MODULE 4

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module-4
Corona
Electric-power transmission practically deals in the bulk transfer of electrical energy,
from generating stations situated many kilometers away from the main consumption
centers or the cities. For this reason the long distance transmission cables are of utmost
necessity for effective power transfer, which in-evidently results in huge losses across the
system. Minimizing those has been a major challenge for power engineers of late and to
do that one should have a clear understanding of the type and nature of losses. One of
them being the corona effect in power system, which has a predominant role in reducing
the efficiency of EHV(extra high voltage lines) which we are going to concentrate on, in this
article.

For corona effect to occur effectively, two factors here are of prime importance as mentioned
below:-
1) Alternating potential difference must be supplied across the line.
2) The spacing of the conductors, must be large enough compared to the line diameter.

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Corona Effect in Transmission Line
When an alternating current is made to flow across two conductors of the transmission line whose
spacing is large compared to their diameters, then air surrounding the conductors (composed of
ions) is subjected to di-electric stress. At low values of supply end voltage, nothing really occurs
as the stress is too less to ionize the air outside. But when the potential difference is made to
increase beyond some threshold value of around 30 kV known as the critical disruptive voltage,
then the field strength increases and then the air surrounding it experiences stress high enough to
be dissociated into ions making the atmosphere conducting. This results in electric discharge
around the conductors due to the flow of these ions, giving rise to a faint luminescent glow, along
with the hissing sound accompanied by the liberation of ozone, which is readily identified due to
its characteristic odor. This phenomena of electrical discharge occurring in transmission line for
high values of voltage is known as the corona effect in power system. If the voltage across the
lines is still increased the glow becomes more and more intense along with hissing noise,
inducing very high power loss into the system which must be accounted for.
Factors Affecting Corona
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by
the conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends :
(i) Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionsiation of air surrounding the conductors,

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therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number
of ions is more than normal and as such corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with
fair weather

(ii) Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the
conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because unevenness
ofthe surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has
irregular surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
(iii) Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is because larger distance
between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding
corona formation.
(iv) Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the
condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the
line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface
make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is formed.

The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead transmission line.
Therefore, it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in the analysis of corona effects:

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(i) Critical disruptive voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona
occurs. Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-

neutral potential, then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:

In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown strength of air.
The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2
kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these
conditions, then,

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage
overhead line, a balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages

(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic
stresses between the conductors.
(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages

(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical
action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidalvoltage drop
occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.
Methods of Reducing Corona Effect

It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or above.
Therefore, careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus- bars rated for

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33 kV and higher voltages otherwise highly ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators or
between the phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment. The corona effects can be
reduced by the following methods :
(i) By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs
is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR
conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission lines.
(ii) By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage
at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However, spacing
cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and
supports) may increase to a considerable extent.

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Underground Cable
Introduction
The transmission and distribution of an electrical power can be with the help of overhead transmission
lines or by underground cables. It has been mentioned that in thickly populated are like towns and cities,
the use of overhead lines is not practicable. In such cases electrical energy is transmitted and distributed
with the help of underground cables. In its basic form, an underground cable is a conductor provided with
proper insulation. As the voltage level increases, the cost of the insulation increases rapidly and thus the use
of underground cables is restricted to low and medium voltage distribution.
Comparison of Underground cables and Overhead lines
Compared to overhead lines, the underground cables have the following advantages,
1. It ensures non-interrupted continuity of supply. The possible supply interruptions due to lighting, storms
and other weather conditions are eliminated because of underground cables.
2. It requires less maintenance.
3. The accidents caused due to breakage of overhead line conductors are eliminated due to use of
underground cables.
4. The voltage drop in the underground cables is less.

