• Class A:

Q1. Short Answer Questions o Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0

Attempt any eight (2 marks each) o Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

a) What is protocol? o Supports a small number of networks with many hosts.

A protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how data is transmitted and • Class B:
received between devices on a network. It defines: o Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0
• Data Format & Structure: How information is organized into packets or frames. o Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
• Timing & Sequencing: When and in what order data should be sent. o Balances the number of networks and hosts.
• Error Checking: Methods for detecting and correcting errors during transmission. • Class C:
• Flow Control: Techniques to manage data rate between sender and receiver. o Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0
For example, the TCP/IP suite—which includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP—is the o Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
backbone of Internet communications.
o Supports many networks with fewer hosts.
Although it simplifies routing, classful addressing often leads to inefficient use of IP space,
b) What is cladding? which is why it has been largely replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR).
In the context of fiber optic cables, cladding is the outer optical layer that surrounds the core
(the central glass or plastic fiber where light is transmitted). Its key features are:
e) What is transmission media?
• Lower Refractive Index: Compared to the core, which causes light to reflect back into
Transmission media are the physical pathways that carry data signals between devices. They
the core by total internal reflection.
are broadly classified as:
• Signal Integrity: Helps contain the light within the core, minimizing loss and ensuring
• Wired (Guided) Media:
efficient data transmission.
o Twisted Pair Cable: Common in LANs (e.g., Cat 5, Cat 6)
• Protection: Provides physical protection to the core against damage and external
interference. o Coaxial Cable: Used in cable television and early computer networks
o Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light pulses for high-speed data transmission over long
distances.
c) What is a proxy server?
• Wireless (Unguided) Media:
A proxy server acts as an intermediary between client devices and the destination servers on
the Internet. Its functions include: o Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi, cellular networks
• Anonymity & Privacy: Masks the client’s IP address by using its own. o Microwaves: Employed in satellite communications
• Content Caching: Stores frequently accessed resources to reduce latency. o Infrared: Used for short-range, line-of-sight communications
• Access Control & Filtering: Blocks or allows traffic based on predefined security rules. Each type has its advantages in terms of speed, distance, installation cost, and susceptibility to
interference.
• Performance Improvement: Distributes load and can compress data to speed up
transmissions.
f) What is an internetwork?
d) What is meant by classful addressing? An internetwork is a collection of multiple interconnected computer networks that use routers
and gateways to communicate. Characteristics include:
Classful addressing is an early method of dividing the IP address space into predefined classes
(A, B, C, D, and E), each with a fixed-length network and host portion: • Heterogeneity: Networks can be of different types (LAN, WAN, MAN) and use various
technologies.
 • Scalability: Enables a small local network to connect with larger networks, forming • Cabling: Typically uses twisted pair or fiber optic cables.
systems like the Internet.
• Popularity: Owing to its simplicity, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, Ethernet has
• Routing: Routers direct data packets across diverse networks, ensuring they reach the become the de facto standard for local networking.
intended destination.
• Example: The global Internet is the largest internetwork, interconnecting millions of
j) What is a Firewall?
networks worldwide.
A firewall is a network security device—either hardware, software, or both—that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an organization's security rules. Its
g) Define steganography. key roles are:
Steganography is the practice of concealing secret data within an ordinary, non-secret medium, • Traffic Filtering: Blocks or allows data packets based on pre-established security
so that the presence of the hidden information is not obvious. Key aspects include: policies.
• Data Hiding: Embedding information within images, audio files, or even text. • Protection: Acts as a barrier between trusted internal networks and untrusted external
networks (e.g., the Internet).
• Contrast with Cryptography: While cryptography hides the content of a message,
steganography hides the very existence of the message. • Types:
• Applications: Used in watermarking, confidential communications, and digital rights o Packet-Filtering Firewalls: Examine packets at the network level.
management.
o Stateful Inspection Firewalls: Monitor active connections and make decisions
based on the state of the connection.
h) What is a Hub? o Application-Level Firewalls: Filter traffic based on application data and
protocols.
A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN. Its primary
characteristics are: • Usage: Essential for preventing unauthorized access, cyber attacks, and data breaches.
• Layer of Operation: Functions at the Physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
