  d and flock elements and their compounds
are short lived. are used as catalysts in many chemical re-
actions.
 They are radioactive.
 Iron and steels are the most important con-
 The elements after Uranium are artificially struction materials.
prepared and so they are called trans-ura-
nium elements or trans-uranic elements.  Alloys of d and f block elements are used in
various fields.
 Cu,Ag,Au and some alloys are used for
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN making coins. Til is used in pigment indus-
LANTHANOIDS AND ACINOIDS try.
SIMILARITIES  2n,Ni,Cd,MnO2 etc are used in making bat-
teries.
 Both show mainly an oxidation state of +3
 Compounds of Ag are used in photography.
 Actinoids show actinoid contraction like
lanthanoid contraction is shown by lanth-
anoids.
Space for Keynotes
 Both are electropositive and very reactive.
DIFFERENCES
 Except promethium (pm) lanthanoids are
non-radioactive whereas actinoids are ra-
dioactive.
 Lanthanoids do not form oxocation where-
as actinoids form oxocation.
 Lanthanoids have less tendency towards
complex formation whereas actinoids
have greater tendency towards complex
formation.

21. Write one similarity and one difference

between chemistry of Lanthanoids and
Actinoids.

ADMISSION STARTED 6009 100 300 11

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+2 Chemistry - MOST Important Questions and Answers

1. SOLUTIONS
1. State Henry’s law. Give its mathematical form.
Ans: Henry’s law states that at constant temperature, the solubility of
a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.
Mathematically, p = KH.χ (where p is the partial pressure, χ is the mole
fraction and KH is the Henry’s law constant).
2. Write any two applications of Henry’s law.
Ans: (i) In the preparation of soda water and soft drinks.
(ii) A medical condition known as Bends in Scuba divers.
3. State Raoult’s law.
Ans: The law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial
vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.
Mathematically, 𝑝1 = 𝑝10 χ1 , 𝑝2 = 𝑝20 χ2
4. What are ideal solutions? Write any two properties of ideal solutions.
Give one example for such solution.
Ans: These are solutions which obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations.
For an ideal solution, 𝑝1 = 𝑝10 χ1 , 𝑝2 = 𝑝20 χ2 , ∆mixH = 0 and ∆mixV = 0.
E.g. is a mixture of benzene and toluene.
5. What are non-ideal solutions?
Ans: These are solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all
concentrations. For such solutions, 𝑝1 ≠ 𝑝10 χ1 , 𝑝2 ≠ 𝑝20 χ2 , ∆mixH ≠ 0
and ∆mixV ≠ 0.
6. What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of chloroform and
acetone? Give reason.
Ans: Negative deviation. Chloroform can form hydrogen bond with
acetone. So, the solute – solvent interaction increases and hence the
vapour pressure decreases.

7. Draw a vapour pressure curve, by plotting vapour pressure against

mole fraction for:
(i) an ideal solution (ii) a solution that show positive deviation from
Raoult’s law (iii) A solution that show negative deviation from
Raoult’s law.
Ans:

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(i) Ideal solution (ii) Positive deviation from (iii) Negative deviation
Raoult’s law from Raoult’s law
8. What are azeotropes?
Ans: They are constant boiling mixtures and have the same
composition in liquid and vapour phases.
9. Explain the different types of azeotropes?
There are 2 types of azeotropes:
Minimum boiling azeotropes: Formed by solutions which show large
positive deviation from Raoult’s law. E.g. 95% aqueous solution of
ethanol by volume.
Maximum boiling azeotrope: Formed by solutions which show large
negative deviation from Raoult’s law. E.g. 68% aqueous solution of
HNO3 by mass.
10. What are colligative properties? Name the four types of colligative
properties.
Ans: These are properties of dilute solutions, which depend only on
the number of solute particles and not on their nature.
The important colligative properties:
(i) Relative lowering of Vapour pressure (ii) Elevation of boiling point
(iii) Depression of freezing point (iv) Osmotic pressure.
11. What is osmotic pressure?
Ans: It is the excess pressure that must be applied on solution side to
prevent osmosis.
12. What is reverse osmosis? Write any one of its applications.
Ans: If a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side, the direction of osmosis gets reversed. Now, the solvent
molecules will flow out of solution through SPM. This is known as
reverse osmosis. It is used in desalination of sea water.
13. For determining the molecular mass of polymers, osmotic pressure is
preferred to other properties. Why?