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5. The life of underground cables is long compared to overhead lines.
6- The beauty of cities and town get maintained due to underground network of cables.
7- The overhead lines use bars conductors which is unsafe in thickly populated area. Hence from safety
point of view, the underground cables are more advantageous.
The only drawbacks of underground cables are the extremely high initial cost and insulation problems
at high voltages. In India, the big cities have adopted the system of underground cables for the transmission
and distribution.
Thus the use of underground cables is mainly for the distribution of an electrical power at low and
medium voltages. Its use is almost compulsory at the location where use of overhead lines is not practicable
due to the safety reasons such as congested urban area, crossing of wide roads, near gas plants and
refineries, near substation etc.
Still the overhead lines also have some advantages compared to the underground cables which are,
1- Long distance transmission is possibly by the overhead lines.
2- The conductors in overhead lines is less expensive.
3- The size of the conductor in overhead lines is less than underground cables due to good heat dissipation
in overhead lines.

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4- The insulation cost is very less as the air itself acts as an insulation between the conductors. The gas or
oil is not required for overhead lines. For high voltage levels, spacing in air can be easily adjusted in case of
overhead lines to obtain proper insulation.
5- The erection cost is much less for the overhead lines. The underground cable laying is difficult and
complicated.
Depending upon the situation and the requirements, the underground cables or overhead transmission
system can be used.

Requirements of the Cables

An underground cable can be defined as the group of individually insulated one or more conductors
which is put together and finally provided with number of layers of insulations to give proper mechanical
support.
The conductors used in the cables are usually aluminium or annealed copper while the insulation is
commonly PVC or other chemical compositions. Many types of cables are available depending upon the
nature of conductors, number of conductors, types of insulation used etc. The basic necessary requirements
of the cables are,
1- The size of the conductors used must be such that it should be carry the specified load without
overheating and keeping the voltage drop well within the permissible limits.

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2- As the voltage level for which cables are designed, the insulation thickness must be proper so as to
provide high degree of safety and the reliability.
3- The cables must be surrounded by number of layers of an additional insulation so as to give proper
mechanical strength and protection. Thus the cables can withstand the rough use at the time of laying them.
4- The material used in the manufacturing of cables must be such that there is complete chemical and
physical stability throughout.

Types of Cables

Belted cables
As mentioned earlier, these are used for the voltage levels upto 11 KV. The construction of belted cable is
shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Belted 3 core cable

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The cores are not circular in shape. The core are insulated from each other by use of impregnated
paper. The three cores are grouped together and belted with the help of a paper belt. The gaps are filled
with fibrous material like jute. This gives circular cross-sectional shape to the cable. The belt is covered
with lead sheath which protects cable from moisture and also gives mechanical strength. The lead sheath is
finally covered by jute like fibrous compounded material.
The electrical field in single core cable is radial while it is tangential in case of three core cables. Hence
the insulation is subjected to tangential electrical stresses rather than radial one. The paper has good radial
strength but not tangential strength. Similarly paper resistance along the radius is much larger than
resistance along tangential path. The same is true for dielectric strength also. The fibrous material is also
subjected to the tangential electrical stresses, for which, the material is weak. Hence under high voltage
cases, the cumulative effect of tangential electrical stresses is to from space inside the cable due to leakage
currents. Such air spaces formed inside the insulation is called void formation. This void formation is
dangerous because under high voltage, spaces are ionized which deteriorates the insulation which may lead
to the breakdown of the insulation. Hence the belted cables are not used for the high voltage levels. Another
disadvantage of the belted cable is large diameter of paper belt. Due to this, wrinkles are formed and gaps
may be developed if the cable is bended. To overcome all theses difficulties, the screened type cables are
used.

