Electrical Properties of Materials 1.

1. Electrical Properties
of Materials

Classical free electron theory - Expression for electrical

conductivity - Thermal conductivity expression -
Wiedemann - Franz law - Success and failures - electrons
in metals - Particle in a three dimensional box - degenerate
states - Fermi-Dirac statistics - Density of energy states -
Electron in periodic potential: Bloch thorem - metals and
insulators - Energy bands in solids - tight binding
approximation - Electron effective mass - concept of hole.

Introduction
It is essential to study the varies electrical properties of
the solids for their specific applications.

In terms of electrical properties, all solid state materials

are classified into three groups as conductors, semiconductors
and dielectrics or insulators.

The selection of materials for different applications depends

on their electrical properties as well as requirements of the job.

Electrical phenomena are caused by the motion of electrons

in solids and find many applications in day-to-day activities.

Electrons in a metallic filament and the property of

electrical resisivity of the material are used in incandescent
lamps for heating and illumination in a variety of domestic and
industrial applications.

In recent times, the mobility of electrons is being exploited

in solar cells, lasers, in the control of thermonuclear reactions
and many other applications.
1.2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The chapter mainly deals with the electrical conduction,

thermal conduction, density of states, number of electrons per
unit volume in a metal etc.
Besides, it also deals with the classical, quantum free
electron theories and band theory to explain the conductivity of
the solid state materials.

Basic definition
It is necessary to know the basic relations in electrical
conductivity to understand its derivation.

Ohm’s Law
When an electrical current flows through a conductor, then
the voltage drop across the conductor is given by the ohm’s law

V ... (1)
V  IR (or) I
R

where I – current in ampere,

where R – resistance to the current flow in ohm and
where V – voltage drop across the conductor in volt.

Resistance R
The resistance R of a conductor is a geometry (length and
area) and property dependent factor of the material used.
l
R 
A
l l
R   ... (2)
A A
. . 1
 Proportionality constant known as  .   
resistivity (ohm m)  
l Length of the conductor (m)
2
A Area of cross section m 
1 1
 Electrical conductivity ohm m 
1 1 1
(or) mho m  (or) siemen m Sm 
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.3

Current Density J

It is defined as the current per unit area of cross

section of a current carrying conductor. If I is the current
and A is the area of cross-section, then current density is given by

I
J  ... (3)
A
2
Its unit is Am

Electrical Field (E)

The electrical field E in a conductor of uniform cross section

is defined as the potential drop (voltage) V per unit length.

V
E  ... (4)
l
1
Its unit is Vm

Electrical Conductivity 

The amount of electrical charges Q conducted per

unit time across unit area A of a conductor per unit
applied electrical field E is defined as electrical
conductivity.

It is denoted by  and it is given by

Q
 
tAE

Q J
  
tAE E

 Q 
where J is the current density and it is given by  
 tA 
A second form of ohm’s law is obtained by combining
equations (1) and (2)
1.4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

From eqn (1), V  IR

l .. I 
From eqn (2), R
A  . A  J
 
 
Il  V 
V    E 
A  l 

I V
Rearranging,  
A l

J  E ... (5)

Relation between Current Density J, Drift Velocity d

and Mobility 
Let n be the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(also called charge carrier density) in a conductor of length l
with uniform cross sectional area A. The current flow through
the conductor is given by

Total charge Q
I  
Time t

neAl ... (6)

  n e A vd
t

l
where vd  is called the drift velocity. It is the average
t
velocity gained by the charge carriers in the presence of an
electrical field.

I
But, we know that J 
A

Using the eqn (7), J is written as

n e A vd
J   n e vd
A

J  nevd ... (7)

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.5

But J   E.

Therefore, the eqn (8) becomes

 E  nevd

vd
  ne
E

Hence,   ne ... (8)

vd
where   is called the mobility of the charge
E
carrier. It is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric
2 1 1
field. Its unit is m V s .