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Ans: This is because the magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even

for very dilute solutions.
14. Write any 2 advantages of osmotic pressure measurement over other
colligative property measurements?
Ans: (i) Osmotic pressure can be measured at room temperature.
(ii) Here molarity of the solution is used instead of molality,
which can be determined easily.
15. What are isotonic solutions? Give an example.
Ans: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure are called isotonic
solutions. E.g. 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl solution and our blood cells.
16. For intravenous injections only solutions with osmotic pressure
equal to that of 0.9% NaCl solution is used. Why?
Ans: This is because the fluid inside our blood cell is isotonic with
0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl solution. So, osmosis does not occur
17. Define van’t Hoff factor. What is its value for KCl solution, if there is
100% dissociation.
Normal molar mass
Ans: van’t Hoff factor (i) =
𝐴𝑏𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
For KCl, i = 2
18. What happens to the colligative properties when ethanoic acid is
treated with benzene? Give reason.
Ans: Colligative properties decreases. This is because ethanoic acid
(acetic acid) dimerise in benzene, due to hydrogen bonding.
19. 200 cm3 of aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of protein.
The osmotic pressure of the solution at 300 K is found to be 8.3 x 10-2
bar. Calculate the molar mass of protein. (R = 0.083 L bar K-1mol-1)
Ans: Here w2 = 1.26 g, R = 0.083 L bar/K/mol, π = 8.3 x 10-2 bar, T
= 300K & V= 200 cm3 = 0.2 L
𝑤2 𝑅𝑇
We know that, molar mass of solute, M2 =
πV
1.26 x 0.083 x 300
= = 1890 g/mol
8.3 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 0.2
20. 18g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a sauce pan.
At what temperature will water boil at 1.013 bar? (Kb for water is 0.52
K kg mol–1, boiling point of water = 373.15 K)
1000 𝐾𝑏 𝑤2
Ans: We know that, ΔTb =
𝑤1 𝑀2
Here w2 = 18 g, w1 = 1 kg = 1000g, Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol, M2 = 180,
Tb0 = 373.15 K, ΔTb = ?, Tb = ?

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On substituting in the above equation, we get

1000 x 0.52 x 18
ΔTb = = 0.052 K
1000 x 180
Also ΔTb = Tb – Tb0
i.e. 0.052 = Tb – 373.15
So, Tb = 0.052 + 373.15 = 373.202 K

2. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
21. What is a Galvanic cell?
Ans: It is a device that converts chemical energy of some redox
reactions to electrical energy.
E.g. Daniel cell, Dry cell etc.
22. Write the representation of a Daniel cell. Also write its anode
reaction, cathode reaction and net reaction?
Ans: Representation of Daniel cell: Zn|Zn2+||Cu2+|Cu
Anode reaction: Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e–
Cathode reaction: Cu2+ + 2 e → Cu
Net reaction: Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
23. Write the Nernst equation for a Daniel cell.
0 0.0591 [𝐶𝑢2+ ]
Ans: Ecell = Ecell + log
2 [𝑍𝑛2+ ]
24. Define molar conductivity. What is its unit?
Ans: It is the conductivity of 1 mol of an electrolytic solution placed in
a conductivity cell having unit distance between the electrodes and
unit area of cross-section.
1000 
OR, Molar conductivity (Λm) = where  is the conductivity and M
M
is the molarity of the solution.
25. How does molar conductivity of a solution vary with concentration or
dilution? Explain.
Ans: The molar conductivity increases with dilution for both strong
and weak electrolytes. This is due to the increase in ionic mobility, for
strong electrolytes and increase in degree of dissociation, for weak
electrolytes.
OR, the graph:

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26. State Kohlrausch’s law of independent migration of ions. State any

one of its applications.
Ans: It states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte is
the sum of the individual contributions of the anion and the cation of
the electrolyte.
Application: It is used to calculate the limiting molar conductivity of
any electrolytes.
27. What is meant by limiting molar conductivity (Λ0m )?
Ans: It is the molar conductivity of an electrolytic solution at zero
concentration.
28. Λ0m for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126.4, 425.9 and 91.0 S cm2 mol–1
respectively. Calculate Λ0m for HAc.
Ans: Given Λ0m (NaCl) = 126.4 Scm2mol–1, Λ0m (HCl) = 425.9 Scm2mol–1
and Λ0m (NaAc) = 91.0 Scm2mol–1
On applying Kohlrausch’s law,
Λ0m (HAc) = Λ0m (NaAc) + Λ0m (HCl) – Λ0m (NaCl)
= 91.0 + 425.9 – 126.4 = 390.5 Scm2mol-1
29. Write any two differences between primary cell and secondary cell.
Ans:
Primary cell Secondary cell
Cannot be recharged or reused. Can be recharged and reused.
The cell reaction cannot be The cell reaction can be
reversed. reversed.
E.g. Dry cell, Mercury cell E.g.: Lead storage cell, Ni-Cd cell