• Broadcasting: It transmits incoming data packets to all ports regardless of the intended Q2. Conceptual Questions
recipient.
Attempt any four (4 marks each)
• Limitations: Due to its broadcasting nature, it can lead to data collisions and inefficient
a) What is a Computer Network? Explain the Goals of a Computer Network.
bandwidth usage.
A computer network is a system of interconnected devices that communicate with each other
• Modern Usage: Mostly replaced by switches, which provide intelligent data forwarding
to share resources and exchange data. The primary goals of a computer network include:
based on MAC addresses.
• Resource Sharing:
o Enables multiple users to share hardware (printers, storage) and software
i) What is Standard Ethernet?
resources.
Standard Ethernet is a networking technology defined by the IEEE 802.3 standard and is
• Efficient Communication:
widely used in LANs. Its features include:
o Facilitates the quick exchange of information (emails, messages, file transfers)
• Physical & Data Link Layers: Specifies how data is framed, transmitted, and detected
across the network.
on the network.
• Data Sharing & Centralization:
• Data Rates:
o Allows centralized data storage and management, leading to easier backups and
o 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
data integrity.
o 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
• Cost Reduction:
o 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
o Minimizes costs by sharing expensive resources and reducing redundancy.
o Higher speeds for modern applications.
• Scalability & Flexibility:
 o Networks can grow and adapt as organizational needs change. o Details: Protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS operate at this layer.
• Reliability & Redundancy:
o Provides fault tolerance so that if one component fails, the network continues to c) What is Wireless Transmission? Explain any one Media in Detail.
operate.
Wireless transmission refers to the transfer of data between devices without using physical
• Security: wires or cables. One common wireless medium is Radio Frequency (RF) transmission:
o Implements mechanisms (firewalls, encryption) to protect data and ensure • Radio Frequency Transmission:
authorized access.
o Principle: Uses radio waves to carry data signals through the air.
o Applications:
b) Explain the Function of Each Layer in the ISO-OSI Reference Model.
▪ Wi-Fi networks
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model standardizes network communications into
▪ Cellular communications
seven layers, each with distinct functions:
▪ Broadcast radio
1. Physical Layer:
o Characteristics:
o Function: Transmits raw bit streams over a physical medium.
▪ Frequency Range: Typically from a few MHz up to several GHz.
o Details: Deals with voltage levels, cable types, connectors, and modulation.
▪ Advantages:
2. Data Link Layer:
▪ Enables mobility and flexible installations.
o Function: Provides node-to-node data transfer, error detection, and framing.
▪ Supports broad coverage areas.
o Details: Uses MAC addresses for physical addressing and controls access to the
medium. ▪ Challenges:
3. Network Layer: ▪ Susceptible to interference and signal attenuation by obstacles.
o Function: Manages logical addressing and routing of packets between networks. ▪ Requires careful frequency management and security measures.
o Details: Uses IP addresses; protocols like IP and ICMP operate here.
4. Transport Layer: d) Explain the IEEE Standard 802.11 (WLAN) in Detail.
o Function: Ensures reliable data transfer with error checking, segmentation, and The IEEE 802.11 standard defines protocols for implementing Wireless Local Area Networks
flow control. (WLANs). Key details include:
o Details: TCP (connection-oriented) and UDP (connectionless) are common • Frequency Bands:
protocols. o Primarily operates in the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
5. Session Layer: • Data Rates:
o Function: Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between o Vary with different amendments:
applications.
▪ 802.11b: Up to 11 Mbps
o Details: Controls dialog and synchronization between processes.
▪ 802.11g: Up to 54 Mbps
6. Presentation Layer:
▪ 802.11n/ac/ax: Offer higher speeds, reaching into the gigabits per second.
o Function: Translates data between the application and the network, handling
encryption and compression. • Medium Access:
o Details: Ensures data is in a usable format for the application layer. o Uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) to
minimize data collisions.
7. Application Layer:
• Topology Modes:
o Function: Provides network services directly to user applications.
 o Infrastructure Mode: Devices communicate through an access point. • Filtering Traffic: By learning the MAC addresses on each segment, it forwards data
only where needed.
o Ad-hoc Mode: Direct device-to-device communication.
• Reducing Collisions: Segments traffic, thereby reducing network congestion.
• Security Enhancements:
Types of Bridges:
o Initially used WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), later replaced by WPA, WPA2,
and WPA3 for improved security. • Transparent Bridge:
• Modulation Techniques: o Operates invisibly by learning MAC addresses and forwarding frames accordingly.
o Early standards used DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum); later standards • Source-Route Bridge:
use OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing).
o Mainly used in Token Ring networks; the source specifies the route for data
packets.
e) What is an Attack? Explain Various Types of Attacks. • Wireless Bridge:
In network security, an attack is any attempt to compromise the confidentiality, integrity, or o Connects different network segments wirelessly, often used to extend LANs across