Free Electron theory of solids

It is well known that the electrons in the outermost orbit
of the atom determine the electrical properties of a solid. The
free electron theory of solids explains the structure and
properties of solids through their electronic structures.

This theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and

non-metals. It explains

 The behaviour of conductors, semiconductors and

insulators.

 The electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.

Main Stages of Free Electron theory of solids

(i) Classical free electron theory

(Drude and Lorentz free electron theory)
This theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in the
year 1900. According to this theory, the free electrons are mainly
responsible for electrical conduction in a metal.

It obeys the laws of classical mechanics. Here, the free

electrons are assumed to move in a constant potential.
1.6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(ii) Quantum free electron theory

(Sommerfeld Quantum theory)
Quantum free electron theory was proposed by
Sommerfeld in the year 1928. According to this theory, the
electrons in a metal move in a constant potential.

It obeys the laws of quantum mechanics. The wave nature

of electron is taken into account to describe the electron.

(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids

This theory was proposed by Bloch in the year 1928. According
to this theory, free electrons move in a periodic potential.

It explains electrical conductivity based on the energy bands.

1.1 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON (CFE)

THEORY OF METALS
The classical free electron theory of metals was
proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to explain the electrical
conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H. A.
Lorentz in the year 1909.

We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with

positively charged protons surrounded by the electrons of
negative charge.

The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons

and those in the outermost shell are called valence electrons
(Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 Atom (Drude model)

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.7

In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach

from the orbit, then move freely throughout the metal. These
electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.

Postulates of classical free electron theory

1. According to this theory, a metal consists of a
very large number of free electrons. These free
electrons move freely throughout the volume of
the metal.
The movement of the free electrons is mainly
responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.
2. Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal
form an electron gas. They move randomly in all
possible directions just like the gas molecules move
in a container.
The arrangement of atoms in a metal is viewed as an
array of atoms (ions) surrounded by a gas of free
electrons. Here, the mutual repulsion between the
electrons is neglected. (Fig. 1.2)

Fig. 1.2

3. In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons

(electron gas) move in all directions in a random
manner.
They collide with other free electrons and positive ion
core during the motion. This collision is known as
elastic collision (Fig 1.3).
1.8 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 1.3 Random motion of free electrons in the absence of

electric field (+ ve ion cores are not shown).
As the motion is random, the resultant velocity in any
particular direction is zero.
4. When the electrical field is applied the electrons get
some amount of energy. These electrons begin to move
towards the positive potential (in opposite direction to
the applied electrical field).
They continue to collide with positive ion cores fixed
in the lattice. As a result, the free electrons acquire a
constant average velocity known as drift velocity
(Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4 Movement free electrons with applied electrical field

5. The velocity and the energy distribution of free

electrons are governed by classical Maxwell distribution
function.
6. Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas,
they obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
Therefore, the free electrons are assigned with mean free
path, mean collision time and average velocity.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.9

Drift velocity  vd 

It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the

free electrons of a metal in a particular direction by the
application of an electrical field.

It is expressed as


vd 
c

where   mean free path

c  collision time.

Mean free path   

The average distance travelled by a free electron
between any two successive collisions is known as mean
free path. It is represented by .

It is the product of drift velocity of free electrons

vd ) and collision time c .

  vd c

Collision time  c 
The average time taken by a free electron between
any two successive collisions is known as collision time
of the electron.

It means that the electron on the average travels for a

time c before its next collision.


It is given by c 
vd

where  - mean free path

vd - drift velocity
1.10 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Relaxation time 

The average time taken by a free electron to reach
its equilibrium state from its disturbed state due to the
application of an external electrical field is called
relaxation time.

In other words, it is the measure of time that the electrons

can relax when the electrical field is removed. It is
 14
approximately equal to 10 second.

For isotropic material such as metal

collision time c = relaxation time .

1.2 EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF

A METAL (Derivation)

(Based on Drude and Lorentz classical free electron theory)

When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge
‘e’ in a metal rod, the electron moves in opposite direction to
the applied field with a velocity vd (Fig. 1.5). This velocity is
known as drift velocity.

