· ENG 518

· lessons 20-24
· Most university libraries in the United States and
Europe, as well as some public libraries, have such
computerized search capabilities
· Qualitative data analysis : Content analysis,
Narrative analysis ,Discourse analysis ,
Framework analysis
· Quantitative data analysis : Numerical data-
statistics - questionnaire
· Discussion and conclusion – together or separate
· • D: Interpret results
· • C: Restate your hypothesis
· • Put the most important findings front and center
· Researchers vary in the format they use to wrap up
their studies
· A well-written Discussion section will be careful to
warn readers of this problem.
· Non-experimental designs such as descriptive or
correlational ones cannot be used to directly show
causation
· human resources, and finance to get that 0.30
correlation or those extra 5 points due to the
treatment
· The main benefit of doing a literature review is to
provide the consumer with a mosaic of what is
happening concerning a given topic
· The closer the correspondence, the more applicable
the findings might be to yoursituation
· In preparation for constructing your review of the
 research literature, you need to formulate a
systematic procedure for cataloging and storing your
information for each study. We used to have to put
out information on i.e., 12 cm × 20 cm cards that
were awkward to handle
The variables in the study suchas:
a. Observational
b. Independent
c. Dependent
d. Moderating
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Lesson 25
· The Qualitative–Quantitative continuum has received
a lot of attention over the past 20 years, usually
accompanied with much controversy
· Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991), who described
these two terms as two ends of a continuum that
have different data-collecting procedures
· The two ends of this continuum mostly have their
origins in different disciplines.
· Quantitative research has come mainly from the
field of psychology
· quantitative research is characterized by the
use of numbers to represent its data,
· qualitative research is characterized by verbal
descriptions as its data
· Quantitative research frequently uses sample
strategies for generalizing findings to larger
 populations,
· whereas qualitative research works to uncover
information from information-rich samples.
· A number of qualitative studies involve numbers in
the form of frequencies
· an approach referred to as grounded theory,
which arose out of anthropology
· Wolcott illustrated over 20 strategies in his famous
tree diagram
· Tesch organized 27 strategies into a flowchart under
four general categories
· fourth—protocol analysis—mentioned by Gall et
al
· Case studies are frequently found in applied
linguistics research. Gall et al. (1996) defined a
case study as, the in-depth study of instances of a
phenomenon in its natural context
· Examples of phenomena are programs, curricula,
roles, and events
· they are two ends of a continuum under the
qualitative research banner. : Ethnography
and Conversational Analysis
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Lesson 26
· QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy
· Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA)
· Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions
and propositions that presents a systematic view of
 events or situations by specifying relations among
variables
· Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping
of lower-level data points
· It is the smallest unit of analysis
· Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of
text so that the researcher can group and compare
similar or related pieces of information
· Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks
of text from different sources in to a single file or
report
· Indexing: process that generates a word list
comprising all the substantive words and their
location within the texts entered in to a program
Qualitative vs quantitative data analysis
· • Difference in data – instruments – procedures and
analyses
· Qualitative: • Content – attitudes – individual or
shared ideas – experiences
· Verbal data - observation
· Quantitative: • Numerical data – statistics -
questionnaire
· Steps in quanlitative data analysis : Step 1:
Organize the data
· Content analysis is the procedure for the
categorization of verbal or behavioural data for the
purpose of classification, summarization and
tabulation.
· The content can be analyzed on two levels –
Descriptive: What is the data? – Interpretative: what
 was meant by the data?
· Narratives are transcribed experiences
· The core activity in narrative analysis is to
reformulate stories presented by people in different
contexts
· Discourse analysis: method of analyzing a
naturally occurring talk (spoken interaction) and all
typesof written texts
· Sometimes people express themselves in a simple ,
vaguely and indirectly and straightforward way
Framework analysis:
· Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
· Charting: Charts created using headings from
thematic framework
· Analytic induction – Starts with an examination of
a single case from a ‘pre-defined’ population in order
to formulate a general statement about a population,
a concept or a hypothesis
· Mapping and interpretation: Searching for
patterns, associations, concepts and explanations in
the data
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Lesson
27 ,28,
29 , 30
· Traditional qualitative data analysis: a labor-
intensive process
· After the arrival of computer software, the work flow
 became easy
· Desired “closeness” to the data is the key steps in
Choosing software
· Action Research is a process in which participants
examine their own educational practice
systematically and carefully, using the techniques of
research.
· Practitioners’(teachers’) research
· Selection of problem is first Step in action
research
· The design of Action Research project should be
economical from money, time and energy
· The problem should be selected objectively and
studied scientifically
Survey method :
· Survey method gathers data by asking questions
· It is the commonly-used method of collecting
information
· Demographic questions are the most popular and
common one e.g. what is your age? what is your
gender?
