Classroom Rules

Upon entering the classroom, the following rules should be observed:

1.) Come to class prepared to learn.
2.) Always be on time.
3.) Using of cellphones are not allowed.
4.) Be kind and respect everyone.
5.) Always be attentive and participative.
At the end of the discussion, the students should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast: electric charge vs. electric current;
2. Define voltage and power.
3. Calculate power using the passive sign convention.
Introduction
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
Element Symbol Unit
Resistor Ohms (Ω)
Capacitor Farads (F)
Inductor Henry (H)
Variable Ohms (Ω)
Resistor
Voltage Volts (V)
Source
Current Ampere (A)
Source
Ground -
System of Units
Table 1.1 shows the six basic SI units.

Table 1.2 shows the SI prefixes and their symbol.

Charge and Current
The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for explaining all
electrical phenomena and the most basic quantity in an electric current is
called electric charge.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter

consists, measured in coulombs (C).

All matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that
each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. (𝑒 = 1.602 x 10−19 C)
Charge and Current
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is connected to a
battery (a source of electromotive force), the charges are compelled to move;
positive charges move in one direction while negative charges move in the
opposite direction. This motion of charges creates electric current.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes

(A).
Charge and Current
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is:
𝑡
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= → 𝑄 = න 𝑖 dt
𝑑𝑡 𝑡0
𝑄
𝑖=
𝑡

A direct current (dc) is a current that remains

constant with time.
Charge and Current
Example: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Charge and Current
Example: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?
Charge and Current
Example: Calculate the amount of charge represented by four million
protons.
Charge and Current
Example: Calculate the amount of charge represented by four million
protons.

Ans: 6.408 x 10−13 C

Charge and Current
Example: Calculate the current flowing through a point if 2.5 C of charge is
flowing for 1 minute.
Charge and Current
Example: Calculate the current flowing through a point if 2.5 C of charge is
flowing for 1.5 minute.

Solution:
𝑄
𝑖=
𝑡
2.5
𝑖=
90
𝑖 = 0.0278 A = 27.8 mA
Charge and Current
The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 mC. Calculate
the current at 𝑡 = 0.5 s.
Charge and Current
The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 mC. Calculate
the current at 𝑡 = 0.5 s.

Solution:
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = (5 sin 4𝜋𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 5 cos 4𝜋𝑡 (4𝜋)
𝑖 = 20𝜋 cos 4𝜋𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0.5 𝑠
𝑖 = 20𝜋 cos 4𝜋 0.5
𝑖 = 62.83 mA
Voltage
To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some
work or energy transfer. This work is performed by an external electromotive
force (emf) typically presented by the battery. This emf is also known as
voltage or potential difference.

joule
1 volt = 1 = 1 newton − meter/coulomb
coulomb

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move

a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
Power and Energy
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric
circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need
to know how much power an electric device can handle.

To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall from physics
that power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W):
𝑑𝑤
𝑝= = 𝑣𝑖
𝑑𝑡

If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or absorbed by the

element. If, on the other hand, the power has a – sign, power is being
supplied by the element.
Power and Energy
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in determining the
sign of power. It is therefore important that we pay attention to the
relationship between current 𝑖 and voltage 𝑣.

