Power Systems-II

POWER SYSTEMS-II

For III B. Tech I Semester EEE

Dr. G Naresh
Professor of EEE & Vice-Principal
Pragati Engineering College (Autonomous)
E: naresh.elec@gmail.com
M: (+91) 98498 98440

Prepared by Dr.G Naresh

 Power Systems-II

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code: 20EE5T09 L T P C

III Year – I Semester 3 0 0 3
Power Systems-II

UNIT–IV: Corona Description of the phenomenon–Types of Corona- Critical voltages and

power loss –Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona- Factors affecting Corona-Radio
Interference.

Prepared by Dr.G Naresh

 Power Systems-II

UNIT-IV
Corona

Prepared by Dr.G Naresh

Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 181
2. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the
line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage and string efficiency. Assume that shunt capaci-
tance between each insulator and earthed metal work of tower to be 1/10th of the capacitance of the
insulator. [52 kV, 86·67%]
3. The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor sub-station are supplied by units of post insulators. Each unit
consists of a stack of 3-pin insulators fixed one on the top of the other. The voltage across the lowest
insulator is 8·45 kV and that across the next is 7·25 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the station.
[38·8 kV]
4. A string of suspension insulators consists of three units. The capacitance between each link pin and earth
is one-sixth of the self-capacitance of each unit. If the maximum voltage per unit is not to exceed 35 kV,
determine the maximum voltage that the string can withstand. Also calculate the string efficiency.
[84·7 kV; 80·67%]
5. A string of 4 insulators has self-capacitance equal to 4 times the pin-to-earth capacitance. Calculate (i)
the voltage distribution across various units as a percentage of total voltage across the string and (ii)
string efficiency. [(i) 14·5%, 18·1%, 26·2% and 40·9% (ii) 61·2 %]
6. A string of four suspension insulators is connected across a 285 kV line. The self-capacitance of each
unit is equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance. Calculate :
(i) the potential difference across each unit, (ii) the string efficiency.
[(i) 27·65 kV, 33·04 kV, 43·85 kV, 60 kV (ii) 68·5%]
7. Each of three insulators forming a string has self-capacitance of “C” farad. The shunt capacitance of
each cap of insulator is 0·25 C to earth and 0·15 C to line. Calculate the voltage distribution across each
insulator as a pecentage of line voltage to earth and the string efficiency.
[ 31·7%, 29·4%, 38·9%; 85·7%]
8. Each of the three insulators forming a string has a self capacitance of C farad. The shunt capacitance of
each insulator is 0·2 C to earth and 0·1 C to line. A guard-ring increases the capacitance of line of the
metal work of the lowest insulator to 0·3 C. Calculate the string efficiency of the arrangement :
(i) with the guard ring, (ii) without guard ring. [(i) 95% (ii) 86·13%]
9. A three-phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three-disc suspension insulators; the
potentials across the first and second insulator from the top are 8 kV and 11 kV respectively. Calcualte
(i) the line voltage (ii) the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to self capacitance of each unit (iii)
the string efficiency. [(i) 64·28 V (ii) 0·375 (iii) 68·28%]
10. A 3-phase overhead transmission line is supported on 4-disc suspension insulators. The voltage across
the second and third discs are 13·2 kV and 18 kV respectively. Calculate the line voltage and mention
the nearest standard voltage. [118·75 kV; 120 kV]

8.10 Corona
Corona
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is large as
compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air sur-
rounding the wires if the applied voltage is low. However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain
value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called
corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power loss
and radio interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope
becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage is
increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown
of air insulation.
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout the
length of the conductors, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c. voltage, there is
182 Principles of Power System
difference in the appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while the
negative conductor has spotty glow.
Theory of corona formation. Some ionisation is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultra-
violet radiations and radioactivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors
contains some ionised particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules. When p.d.
is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum
value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free electrons
acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and
more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max. value),
the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough force
to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,
which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other
ions. Thus, the process of ionisation is cummulative. The result of this ionisation is that either corona
is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.
8.11 FFactor
actor
actorss Affecting Cor
Affecting ona
Corona
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by the
conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends :
(i) Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionsiation of air surrounding the conductors, there-
fore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number of
ions is more than normal and as such corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with
fair weather.
(ii) Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the conduc-
tors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because unevenness of
the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has ir-
regular surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
(iii) Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is because larger dis-
tance between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus
avoiding corona formation.
(iv) Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the
condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the
line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface
make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is formed.
8.12 Impor tant Ter
Important ms
erms
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead transmission line.
Therefore, it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in the analysis of corona effects:
(i) Critical disruptive voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona
occurs.
Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-neutral potential,
then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:
V
g = volts / cm
d
r log e
r
In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown strength of
air. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or
Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 183
21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these
conditions, then,
Vc
go =
r loge d
r
where go = breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury and 25ºC
= 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = go r loge
r
The above expression for disruptive voltage is under standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and
25ºC. However, if these conditions vary, the air density also changes, thus altering the value of go.
The value of go is directly proportional to air density. Thus the breakdown strength of air at a baro-
metric pressure of b cm of mercury and temperature of tºC becomes δ go where
3 ⋅ 92b
δ = air density factor =
273 + t
Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1.
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage , Vc = go δ r loge
r
Correction must also be made for the surface condition of the conductor. This is accounted for
by multiplying the above expression by irregularity factor mo.
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge kV/phase
r
where mo = 1 for polished conductors
= 0·98 to 0·92 for dirty conductors
= 0·87 to 0·8 for stranded conductors
(ii) Visual critical voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow
appears all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the disrup-
tive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv, called visual critical voltage. The phase-neutral effective
value of visual critical voltage is given by the following empirical formula :
F
Vv = mv go δ r 1 + 0 ⋅ 3
I d kV/phase
GH δr
JK loge
r
where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1·0 for polished conductors and 0·72 to 0·82
for rough conductors.
(iii) Power loss due to corona. Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss
which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is
exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by :