Fig. 1.5 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod

Force experienced by the electron F  e E ... (1)

This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains

acceleration ‘a’,

From, Newton’s second law of motion, the force on the electron

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.11

F  Mass of the electron m  acceleration a

F  ma ...(2)
From the eqns (1) and (2), we have
ma  eE
eE ...(3)
a 
m
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be
accelerated continuously due to the applied electric field.
But, the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core
and other free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and
velocity. Thus, after each collision, the velocity of electron
increases until the next collision takes place.

Average drift velocity of electron is  vd.

If c is collision time, then acceleration.

vd . .
a   . c  


vd  a  ... (4)
Substituting the eqn (3) in (4)
eE
vd  
m

 e 
vd   E ...(5)
m
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as
J  nevd ...(6)

Substituting eqn (5) in eqn (6), we have

 e 
J  ne  E
m
2
J ne 
or  ...(7)
E m
1.12 Physics for Electronics Engineering

According to Ohm’s law, current density  J  is expressed as

J ...(8)
J  E or  
E

On comparing the eqns (7) and (8), we have

2 ... (9)
ne 
Electrical conductivity  
m

The eqn (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal

Thermal Conductivity  K 
We know that the amount of heat conducted between the
two ends of a metal rod.

dT
Q  KA t
dx

Q
Thermal conductivity K 
dT
A t
dx

It is defined as the amount of heat conducted per

unit time through the material having unit area of
cross-section per unit temperature gradient.
2
If area of cross section A is ‘1’ m .
time of flow of heat t is 1 second, then
Q
K 
dT
dx
dT
Also Q  K
dx

Q – Amount of heat flowing per unit time through

unit cross-sectional area.
dT
– Temperature gradient.
dx
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.13

1.3 EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF

A METAL (Derivation)

Consider two cross-sections A and B of a metal rod

separated by a distance .

Let A be at a high temperature  T  and B at a low

temperature T  dT .

Now, heat flows from A to B by the free electrons

(Fig. 1.6)

Fig. 1.6 Heat conduction in a metal rod

Conduction electron per unit volume  n

Average velocity of the electrons  v

During the movement of the electrons in the metal rod,

the elastic collision takes place. Hence, the electrons near A lose
their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic energy.

At A, average kinetic energy  3

  2 kT ... (1)
of an electron 

 .. 1 2 3 
     . K.E.  2 mv  2 kT 
 
1.14 Physics for Electronics Engineering

where k  Boltzmann’s constant

T  Temperature at A.

At B, average kinetic energy of the electron

3
 k T  dT  ... (2)
2

The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron

from A to B

3 3
 kT  k T  dT
2 2

3 3 3 3
 kT  kT  kdT  kdT ...(3)
2 2 2 2

Number of electrons crossing per unit area

per unit time from A to B

1
 nv . .. (4)
6

The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in

unit time.

1 3
 nv  kdT
6 2

1 ...(5)
 n v k dT
4

Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per

unit area per unit time

1 ...(6)
  n v k dT
4
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.15

Let us assume that there is an equal probability for the

electrons to move in all ‘6’ directions as shown in the fig. 1.6.

Each electron travels with thermal velocity v and n is the

free electron per unit volume (density). Then, on an average
1
nv electrons travel in any one of the directions per unit area
6
per unit time.

Fig. 1.6

Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B

per unit area per unit time
1  1 
Q  n v k dT    nv k dT 
4  4 
1 1
Q  n v k dT  n v k dT
4 4
1 1
Q   
4 
n v k dT
4
1
Q  n v k dT
2 ...(7)

But, from the definition of thermal conductivity, the

amount of heat conducted per unit area per unit time
. . dT 
 . Q  K dx
dT
Q  K 
  
 Here,   dx 
 
Note: The students are not expected to write the part of the
derivation given in the box in the examination.
1.16 Physics for Electronics Engineering

1 dT
n v k dT  K
2 

1
K  nv k ...(8)
2

We know that for the metals

relaxation time   collision time c


i.e.,   c 
v

v ...(9)

Substituting the eqn (9) in the eqn (8), we have

1
K  nvkv
2

1 2 ...(10)
K  nv k
2

The equation (10) is the expression for the thermal

conductivity of a metal.