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Screened Type Cables
These are used for the voltage levels of 22 kV and 33 kV. The two types of screened cables are 1. H type
cables and 2. S.L. type cables.
1.H-Type Cables
The cable is designed by M.Hochstadter and hence the name given to it is H-Type cable. There is no
paper belt in this type of cable. Each conductor in this cable is insulated with a paper, covered with a
metallic screen which is generally an aluminium foil. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1. The metallic
screen touches each other. Instead of paper belt, the three cores are wrapped with a conducting belt which is
usually copper woven fabric tape. Then there is lead sheath. The conducting belt is in electrical contact with
the metallic screen and lead sheath. After lead sheath there are layers of bedding, armoring and serving.
The metallic screen helps to completely impregnate the cable which avoids the possibility of formation of
voids and spaces. The conducting belt, the three metallic screens and lead sheath are at earth potential, due
to which electrical stresses are radial in nature. This keeps the dielectric losses to minimum. Another
advantage of metallic screens is increase in the heat dissipation which reduces the sheath losses. Due to
these advantages, current carrying capacity of these cables increase. In special cases, the use of these cables
cable extended upto the 66 kV level.

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H-type cable
2 S.L. Cables
The name S.L. stands for separate lead screened cables. In this cable, each core is insulated with
impregnated paper and each one is then covered by separate lead sheath. Then there is a cotton tape
covering the three cores together using a paper filler material. Then there are the layers of armouring and
serving. the difference between H-type and S.L. type cable is that in S.L. type a common lead sheath
covering all the three cores is absent while each core is provided with separate lead sheath. This allows
bending of the cables as per the requirement. The construction of S.L. type cable is shown in the Fig. 2.

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S.L. type cable

The three cores in this type of cable are as good as three separate single core cables.
The various advantages of S.L. type cable are,
1. Due to lead individual lead sheath, core to core fault possibility gets minimised.
2. The electrical stresses are radial in nature.
3. Due to absence of overall lead sheath, bending of cable is easy.
4. The dielectric which gets subjected to electric stresses is paper which is homogeneous hence there is no
possibility of formation of voids.
5. Metal sheath increases the heat dissipation which increases the current carrying capacity.
A combination of H-type and S.L. type cable called H.S.L cable also can be used.

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The lamination of screened cables which are also called solid type cables are,
1. It uses solid insulation only like paper. When the conductor temperature increases, the paper gets
expanded. This eventually stretches the lead sheath.
2. When the load on the cable decreases, it cools down and there is contraction of lead sheath. Due to this
air may be drawn into the cable forming voids. This deteriorates the cable insulation.
3. Moisture may be drawn in alongwith the air which deteriorates the dielectric strength of dielectric.
4. Mechanical shock can cause voids. The breakdown strength of voids in much less than insulation. Hence
voids can cause permanent damage to the cables.
Super Tension (S.T.) Cables
In solid type cables separate arrangement for avoiding void formation and increasing dielectric strength is
not provided. Hence those cables are used maximum upto 66 kV level. The S.T. cables are intended for 132
kV to 275 kV voltage levels.
In such cables, the following methods are specially used to eliminate the possibility of void formation :
1. Instead of solid type insulation, low viscosity oils under pressure is used for impregnation. The channels
are used for oil circulation and oil is always kept under pressure. The pressure eliminates completely, the
formation of voids.
2. Using inert gas at high pressure in between the lead sheath and dielectric.

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Such cables using oil or gas under pressure are called pressure cables and are of two types,
a. Oil filled cables
Oil filled Cables
b. Gas Pressure cables

n case of oil filled cables, the channels or ducts are provided within or adjacent to the cores, through which
oil under pressure is circulated.
The Fig. 1 shows the construction of single core oil filed cable. It consists of concentric stranded
conductors but built around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral core. This hollow core acts as a channel for the
oil. The oil channel is filled in a factory and the pressure is maintained in the oil by connecting the oil
channel to the tanks which are placed at the suitable distances along the path of the cable.

Fig. 1 Conductor channel single core oil filled cable

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The oil pressure compresses the paper insulation, eliminating the possibility of formation of voids.
When cable is heated, the oil expands but expanded oil is collected in the tank. While when cable is cooled,
extra oil is supplied by the tank to maintain the oil pressure. In this type of cable the oil channel is within
the conductor, hence it is called single core conductor channel oil filled cables. The other construction of
the cable is similar to that of solid type cables.
Another type of single core oil filled cable is the sheath channel oil filled cable. In this type, the
conductor is solid with a paper insulation. While the oil ducts are provided between the dielectric and the
lead sheath.
The construction of sheath channel oil filled cable is shown in the Fig. 2. The laying of such cables
must be done very carefully.