P = 242·2 F f + 25Ir
c 2 −
h
V − Vc × 10 5 kW / km / phase
H δ K d
where f = supply frequency in Hz
V = phase-neutral voltage (r.m.s.)
Vc = disruptive voltage (r.m.s.) per phase
184 Principles of Power System
8.13 Advantages and Disadv
Advantages antages of Cor
Disadvantages ona
Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overhead
line, a balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electro-
static stresses between the conductors.
(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the
line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical
action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal
voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring
communication lines.
8.14 Methods of Reducing Corona Ef
Corona fect
Effect
It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or above.
Therefore, careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-bars rated for 33
kV and higher voltages otherwise highly ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators or between
the phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment. The corona effects can be reduced by the
following methods :
(i) By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the
reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmis-
sion lines.
(ii) By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the volt-
age at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However,
spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., big-
ger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
Example 8.13. A 3-phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter spaced equilaterally 1 m apart.
If the dielectric strength of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the disruptive critical voltage for the line.
Take air density factor δ = 0·952 and irregularity factor mo = 0·9.
Solution.
Conductor radius, r = 2/2 = 1 cm
Conductor spacing, d = 1 m = 100 cm
Dielectric strength of air, go = 30 kV/cm (max.) = 21·2 kV (r.m.s.) per cm
Disruptive critical voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge (d/r) kV*/phase (r.m.s. value)
= 0·9 × 21·2 × 0·952 × 1 × loge 100/1 = 83·64 kV/phase
∴ Line voltage (r.m.s.) = 3 × 83·64 = 144·8 kV
Example 8.14. A 132 kV line with 1·956 cm dia. conductors is built so that corona takes place
if the line voltage exceeds 210 kV (r.m.s.). If the value of potential gradient at which ionisation
occurs can be taken as 30 kV per cm, find the spacing between the conductors.

* As go is taken in kV/cm, therefore, Vc will be in kV.

Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 185
Solution.
Assume the line is 3-phase.
Conductor radius, r = 1·956/2 = 0·978 cm
Dielectric strength of air, go = 30 2 = 21·2 kV (r.m.s.) per cm
Disruptive voltage/phase, Vc= 210 3 = 121·25 kV
Assume smooth conductors (i.e., irregularity factor mo = 1) and standard pressure and tempera-
ture for which air density factor δ = 1. Let d cm be the spacing between the conductors.
∴ Disruptive voltage (r.m.s.) per phase is
Vc = mo go δ r loge (d/r) kV
= 1 × 21·2 × 1 × 0·978 × loge (d/r)
or 121·25 = 20·733 loge (d/r)
d 121 ⋅ 25
or log e = = 5·848
r 20 ⋅ 733
or 2·3 log10 d/r = 5·848
or log10 d/r = 5·848/2·3 = 2·5426
or d/r = Antilog 2·5426
or d/r = 348·8
∴ Conductor spacing, d = 348·8 × r = 348·8 × 0·978 = 341 cm
Example 8.15. A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm radius conductor
spaced 2 metres apart in equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is 40ºC and atmos-
pheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of the line. Take mo = 0·85.
Solution.
As seen from Art. 8.12, the corona loss is given by :
242 ⋅ 2 r
b g b V − Vc × 10 −5 kW/km/phase
g
2
P = f + 25
δ d
3 ⋅ 92 b 3 ⋅ 92 × 76
Now, δ = = = 0·952
273 + t 273 + 40
Assuming go = 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
∴ Critical disruptive voltage per phase is
Vc = mo go δ r loge d/r kV
= 0·85 × 21·2 × 0·952 × 1·5 × loge 200/1·5 = 125·9 kV
Supply voltage per phase, V = 220 3 = 127 kV
Substituting the above values, we have corona loss as:
242 ⋅ 2 1⋅ 5
b g × 127 − 125 ⋅ 9 × 10 −5 kW/phase/km
b g 2
P = 50 + 25 ×
0 ⋅ 952 200
242 ⋅ 2
= × 75 × 0 ⋅ 0866 × 1 ⋅ 21 × 10 −5 kW/km/phase
0 ⋅ 952
= 0·01999 kW/km/phase
∴ Total corona loss per km for three phases
= 3 × 0·01999 kW = 0·05998 kW
Example 8.16. A certain 3-phase equilateral transmission line has a total corona loss of 53 kW
at 106 kV and a loss of 98 kW at 110·9 kV. What is the disruptive critical voltage? What is the corona
loss at 113 kV?
186 Principles of Power System
Solution.
The power loss due to corona for 3 phases is given by :