availability of data or systems. Common types include: buildings or outdoor areas.
• Denial of Service (DoS) / Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS):
o Floods the target system with excessive traffic to render it unavailable. b) Explain Different Modes of Communication with a Sketch.
• Man-in-the-Middle (MitM): There are three primary communication modes:
o An attacker secretly intercepts and possibly alters communication between two 1. Simplex Communication:
parties.
o Direction: One-way data flow.
• Phishing:
o Example: A keyboard sending data to a computer.
o Uses fraudulent emails or websites to trick users into providing sensitive
o Diagram:
information.
o [Keyboard] ---> [Computer]
• Malware:
2. Half-Duplex Communication:
o Involves malicious software (viruses, worms, trojans) designed to damage or take
control of systems. o Direction: Two-way communication but not simultaneously.
• SQL Injection: o Example: Walkie-talkies where only one party speaks at a time.
o Inserts malicious SQL code into queries to manipulate databases. o Diagram:
• Brute Force Attack: o [Device A] <--> [Device B] (Alternating transmission)
o Systematically tries all possible passwords or keys to gain unauthorized access. 3. Full-Duplex Communication:
• Spoofing: o Direction: Simultaneous two-way data flow.
o Falsifies data such as IP addresses or email headers to masquerade as a trusted o Example: Telephone conversations where both parties can speak and listen
source. concurrently.
o Diagram:
Q3. Network Devices and Communication Modes o [Device A] <==> [Device B]
Attempt any four (4 marks each)
a) What is a Bridge? Explain Types of Bridges. c) Explain the TCP/IP Protocol in Detail.
A bridge is a network device that connects two or more network segments, operating at the The TCP/IP protocol suite is the cornerstone of modern networking and consists of multiple
Data Link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Its primary functions include: layers:
 • Application Layer: o Comes in various categories (e.g., Cat 5, Cat 5e, Cat 6) that determine maximum
data rates and bandwidth.
o Provides protocols for specific network services such as HTTP (web browsing),
FTP (file transfer), SMTP (email), and DNS (domain name resolution). • Applications:
• Transport Layer: o Commonly used in LANs for connecting computers, telephones, and other network
devices.
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
▪ Provides reliable, connection-oriented data transfer with error recovery and
flow control (using the three-way handshake for connection establishment). e) What is Fast Ethernet? Explain Categories of Fast Ethernet.
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Fast Ethernet is an Ethernet standard that increases data transmission speeds from the original
10 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Its key categories include:
▪ Provides connectionless, best-effort data delivery with lower overhead.
• 100BASE-TX:
• Internet Layer:
o Medium: Uses two pairs of unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable.
o IP (Internet Protocol):
o Usage: Most common in office LANs.
▪ Handles logical addressing and routing of packets across networks.
• 100BASE-FX:
o ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
o Medium: Uses fiber optic cables, suitable for longer distances and environments
▪ Used for error messaging and diagnostics.
with high electromagnetic interference.
o ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
• 100BASE-T4:
▪ Maps IP addresses to physical MAC addresses.
o Medium: Utilizes four pairs of twisted pair cables to support 100 Mbps
• Link Layer: transmission in environments where cable quality may vary.
o Manages physical addressing and the actual transmission of data over network Each category is designed for specific installation conditions and network requirements,
hardware (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi). balancing cost, distance, and performance.
This layered design allows each component to be developed and updated independently,
contributing to the Internet’s scalability and robustness.
Q4. Network Architecture & Addressing
Attempt any four (4 marks each)
d) What is Guided Media? Explain Any One in Detail.
a) What is Topology? Explain Types of Topology.
Guided media refers to transmission media that provide a physical pathway for signals. One
Topology in networking describes the layout or structure of the network—how nodes (devices)
common example is the Twisted Pair Cable:
are interconnected. It can be classified as:
• Structure:
• Physical Topology:
o Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to cancel out
o The actual physical layout of cables, devices, and other hardware.
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and reduce crosstalk.
• Logical Topology:
• Types:
o How data flows within the network, regardless of its physical design.
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
Common Types:
▪ Widely used in Ethernet networks; cost-effective and easy to install.
• Bus Topology:
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
o All devices share a single communication line.
▪ Contains an additional shielding layer to protect against interference, ideal
for environments with higher EMI. o Pros: Simple and cost-effective.
• Categories: o Cons: Limited scalability; a failure in the bus can bring down the network.
 • Star Topology: • Speed of Propagation:
o All devices connect to a central hub or switch. o Typically near the speed of light, though slower in mediums like copper than in
fiber optics.