30. What is the electrode potential of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode

(SHE), which is used as a reference electrode, to determine the
electrode potential of an unknown electrode.
Ans: Zero volt (0 V)

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31. Write the anode and cathode reactions occur in the operation of a
lead storage battery. Mention the electrolyte used in the battery.
Ans: Anode reaction: Pb + SO2− 4 → PbSO4 + 2e
–

Cathode reaction: PbO2 + SO2− 4 + 4H + 2e → PbSO4 + 2H2O

+ –

Net reaction: Pb + PbO2 + 2 H2SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O

Electrolyte used is 38% H2SO4 .
32. The cell potential of a mercury cell is 1.35 V, and remains constant
during its life. Give reason.
Ans: Because the cell reaction does not involve any ion in solution.
33. What are fuel cells?
Ans: Fuel cells are galvanic cells which convert the energy of
combustion of fuels (like hydrogen, methane, methanol etc.) directly
into electrical energy.
34. Write any two advantages of fuel cells.
Ans: (i) It is highly efficient (ii) It is eco-friendly.
35. Diagrammatically represent H2 – O2 fuel cell. Write the anode
reaction, cathode reaction and overall cell reaction taking place in it?
Ans: H2 – O2 fuel cell

Anode reaction: 2H2(g) + 4OH–(aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e–

Cathode reaction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH–(aq)
Net Reaction: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
36. What is corrosion? Write any two methods to prevent the corrosion
(rusting) of iron.
Ans: It is the process of formation of oxide or other compounds of a
metal on its surface by the action of air, water-vapour, CO2 etc.
Rusting can be prevented by:
(i) coating the metal surface with paint, varnish etc.
(ii) coating with anti-rust solution.

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3. CHEMICAL KINETICS
37. What do you mean by rate of a reaction ?
Ans: It is the change in concentration of any one of the reactants or
products in unit time.
38. Write any two factors influencing rate of a reaction.
Ans: (i) Concentration of the reactants (ii) Temperature.
39. Write the unit of rate of a reaction.
Ans: mol L-1 s-1
40. Express the rate of the following reaction in terms of reactants and
products: 2HI → H2 + I2.
−1 Δ[HI] Δ[H2 ] Δ[I2 ] −1 d[HI] d[H2 ] d[I2 ]
Ans: r = = = OR, r = = =
2 Δt Δt Δt 2 dt dt dt
41. Write the units of rate constant k for a zero, first and second order
reactions.
Ans:
Order of Reaction Unit of rate constant
Zero order mol L-1 s-1
First order s-1
Second order mol-1 L s-1
42. Write any three differences between order and molecularity.
Ans:
Order Molecularity
It is the sum of the powers of It is the total number of
the concentration terms in the reactant species collide
rate law expression. simultaneously in a chemical
reaction.
It is an experimental quantity It is a theoretical quantity
It can be zero or fractional It cannot be zero or fractional
43. What is mean by zero order reaction? Give one example.
Ans: Zero order reaction means that the rate of a reaction is
independent of the concentration of the reactants. E.g. Decomposition
of ammonia at the surface of platinum at high pressure.
44. The conversion of molecules A to B follows second order kinetics. If
concentration of A is increased to three times, how will it affect the
rate of formation of B?
Ans: Here r = k[A]2
So, if the concentration is increased to 3 times, the rate of the reaction
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is increased by 9 times.
45. Write the expression for integrated rate equation for a first order
reaction.
2.303 [R]0
Ans: k = log
t [R]
46. What is mean by half–life period of a reaction?
Ans: It is the time taken to reduce the concentration of a reactant to
half of its initial concentration.
47. Write an expression for half-life period of first order reaction.
0.693
Ans: t½ =
𝑘
48. By deriving the equation for half-life period of a first order reaction,
prove that 𝑡1 is independent initial concentration of reactants.
2
2.303 [R]0
Ans: For a first order reaction, k = log
t [R]
[𝑅]0
When t = 𝑡1 , [R] =
2 2
2.303 [R]0
So, the above equation becomes: k = log [𝑅]0
𝑡1
2 2
2.303
Or, 𝑡1 = log 2
2 k
0.693
Or, 𝑡1 = 𝑘
2