· Both the cross-sectional and the longitudinal
studies are observational studies
· The defining feature of a crosssectional study is
that it can compare different population groups at a
single point in time
· in a longitudinal study, researchers conduct
several observations of the same subjects over a
period of time, sometimes lasting many years
· Socio-economic characteristics and attributes
 are considered important in survey research.
· An example of a surveytopic: English teachers’
perception of mother-tongue based education policy
in Philippines
· Choose the mode of data (Direct + mail + phone +
personal interview)
· experimental research is what we call a true
experiment
·  This is an experiment where the researcher
manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes
the rest of the variables
· Experimental research as a scientific method : Pure
and quasi experimental
· The law of single variable: This law states that if
two situations are equal in all respects except for an
independent variable, any change between two
situations can be attributed to the independent
variable.
· The concept of cause and effect is an example
of an experimental study
Types of Experimental Design
· There are two basic types of research design: True
experiments --------Quasi-experiments
· True experiments, in which all the important
factors that might affect the phenomena of
interest are completely controlled, are the
preferred design.
· Often, however, it is not possible or practical to
control all the key factors, so it becomes
necessary to implement a quasi-experimental
 research design.
· Because control is lacking in quasi-
experiments, there may be several "rival
hypotheses"
· Experimental method: sophisticated way of
research
· An active variable is a variable that is manipulated
by the investigator
· an active variable changes in a well-defined and
carefully manipulated way over the course of an
experiment.
· The need for precision – ‘true study’
Procedures in experimental method
· Basic principles of experimental design:
• Randomization: o Valid estimate o
Experimental error o Minimize bias o Independence of
variances
• Replication: o Repeated treatment o
Increase precision o Estimate + reduces error
• LocalControl: o Homogenous groups o
Size + shape (S+G errors)
Various types of errors possible
· • Chance Error : o Individual differences o Sampling
errors o Measurement errors
· • Systematic errors : o Researcher’s bias o
Hawthorne effect
· • Avoid errors : o Maximize variance (IV) o Control
variance (EV) o Minimize error (random)
· Factorial design : Common features with Treatment
X Level design
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Lesson
31, 32, 33,
34, 35
· Historical research means meaningful recording of
past events. It is the branch of learning that studies
the records of past events
· Historical research provides new understanding of
past, relevance to present and future.
· In the field of education, historical research helps
educators understand problems andissues.
· Sources of historical data or evidences: Two major
categories: documents and remains
· Documents :Official records , Personal documents ,
Newspapers, periodicals, journals , Catalogue,
syllabus,prospectus
· Remains : Building, furniture and equipment , Library
and their furniture,Text-books, exercise-books, maps,
drawings,
· A case study is a research methodology that has
commonly used in social sciences
· Case studies are based on an in-depth investigation
of a single individual, group or event to explore the
causes of underlying principles.
· Case study can be on a person, group, institution,
community or family
· Illustrative Case Studies o
Typically utilizing one or two instances
 · Exploratory (or pilot) Case
Studies o For large scale studies
· Cumulative Case Studies o
aggregate information from several sites
· Critical Instance Case Studies
o Unique cases
· Status of the situation or unit of attention is first Step
in a case study
· Type of article : • Primary research • Review of
literature • Position paper
· Three criteria : • Focus + type + succintncess
· Comparing the Effects of Reading and Writing on
Writing Performance (Tsang,1996)
· Second Language Learning and the Teaching of
Grammar (Zhongganggao, 2001)
· Word Translation at Three Levels of Proficiency in a
Second Language: TheUbiquitous Involvement of
Conceptual Memory (de Groot & Poot,
· spellings that were produced by children in
kindergarten (N = 115), first grade (N = 104), and
second grade (N = 77)
· If hypotheses can not be formulated but objectives of
the study can be written to indicate the direction of
the research work
· There are tools that can be downloaded on the
computers and used for calculationand interpretation
of the data such as: EndNote, TURNITIN
· Use AND to connect words: hyperactivity AND
children or a plus sign: hyperactivity + children.
· Use NOT in front of words that must not appear in a
 document: Persian Gulf NOT war. Or a minus sign
(hyphen) instead: Persian Gulf -war
· Use OR if only one of the terms must appear in a
document: “mountain lion” OR cougar
· Use an asterisk as a substitute for letters that might
vary: “marine biolog*” (marine biology or biologist)
· Use parentheses to group a search expression and
combine it with another: (standard OR student OR
test*) AND reform
· Effective researchers are good record keeper
· Keeping track of your sources by keeping three
copies: email, save, print
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Lesson
36 , 37,
38, 39, 40
· APA- American Psychological Association
Three acts are plagiarism:
(1) failing to cite quotations and
borrowed ideas
(2) failing to enclose borrowed
language in quotation marks, and
(3) failing to put summaries and
paraphrases in your own words
· Sources are cited for two reasons: (a) tell your
readers about the sources of info (b) to give credit to
the authors from whom you take it.