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The three core oil filled cables use the shielded type construction. The oil channels are located in the
spaces which are normally occupied by the filler material. The three oil channels are of preforated metal
ribbon tubing. All the channels are at earth potential. The construction is shown in the Fig. 3. As the
pressure tanks are required all all along the route of these cables, the lengths of these cables are limited.
Leakage of oil is another serious problem associated with these cables. Automatic signalling units are
located to indicate the fall in oil pressure in any of the phases.

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Fig. 3 Oil filled three core cable

Advantages
The various advantages of oil filled cables are,
1. The thickness of insulation required is less hence smaller in size and weight.
2. The thermal resistance is less hence current carrying capacity is more.
3. The possibility of voids is completely eliminated.
4. The allowable temperature range is more than solid type cables.
5. Reduced possibility of earth fault. This is because in case of any defect in lead sheath, oil leakage starts,
which can be noticed before earth fault occurs.

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6. Perfect impregnation is possible.

The disadvantages of oil filled cables are,

1. The initial cost is very high.
2. The long length are not possible.
3. The oil leakage is serious problem hence automatic signalling equipment is necessary.
4. The laying of cable is difficult and must be done very carefully.
5. Maintenance of the cables is also complicated.
Gas Pressure Cables
In case of as pressure cables, an inert as like nitrogen at high pressure is introduced. lead sheath and
dielectric. The pressure is about 12 to 15 atmospheres. Due to such a high pressure there is a radial
compression due to which the ionization is totally eliminated. The working power factors of such cables is
also high.

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Fig. 1 Gas pressure cables

The Fig. 1 shows the section of a gas pressure cable. The cable id triangular in shape and installed in
the steel pipe. The pipe is filled with the nitrogen at 12 to 15 atmospheric pressure. The remaining
construction is similar to that of solid type cable but the thickness of lead sheath is 75% of that of solid type
cable. There is no bedding and serving. The pressure cable was firstly designed by Hochstadter, Vogel and
Bownden.
The triangle shape lead sheath acts as a pressure membrane. The shape reduces the weight and provides
the low thermal resistance. The high pressure creates the radial compression to close any voids. The steel
pipe is coated with a point to avoid corrosion.
During heating, the cable compound expands and a sheath with acts as a membrane becomes circular in

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such a case. When cable cools down the gas pressure acting via sheath forces compound to come back to
the noncircular normal shape. Due to good thermal characteristics, fire quenching property and high
dielectric strength, the gas SF6 is also used in such cables.
Advantages
The various advantages of gas pressure cables are,
1. Gas pressure cables can carry 1.5 times the normal load current and can withstand double the voltage.
Hence such cables can be used for ultra high voltage (UHV) levels.
2. Maintenance cost is small.
3. The nitrogen in the steel tube, helps in quenching any fire or flame.
4. No reservoir or tanks required.
5. The power factor is improved.
6. The steel tubes used make the cable laying easy.
7. The ionization and possibility of voids is completely eliminated.
The only disadvantage of this type of cables is very high initial cost.
Insulating Materials for Cables

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Number of layers of the various materials is used around the actual conductor in a cable. To isolate the
conductor from the surroundings, the conductor is provided with an insulation around it. The materials like
paper, vulcanized rubber, PVC etc. are used for providing such an insulation.
The material to be used as an insulation must have the following properties,
1. To prevent leakage current, its insulation resistance must be very high.
2. To avoid electrical breakdown, its dielectric strength must very high.
3. To withstand the mechanical injures, it must be mechanically very strong.
4. It should be flexible.
5. It should be non-hygroscopic so that it will not absorb the moisture from the surroundings.
6. It should be non-inflammable.
7. It should be unaffected by acids and alkalies.
8. It should be capable of withstanding high breakdown voltages.
9. It should have high temperature withstanding capability.
Practically it is not possible to have all these properties in a single material. Hence insulation material
is selected depending upon the use of the cable and the quality of insulation required for it. Some changes
are done at the time of design depending upon the nature of material selected. For example if the material is
hygroscopic then a layer of a waterproof covering is provided around it so that moisture can not reach the