P = 3×
242 ⋅ 2 f + 25 b g r cV − V h 2
× 10 −5 kW/km
δ d c

As f, δ, r and d are the same for the two cases,

∴ P ∝ (V − Vc)2
For first case, P = 53 kW and V = 106 3 = 61·2 kV
For second case, P = 98 kW and V = 110 ⋅ 9 3 = 64 kV
∴ 53 ∝ (61·2 − Vc) 2
...(i)
98 ∝ (64 − Vc)
2
and ...(ii)
Dividing [(ii)/(i)], we get,

98
=
b64 − V gc
2

53 b61⋅ 2 − V g c
2

or Vc = 54 kV
Let W kilowatt be the power loss at 113 kV.

∴ W
F 113 − V IJ
∝ G
2

H 3 K c

∝ (65·2 − 54)2 ...(iii)

Dividing [(iii)/(i)], we get,
W
=
b65 ⋅ 2 − 54g 2

53 b61⋅ 2 − 54g 2

∴ W = (11·2/7·2) × 53 = 128 kW
2

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. Estimate the corona loss for a three-phase, 110 kV, 50 Hz, 150 km long transmission line consisting of
three conductors each of 10 mm diameter and spaced 2·5 m apart in an equilateral triangle formation.
The temperature of air is 30ºC and the atmospheric pressure is 750 mm of mercury. Take irregularity
factor as 0·85. Ionisation of air may be assumed to take place at a maximum voltage gradient of 30 kV/
cm. [316·8 kW]
2. Taking the dielectric strength of air to be 30 kV/cm, calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a 3-phase
line with conductors of 1 cm radius and spaced symmetrically 4 m apart. [220 kV line voltage]
3. A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the
corners of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona loss per km of the line. The condition of the wire
is smoothly weathered and the weather is fair with temperature of 20ºC and barometric pressure of 72·2
cm of Hg. [2·148 kW]

8.15 Sag in Overhead Lines

While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the
conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress in
the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive
tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed
to have a dip or sag.
The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is
called sag.
 Power Systems-II

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code: 20EE5T09

III Year – I Semester
Power Systems-II
Assignment-4
1. a) Derive the expression for corona inception voltage and list what are the conditions to occur
corona power loss.
b) A three phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1.2 cm radius of conductor spaced
2m a part as a equilateral triangle configuration. Calculate disruptive critical voltage between
the lines. Irregularity factor = 0.96, temperature= 25°, barometric pressure = 72.2 cm of Hg.
Dielectric strength of air = 21.1 KV (rms)/cm. Also calculate corona power loss.

2. a) Discuss the factors effecting corona effect in power system.

b) A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm radius conductor spaced 2 metre
apart in equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is 40ºC and atmospheric pressure is
76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of the line. Take m0 = 0·85.

3. a) What is corona loss? Why is it different in different weather conditions? How can it be
estimated?
b) Determine the disruptive critical voltage and the visual critical voltages for local and general
corona on a 3-phase overhead transmission line consisting of three stranded copper conductors
spaced at 2.5 meters apart at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Air temperature and
pressure are 210C and 73.5 cm of Hg respectively. Conductor diameter is 1.8 cm, irregularity
factor (m0) 0.85, and surface factors (mv) 0.7 for local and general corona 0.7 and 0.8
respectively. Breakdown strength of air is 21.1 kV (r.m.s) / cm.

4.a) What are various properties of corona and derive the expression for power loss due to
corona?
b) In three phase overhead line the conductor have each diameter of 30 mm and arranged in the
form of an equilateral triangle. Assuming fair weather conditions air density factor is 0.96 and
irregularity factor 0.96. Find the minimum spacing between the conductors if the disruptive
critical voltage is not to exceed 220 kV between the lines. Breakdown strength of air may be
assumed to be 30 kV per cm (peak).

5.a) How do you determine power loss due to corona and explain the factors affecting corona
loss?
b) A single phase over headline has two conductors of diameter 1.2 cm each, with spacing of 1.5
meter between centers. If the disruptive critical voltage for air is 21.21 kV/cm, for what value of
the line voltage will the corona commence?

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