· Use quotations appropriately : When the language of
 a source is the topic of your discussion
The three types of in-text references:
• APA – e.g. (Bailey, 1990, )
• Harvard – e.g. (Bailey, 1990)
• MLA – e.g. (Bailey)
· Yanovski reported that " the current state of
treatment for obesity is similar to the state of the
treatment of hypertension several "
· No substitute for initial personal, appreciative
response to the basic ingredients of literature
• The setting is the time frame or place in
which the work takes place.
• The plot is the general background of
the story line that presents the sequence of events in
which the characters in conflict are involved.
• The characters are the individuals that
the writing is typically based upon in a story line.
• Atmosphere is the mood or feeling
conveyed by the author’s choice of language.
• The theme is the underlying meaning of
the writing. It is clearly stated and can beapplied to the
reader’s life
· Time-honored plot ingredients (the escape, the
chase, the capture, the release)
· Theme : Slavery, hypocrisy, violence and destruction
Literature as art – three fundamental Qs
1. Do we have an accurate version of
what we are studying? : • Textual scholarship
2. What are we dealing with? : • Genre
studies
 3. Did earlier writings help this work
come into being? : • Source studies
· The primary goal of the discipline of textual
scholarship (or textual criticism) is the investigation
of texts
· Ezra Pound (Waste Land) in creating a modern classic
Hamlet
· • Greatness discovered by the editors
· • 400 hundred years and four versions
· James Thorpe - Principles of Textual Criticism
· Genre means a type of art, literature, or music
characterized by a specific form, content, and style.
For example, literature has four main genres: poetry,
drama, fiction, and non-fiction
• Two more recent works:
• ED Hirsch - Validity in
Interpretation (individuality of a
given work)
• Robert Scholes - Structuralism
in Literature (archetypal and
rhetorical)
· Fiction has three categories that are, realistic,
non-realistic, and semi-fiction
· Fiction work is not real.
· Popular literary fiction include, James Joyce’s
novel A Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man,
Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, Jane
Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, and Harper Lee’s
To Kill a Mockingbird.
· Non-fiction is a vast category that also has sub-
 genres; it could be creative like a personal essay, or
factual, like a scientific paper.
· Other examples of non-fiction include
biographies, diaries, memoirs, journals,
fantasies, mysteries, and romances.
· A popular example of non-fiction genre is
Michael Pollan’s highly celebrated book, The
Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four
Meals, which is an account of the eating habits
of Americans.
· Biographical criticism is a form of literary
criticism which analyzes a writer's biography
· Biographical criticism is often associated with
historical-biographical criticism
Historical criticism: two ways to approach
• Old Historicism: looks at the time in which
a piece was written to determine how it was interpreted
by its contemporaries.
• New Historicism: demonstrates how a
literary work reflects ideas and attitudes of the time in
which it was written.
· HBM : Historical biographical method
• Advantages: works well for
some which are obviously political or
biographical innature
• Disadvantages: "the
intentional fallacy"
· A moral philosophical approach usually describes
or evaluates a work in terms of the ideas and values
it contains.
· religious system (rationalism, existentialism,
Christianity, etc.).
· The philosophical approach in literature becomes
much more than a novelty, it becomes something
human
· Critics believe that the major purpose of literature is
to teach morality.
· Plato and Horace both emphasized on morality.
· Mathew Arnold discussed morality in the genre of
poetry.
· Literature: an important source of moral guidance
and spiritual inspiration
· The best poetry has a power of forming, sustaining,
and delighting us, as nothing else can
· Greatest writers have considered themselves
teachers as well as artists
· Literature’s power as a teacher (Plato)
· Functions of literature: teach morality and probe
philosophical issues : (Samuel Johnson)
· Great literary work must possess “high seriousness”
· "a philosophy advocating the self- fulfillment of man
within the framework of Christian principles.“
(Webster)
· The Modern Language Association (MLA)
provides a method for source documentation that is
used in most humanity courses.
· CMS stands for the Chicago Manual of Style. It
is a style of formatting written works that is most
widely used in publishing.
· Book citation in MLA generally requires an author
 name, work title, publication city, publisher and
publication year.
· Set off long quotations if more than 4 lines, indent 1”
· MLA formatting : • Times New Roman • Size: 12 • No
title page
·