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insulation. The main insulating materials which are in used are,
1. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
2. Paper
3. Cross Linked Polythene
4. Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR)
1.Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
It is thermo plastic synthetic compound. It is available in the powder from and is obtained from
polymerisation of acetylene. This powder is chemically inert, non-inflammable, odourless, tasteless and
insoluble. It is combined with plastic compound and a gel is used over the conductor to obtain the
insulation.
It has following characteristics,
1. Good dielectric strength of 17 kV/mm
2. Chemically inert.
3. Non-hygroscopic.
4. Resistant to corrosion.
5. Maximum continuous temperature rating of 75oC.
6. High electrical resistivity.

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The mechanical properties like elasticity of PVC are not as good as rubber so PVC cables are used for
low and medium voltage domestic, industrial lights and power installations.
2.Paper
The paper is very cheap insulating material. Its dielectric strength is also high but it is hygroscopic in
nature. When it is dry its insulation resistance is very high but a small amount of moisture reduces its
insulation resistance to a very low value. Thus it is impregnated in an insulation oil. After impregnated also
it has a tendency to absorb the moisture. Hence paper cables are never left unsealed and provided with the
protective covering. When not in use, paper cable ends are temporarily covered with wax or tar.
The paper has following characteristics,
1. High dielectric strength of 20 kV/mm.
2. Higher thermal conductivity.
3. Low capacitance
4. High durability
5. Low cost
6. Maximum continuous temperature rating of 80oC.
7. High insulation resistance when dry.
It is used in high voltage power cable manufacturing. The paper cables are preferred when the cable

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route has very few joints and hence generally used for low voltage distribution in thickly populated areas.
3. Cross Linked Polythelene
The cable using cross linked polythelene as the insulating material are called XLPE cables.
The low density polythelene is treated specially due to which there occurs cross linking of carbon
atoms in it. This results into a new material which has following properties,
1. High dielectric strength of 20 to 40 kV/mm
2. Non-inflammable : If at all the continuous flame is applied its burning stops after very few centimeters
away from the flame.
3. Extremely high melting point.
4. Light in weight and flexible.
5. Mechanically strong.
6. High temperature withstanding capability.
7. Low moisture absorption.
8. Maximum continuous temperature rating of 90oC.
XLPE cables are directly laid on solid bed and are used for the voltage upto and including 33 kV.
4. Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR)

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This is the most olden insulating material developed during 1880-1930. The pure rubber is very soft
and it can not withstand high temperatures hence it is 20 to 40% of India rubber mixed with mineral matter
such as zinc oxide, red lead etc. with a little bit of sulphur in it.
It has following characteristics,
1. Good dielectric strength.
2. Good mechanical strength.
3. Durable and wear resistant.
4. Good insulation resistance.
5. Remain more elastic than pure rubber.
But it has number of drawbacks such as,
1. It absorbs moisture, slightly.
2. It has low melting point.
3. The sulphur content attack the copper conductor and changes the VIR insulation colour. Hence copper
conductors to be used with VIR insulation must be tinned.
4. Short span of life.
The use of VIR is very limited nowadays and is used for low moderate voltage cable i.e. distribution
systems only.

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Insulation Resistance of a Cable
The Fig 1 shows the section of a single core cable which is insulated with the help of layer of an insulating
material.