Thus, for a first order reaction, half-life period is independent of initial

concentration of the reactants.
49. What are pseudo first order reactions? Give one example.
Ans: These are reactions which appears to follow higher order but
actually follows first order kinetics. E.g.: Hydrolysis of ester.
50. Write the Arrhenius equation and identify the terms in it. OR, Write a
relation which connects rate constant with temperature.
−𝐸𝑎
Ans: Arrhenius equation is k = A. 𝑒 ⁄𝑅𝑇
Where k – rate constant of the reaction, A – Arrhenius factor, Ea –
activation energy, R – universal gas constant and T – absolute
temperature.
51. Calculate the half-life period of a first order reaction whose rate
constant is 200 s–1 .
0.693 0.693
Ans: t½ = = = 3.5 x 10-3 s
𝑘 200
52. Rate constant k2 of a reaction at 310K is two times of its rate constant
k1 at 300 K. Calculate activation energy of the reaction. (log 2 = 0.3010
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and log 1 = 0)
Ans: Here T1 = 300K, k1 = x, T2 = 310K, k2 = 2x and R= 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
𝑘 𝐸 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
log 𝑘2 = 2.303
𝑎
𝑅 𝑇1 .𝑇2
1

2𝑥 𝐸 310 − 300
log 𝑥
= 2.303 𝑥𝑎8.314 300 𝑥 310
2.303 𝑥 8.314 𝑥 300 𝑥 310 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2
So, Ea = 10
= 53598 J mol-1 = 53.598 kJ mol-1

4. d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS

53. Write any four characteristic properties of transition elements.
Ans: They are metals, they show variable oxidation states, they form
coloured ions, they act as catalysts, most of them are paramagnetic etc.
54. Zinc (atomic number = 30) is not a transition element, though it is a
d block element. Why?
Ans: This is due to the absence of partially filled d orbitals in its
ground state or in any of its common oxidation states.
55. What is the reason for the catalytic property of transition elements?
Ans: Large surface area and ability to show variable oxidation states
are the reason for catalytic property.
56. Transition elements form large number of complex compounds.
Why?
Ans: This is due to comparatively smaller size, high ionic charge,
presence of partially filled d orbitals and ability to show variable
oxidation state.
57. What is the common oxidation state of first row transition elements?
Ans: +2
58. What is the common oxidation state of Lanthanoids?
Ans: +3
59. Transition metal ions are generally coloured. Why?
Ans: This is due to the presence of partially filled d–orbitals or due to
d–d transition.
60. Name the two types of magnetic behaviour shown by transition
elements.
Ans: Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
61. Calculate the ‘spin only’ magnetic moment of M2+(aq) ion (Z = 27).

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Ans: For M2+ ion with atomic number 27, the electronic configuration
is 3d 7. So, there are 3 unpaired electrons and hence µs = √3(3+2) =
3.87 BM
62. From the following ions, identify the ions which are paramagnetic
and show colour in aqueous solution: Ti2+, Fe2+, Sc3+, V3+, Ti4+, Cu2+,
Cu+
Ans: Ti2+, Fe2+, V3+, Cu2+ are paramagnetic and coloured, since they
contain partially filled d-orbitals. [Ions with d0 (e.g. Sc3+, Ti4+etc) and
d10 (e.g. Cu+) configurations are diamagnetic and colourless in
aqueous solution]
63. Write any three applications of d– and f– block elements.
Ans: Iron is an important construction material. TiO2 is used in
pigment industry. Zn, Ni, Cd, MnO2 etc are used in making batteries.
64. The catalyst used in the Wacker process for the oxidation of ethyne to
ethanal is …………….
Ans: Palladium chloride (PdCl2)
65. Describe the method of preparation of potassium chromate from
chromite ore.
Ans: (i) Conversion of chromite ore to sodium chromate by fusing with
sodium carbonate in presence of air.
(ii) Acidification of sodium chromate with sulphuric acid to produce
sodium dichromate.
(iii) Sodium dichromate is treated with potassium chloride to get
potassium dichromate.
66. How will you prepare KMnO4 from MnO2?
Ans: The preparation of Potassium permanganate from Pyrolusite
(MnO2) involves two steps.
In the first step MnO2 is fused with KOH to form potassium manganate.
In the second step, potassium manganate is electrolytically oxidised to
potassium permanganate.
67. Give one example for the oxidising actions of KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7.
Ans: Both of them oxidises ferrous ion to ferric ion in acidic medium.
68. What is Lanthanoid contraction? Give reason for it?
Ans: The regular decrease in the atomic and ionic radii along
lanthanide series is known as lanthanide contraction. It is due to the
poor shielding effect of f – electrons and increase in nuclear charge.

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