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the
positive terminal of an element and 𝑝 = +𝑣𝑖. If the current enters through
the negative terminal, 𝑝 = −𝑣𝑖.
Power and Energy
Example: Determine the power absorbed/supplied by each element in the
figure.
Circuit Elements
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified
voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit elements.
Circuit Elements
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the
source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current. The following are
the four possible types of dependent sources:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
Power
Example: Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in the
circuit shown below.
Power
Example: Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in the
circuit shown below.
At the end of the discussion, the students should be able to:
1. Evaluate the effect of varying the length, cross sectional area, and
temperature on the resistance of an electrical conductor.
2. Calculate the resistance of a material for a given set of conditions.
3. Define basic laws that governs electric circuits.
Introduction
Previously, we introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power
in an electric circuit. To actually determine the values of these variables in a
given circuit requires that we understand some fundamental laws that
govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff ’s
laws, form the foundation upon which electric circuit analysis is built.
Resistance and Resistivity
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of
electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known
as resistance and is represented by the symbol 𝐑. In mathematical form:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
where:
𝑅 → resistance in Ohms (Ω)
𝜌 → resistivity of the material (Ω − m)
𝐿 → length of the material (m)
𝐴 → cross sectional area of the material (m2 )
Resistance and Resistivity
Table of resistivity and temperature coefficients of different materials.
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: Find the resistance of a 80 – m copper wire whose diameter is 1.0
mm.
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: Find the resistance of a 80 – m copper wire whose diameter is 1.0
mm.

Solution:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
1.7 x 10−8 (80)
𝑅= 𝜋
1 x 10−3 2
4
𝑅 = 1.73 Ω
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: Assuming that the copper wire in the previous example is wielded
to a 49.0 m rectangular iron wire with a width of 1 mm and a thickness of 1.5
mm, determine the total resistance of the wire.
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: Assuming that the copper wire in the previous example is wielded
to a 49.0 m rectangular iron wire with a width of 1 mm and a thickness of 1.5
mm, determine the total resistance of the wire.

Solution:
𝑅1 = 1.73 Ω
𝜌𝐿
𝑅2 =
𝐴
10 x 10−8 (49)
𝑅2 =
(1 x 10−3 )(1.5 x 10−3 )
𝑅2 = 3.27 Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 = 1.73 + 3.27 = 5 Ω
Resistance and Resistivity
The resistance of all conductors will increase as he temperature of the
conductor increases, this can be shown using the equation:
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]

where:
𝑅2 → resistance at 𝑇2 in Ohms (Ω)
𝑅1 → resistance at 𝑇1 in Ohms (Ω)
𝑇1 → initial temperature (℃)
𝑇2 → final temperature (℃)
𝛼 → temperature coefficient at 𝑇1
Resistance and Resistivity
The resistance of all conductors will increase as he temperature of the
conductor increases, this can be shown using the equation:
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]

where:
𝑅2 → resistance at 𝑇2 in Ohms (Ω)
𝑅1 → resistance at 𝑇1 in Ohms (Ω)
𝑇1 → initial temperature (℃)
𝑇2 → final temperature (℃)
𝛼 → temperature coefficient at 𝑇1
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: A given conductor has a resistance of 50 Ω when its temperature is
0℃ . Calculate its resistance at 60℃ if the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the material at 0℃ is 0.0043.
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: A given conductor has a resistance of 50 Ω when its temperature is
0℃ . Calculate its resistance at 60℃ if the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the material at 0℃ is 0.0043.

Solution:
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + 𝛼1 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )]
𝑅2 = 50[1 + 0.0043 60 − 0 ]
𝑅2 = 63 Ω
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: What is the resistance of a 1,000 meters of 3 mm diameter copper
wire at 30℃?
Resistance and Resistivity
Example: What is the resistance of a 1 km of 3 mm diameter copper wire at
30℃?

Solution:
Resistance at 20℃:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅20℃ =
𝐴
1.7 x 10−8 1000
𝑅20℃ = 𝜋
3 x 10−3 2
4
𝑅20℃ = 2.41 Ω
𝑅30℃ = 𝑅20℃ 1 + α20℃ 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑅30℃ = 2.41[1 + 3.9x10−3 (30 − 20)]
𝑅30℃ = 2.50 Ω
Wire Sizing
A common way to classify the size of wire is with the American Wire Gauge
(AWG) standard.
Wire Sizing
Circular mil (cmil) – an old unit of specifying the cross-sectional area of a
wire. It is equal to the area of a circle having a diameter of 1 mil.
𝐴 = 𝑑2
1 in = 1000 mils
π
1 cmil = sq. mil
4
Wire Sizing
Example: The area of a strand of wire is 10810.81 cmil. Find the diameter of
the wire.
Wire Sizing
Example: The area of a strand of wire is 10810.81 cmil. Find the diameter of
the wire.