Fig. 1 Single core cable

In such cables, the leakage current flows radially from centre towards the surface as shown in the Fig.1.
Hence the cross-section of the path of such current is not constant but changes with its length. The
resistance offered by cable to path of the leakage current is called an insulation resistance consider an

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elementary section of the cylindrical cable of radius x and the thickness dx as shown in the Fig. 2. Let us
find the resistance of this elementary ring.
Let d = Diameter of core
r = d/2 = Radius of core
D = Diameter with sheath
R = D/2 = Radius of cable with sheath

Fig. 2 Elementary ring

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As the leakage current flows radially outwards, the length along which the current flows in an
elementary ring is dx. While the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow of current depends on the
length of l of the cable.
Cross-section area = Surface area for length l of cable
= (2 π x) x l
Hence the resistance of this elementary cylindrical shell is,

where ρ = Resistivity of the insulating material

The total insulation resistance of the cable can be obtained by integrating the resistance of an
elementary ring from inner radius upto the outer radius i.e. r to R.

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This can be expressed interms of diameters as,

The value of Ri is always very high. The expression shows that the insulation resistance is inversely
proportional to its length. So as the cable length increases, the insulation resistance decreases.
This shows that if two cables are joined in series then total length increases and hence their conductor
resistances are in series giving higher resistance but insulation resistance are in parallel decreasing the
effective insulation resistance. Thus if two cables are connected in parallel, conductor resistances get
connected in parallel while the insulation resistance get connected in series.
Grading of Cables
We have seen that thew stress in the insulation is maximum at the conductor surface and minimum at the
sheath. To avoid the breakdown of the insulation, it is necessary to have uniform distribution of stress all
along the insulation.

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Practically some methods are used to obtain uniform distribution of stress. The process of obtaining
uniform distribution of stress in the insulation of cables is called grading of cables.
The unequal distribution of stress has two effects,
1. Greater insulation thickness is required, which increases the cost and size.
2. It may lead to the breakdown of insulation.
Hence the grading of cables is done.
There are two methods of grading the cables which are,
1. Use of intersheaths for grading
2. Capacitance grading
Let us discuss these two grading methods in detail

Use of Intersheath for Grading

In this method of grading, in between the core and the lead sheath number of metallic sheaths are placed
which are called intersheaths. All these intersheaths are maintained at different potentials by connecting
them to the tappings of the transformer secondary. These potentials are between the core potential and earth
potential. Generally lead is used for these sheaths as it is flexible and corrosion resistance but as its
mechanical strength is less, aluminium also can be used. Aluminium is low weight and mechanically strong
but it is much costlier than lead.

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Using the intersheaths, maintaining at different potential, uniform distribution of stress is obtained in
the cables.
Consider a cable with core diameter d and overall diameter with lead sheath as D. Let two intersheaths
are used having diameter d1 and d2 which are kept at the potentials V1 and V2 respectively.
The intersheaths and stress distribution is shown in the Fig. 1.

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Let V1 = Voltage of intersheath 1 with respect to earth

V2 = Voltage of intersheath 2 with respect to earth
It has been proved that stress at a point which is at a distance x is inversely proportional to distance x
and given by,

Where k is constant.
So electric stress between he conductor and intersheath 1 is,

Now potential difference between core and the first intersheath is V-V1.

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Substituting in equation (2) we get,

Now this stress is maximum at x = d/2, on core surface.

Similarly potential difference between intersheath 1 and intersheath 2 is V1 - V2.

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Now g1 will be maximum at the surface of intersheath 1 i.e. x = d1/2.

The potential difference between intersheath 2 and outermost sheath V2 is only as potential of
intersheath is maintained at V2 with respect to earth.

This g3 will be maximum at x = d2/2

Choosing proper values of V1 and V2, g1max, g2max etc. can be made equal and hence uniform
distribution of stress can be obtained.

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The stress can be made to vary between same maximum and minimum values as shown in the Fig. 1,
by choosing d1 and d2 such that,
d1/d = d2/d1 = D/d2 =
and g1max = g2max = g3max

Let us try the express voltages V1 and V2 interms of V and .

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Substituting value of V2 from equation (11),

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Capacitance Grading
The grading done by using the layers of dielectrics having different permittivities between the core and the
sheath is called capacitance grading.