o Pros: Easy to manage and troubleshoot; failure of one cable does not affect others.
• Attenuation:
o Cons: The central device is a single point of failure.
o The gradual loss of signal strength as it travels.
• Ring Topology:
• Phenomena Affecting Propagation:
o Devices are connected in a closed loop.
o Reflection, Diffraction, Refraction: Affect how signals bend, scatter, or are
o Pros: Data flows in one direction reducing collisions.
absorbed.
o Cons: A break in the ring disrupts communication.
• Modeling Propagation:
• Mesh Topology:
o Helps in designing networks to minimize signal loss and interference.
o Every device is connected to every other device.
o Pros: High redundancy and fault tolerance.
d) What is Copyright? Explain Applications of Copyright.
o Cons: Expensive and complex to implement.
Copyright is a legal protection granted to creators of original works, ensuring they have
• Tree (Hybrid) Topology: exclusive rights over the use and distribution of their creations. In the context of digital
o Combines elements of star and bus topologies, supporting scalability and networks and software, its applications include:
centralized management. • Software Protection:
o Guards against unauthorized copying, modification, and distribution of programs.
b) What is Addressing? Explain Different Types of Addresses. • Digital Media:
Addressing assigns unique identifiers to devices in a network, ensuring that data is sent to the o Protects creative content such as music, videos, and images.
correct destination. Types include:
• Intellectual Property Rights:
• MAC Address (Media Access Control):
o Encourages innovation by ensuring creators can benefit from their work.
o A hardware-embedded, unique identifier assigned to a network interface.
• Enforcement:
o Operates at the Data Link layer.
o Legal actions can be taken against infringement to protect revenue and integrity of
• IP Address (Internet Protocol): the original work.
o A logical address assigned to each device on a network, which can be IPv4 (32-bit)
or IPv6 (128-bit).
e) What is Bluetooth? Explain Its Architecture.
o Operates at the Network layer.
Bluetooth is a wireless communication technology designed for short-range data exchange. Its
• Subnet Mask: architecture includes:
o Used with IP addresses to differentiate the network portion from the host portion. • Piconet:
• Port Numbers: o A small ad-hoc network consisting of one master device and up to seven active
o Identify specific processes or services on a device (e.g., port 80 for HTTP) and slave devices.
operate at the Transport layer. o The master controls communication timing and data exchange.
• Scatternet:
c) Explain the Propagation Method. o Formed when multiple piconets interconnect, allowing devices to participate in
Propagation describes how signals travel through a transmission medium. Important aspects more than one piconet.
include: • Protocol Stack:
 o Radio Layer: Handles the actual transmission and reception of radio signals. o Offers high-speed connectivity with low latency.
o Baseband & Link Manager: Manage device discovery, connection setup, and • Wide Area Network (WAN):
data packet formatting.
o Spans large geographic areas (cities, countries, or globally).
o L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol): Provides multiplexing
o Connects multiple LANs using routers and leased lines.
of data channels, segmentation, and reassembly of packets.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
o Higher Layers: Support additional services like device authentication, encryption,
and application profiles. o Covers a city or a large campus.
o Bridges the gap between LAN and WAN.
Q5. Short Notes • Personal Area Network (PAN):
Write short notes on any two (3 marks each) o A network centered around an individual’s devices (e.g., smartphones, tablets,
laptops) often connected via Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.
a) Switch
• Campus Area Network (CAN):
A switch is a network device operating primarily at the Data Link layer (Layer 2) that connects
devices within a LAN. Key features include: o Serves multiple buildings within a limited geographic area, such as a university
campus.
• Intelligent Forwarding: Uses MAC addresses to send data frames only to the port
where the destination device is connected, reducing unnecessary traffic.
• Segmentation: Creates separate collision domains for each connected device, which These detailed answers cover the core concepts and technical details expected in the exam. Use
increases network efficiency. diagrams wherever necessary (e.g., for communication modes or OSI layers) to support your
explanations during your written exam.
• Advanced Features: Modern switches may offer VLAN support, Quality of Service
(QoS), and even Layer 3 routing in some cases.
• Benefits: Enhanced security, improved bandwidth management, and scalability for larger
networks.

b) Virtual LAN (VLAN)

A Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical subdivision of a LAN that groups together a collection of
devices, regardless of their physical location. Benefits include:
• Enhanced Security: By isolating sensitive groups of users or devices.
• Reduced Broadcast Domains: Limits broadcast traffic to devices within the same
VLAN.
• Simplified Management: Administrators can configure networks based on department,
function, or project without altering physical connections.
• Flexibility: Devices can be reassigned to different VLANs via software configuration
without the need for new cabling.

c) Types of Networks
Networks can be classified by their geographical coverage and scale:
• Local Area Network (LAN):
o Covers a small geographic area like an office or campus.