Solution:
𝐴 = 10,810.81 = 𝑑 2
𝑑 = 10810.81
𝑑 = 103.98 mils
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the voltage 𝑣 across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current 𝑖 flowing through the resistor.
𝑣∝𝑖
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑣
𝑅=
𝑖

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric
current; it is measured in ohms (Ω).
Short and Open Circuits
An element with 𝑅 = 0 is called short-circuit.
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 0

Similarly, an element with 𝑅 = ∞ is known as

open-circuit.
𝑣
𝑖 = lim = 0
𝑅=∞ 𝑅
Ohm’s Law
Example: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find the resistance and power
consumed.
Ohm’s Law
Example: An electric iron draws 2 A at 120 V. Find the resistance and power
consumed.

Solution:
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑣 120
𝑅= =
𝑖 2
𝑅 = 60 Ω

𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖 = (120)(2)
𝑃 = 240 W
Ohm’s Law
Example: In the circuit shown, calculate the current 𝑖 and the power 𝑃.
Ohm’s Law
Example: In the circuit shown, calculate the current 𝑖 and the power 𝑃.

Solution:
𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅
30
𝑖=
5000
𝑖 = 6 mA

𝑣2 302
𝑃= =
𝑅 5000
𝑃 = 180 mW
Activity
How many coulombs are represented by these amounts of electrons?
1.) 6.482 x 1017
2.) 1.24 x 1018
3.) 2.46 x 1019
4.) 1.628 x 1020

5.) Determine the current flowing through an element if charge flow is given by
𝑞 𝑡 = (8𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 2) C at 𝑡 = 0.75 s.
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Branch – represents a single element such as voltage source, current source,
or a resistor. In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element.
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Node – the point of connection between two or more branches or elements
and is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (wire) connects
two or more nodes, they constitute a single node.
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Node – the point of connection between two or more branches or elements
and is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (wire) connects
two or more nodes, they constitute a single node.
Nodes, Branches, and Loops
Loop – any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of

nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any node
more than once.
Series Elements
Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node
and consequently carry the same current. They are chain-connected or
connected sequentially, end to end.
Series Elements
Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node
and consequently carry the same current. They are chain-connected or
connected sequentially, end to end.
Series Elements
Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node
and consequently carry the same current. They are chain-connected or
connected sequentially, end to end.

Characteristics:
• Current is the same or equal throughout all series-connected elements.
• Total resistance is the sum of all series-connected resistances.
• Each resistor have different voltage drops.
• These voltage drops are additive.
• Applied voltage is equal to the sum of all voltage drops.
Voltage Division in Series Elements
Since the current flowing in a series circuit is equal, the voltage drop on each
resistor varies directly to its resistance.

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝑉, 𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑉3 = 𝑉, 𝑉4 = 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉
𝑅𝑇
Voltage Division in Series Elements
Example: Find the voltage drop of each resistor using voltage division
theorem.
Parallel Elements
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two
nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them. Elements in
parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals.
Parallel Elements
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two
nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them. Elements in
parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals.
Parallel Elements
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two
nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them. Elements in
parallel are connected to the same pair of terminals.

Characteristics:
• Voltage is the same or equal throughout all parallel-connected elements.
• The inverse of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the inverse of all
parallel-connected resistances.
• Each resistor have different current values.
• Branch currents are additive.
• Applied current is equal to the sum of all branch currents.
Current Division Theorem
The total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances.

𝑅2
𝑖1 = 𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅1
𝑖2 = 𝑖
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Current Division Theorem
Example: Find the currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 using CDT.
Series-Parallel Elements
Examples: Determine the equivalent resistance of each circuit shown.
Series-Parallel Elements