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In intersheath grading, the permittivity of dielectric is same everywhere and the dielectric is said to be
homogeneous. But in case of capacitance grading, a composite dielectric is used.
Let d1 = Diameter of the dielectric with permittivity ε1
and D = Diameter of the dielectric with permittivity ε2
This is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Capacitance grading

The stress at a point which is at a distance x is inversely proportional to the distance x and given by,
gx = Q/(2πε x)
Hence the stress at point in the inner dielectric is,

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g1 = Q/(2πε1 x)
Similarly the dielectric stress in the outer dielectric is,
g2 = Q/(2πε2 x)
Hence the total voltage V can be expressed as,

The stress is maximum at surface of conductor i.e. x =d/2.

And the stress is maximum at inner surface of dielectric i.e. at x = d1/2.

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Substituting Q interms of V we get,

Key Point : Thus the electric stress is inversely proportional to the permittivities and the inner radii of the
dielectrics.
1.1 Condition for Equal Maximum Stress

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Let us obtain the condition under which the maximum values of the stresses in the two regions are
equal.
The maximum stresses are given by,
g1max = Q/(πε1d)
and g2max = Q/(πε2d1)
Equating the two stresses,
Q/(πε1d) = Q/(πε2d1)

Now d1 is greater than d so to satisfy above equation ε2 must be less than ε1.
Thus the dielectric nearest to the conductor must have the highest permittivity.
Similar for the grading with three dielectrics with permittivities ε1, ε2 and ε3, for equal maximum stress the
condition is,
And

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Difficulties in Grading
In the intersheath grading, the intersheath has to be thin. Hence there is possibility of damage to it while
laying the cable. Similarly intersheath has to carry the charging current which can cause overheating of
cable.
In capacitance grading, to have uniform distribution of stress it is necessary to select the dielectrics of
proper permittivities. But practically it i difficult to get the proper values of permittivities. But practically it
is difficult to get the proper values of permittivities. Similarly the permittivity of dielectric changes with the
time which can cause uneven distribution of stress. Such uneven distribution may lead to breakdown at the
normal operating voltage.
Dielectric Loss
There exists a capacitance between a conductor and the sheath, with a dielectric medium in between
the two. This is represented as C. The leakage resistance is denoted as R. The equivalent circuit of the cable
is a parallel combination of R and C. So there are two currents, one perpendicular to voltage V which is
leading capacitive current Ic while other is in phase which voltage V which is resistive current

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Id representing dielectric loss. This is shown in the Fig. 1(a) and (b).

Fig. 1

The dielectric loss is loss due to leakage resistance given by,

W = V2/R
Now tanδ = Id/Ic = (V/R) / (V/Xc)
... V/R = (V/Xc) tan δ = VωCtanδ

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Where δ = Dielectric loss angle in radius
Generally δ is very small and hence tan δδ. For low voltage cable dielectric loss can be neglected as it
is small but for high voltage cables it must be considered.
The angle Φd is the power factor angle of dielectric.
cosΦd = cos (90-δ) = sinδ
It depends on the temperature and voltage stress to which dielectric is subjected.

Question Bank
1. What is corona? Derive expression for the disruptive critical voltage and
visual critical voltage.
2. What are the effects of corona?
3. Write short note on disruptive critical voltage.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of corona.
5. Explain the terms with reference to corona.
i) disruptive critical voltage ii) Power loss due to corona
6. Write short note on corona in transmission lines.
7. Write short note on factors affecting corona and methods of reducing corona effect.

10.
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8. Explain the terms with reference to corona.
9. Compare underground system with over head system.
A Single core cable is used on a 66KV, 3 Phase system. The core diameter is 1 cm while the
insulation thickness is 1.5cm.If PVC of relative permittivity is 4.8 is used as dielectric.Calculate
capacitance of cable and charging current.The supply frequency is 50 Hz.Assume cable length to be
1.5KM.
11. Briefly explain Murray loop test.

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