1.4 WIEDEMANN - FRANZ LAW

Statement

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical

conductivity  is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals at
a given temperature.

K
 T


K
 LT

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.17

where L is a proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz

8 2
number. Its value is 1.12  10 WK

Derivation

Wiedemann - Franz law is derived from the expressions of

thermal and electrical conductivities of a metal.

We know that

Thermal conductivity of the metal

1 2 ...(1)
K  nv k 
2

Electrical conductivity of the metal

2
ne 
  ...(2)
m

1 2
nv k 
Thermal conductivity K 2
 
Electrical conductivity  2
ne 
m

2
1 nv k 
  m
2 ne2 

2
K 1 mv k
 ...(3)
 2 e2

The kinetic energy of the electron is given by

1 2 3
mv  kT ...(4)
2 2
1.18 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Substituting the eqn (4) in the eqn (3), we have

2
K 3 kT  k 3kT
 
 2 e 2 2 e2

2
K 3k

2  e 
T


K
 LT
 ...(5)

2
3k
where L 
2  e 
is a constant and it is known as Lorentz
number.

K
 T ...(6)


Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal

conductivity to electrical conductivity of the metal is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal.

This law is verified experimentally and it is found to hold

good at normal temperature. But, this law is not applicable at
very low temperature.

Conclusion
Wiedemann - Franz law clearly shows that if a metal
has high thermal conductivity, it should also have high
electrical conductivity.

Among the metals, the best electrical conductors

(silver, copper, aluminium) are also the best conductors
of heat.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.19

Lorentz Number
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to the product
of electrical conductivity  and absolute temperature
T of the metal is a constant. It is known as Lorentz
number and it is given by

K
L 
T
2
3k
Consider the expression L 
2  e 
.

 23 1
Substituting for Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK and
 19
the charge of the electron e  1.602  10 coulomb, we get
Lorentz number as

2
3  1.38  10
 23 
L   
2 1.6021  10 19
 
8 2
L  1.12  10 W K

It is found that the value of Lorentz number determined using

classical free electron theory is only half of the experimental
8 2
value i.e., 2.44  10 W  K . This discrepancy in
experimental and theoretical values of Lorentz number is one
of the failures of the classical theory. It is rectified in quantum
theory.

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 1.1

The electrical resistivity of copper at 27 C is

8
1.72  10  m. Compute its thermal conductivity if the
8 2
Lorentz number is 2.26  10 WK . (A.U. April 2014)
1.20 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Given data

8
Electrical resistivity   1.72  10 m

Temperature T  27 C  27  273  300 K

8 2
Lorentz number L  2.26  10 WK

Solution

We know that Wiedemann - Franz law

K
 LT


K   LT

LT . . 1
K 
  .   
 
Substituting the given values, we have
8
2.26  10  300
K  8
1.72  10

1 1
K  394 W m K

Problem 1.2

The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at

1 1 7 1 1
20 C are 390 Wm K and 5.87  10  m
respectively. Calculate Lorentz number. (A.U. May 2012)

Given data

1 1
Thermal conductivity of copper K  390 Wm K

7 1 1
Electrical conductivity of copper   5.87  10  m

Temperature T  20 C  20  273  293 K

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.21

Solution

K
We know that Lorentz number L 
T

Substituting the given values, we have

390
L  7
5.87  10  293

390
 7
1719.9  10

7
 0.227  10

8 2
L  2.27  10 WK

1.5 SUCCESS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON

THEORY

 It is used to verify Ohm’s law.

 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities

of metals.

 It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.

 It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

1.6 FAILURES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON

(CFE) THEORY

 Classical theory states that all the free electrons absorb

the supplied energy. But, the quantum theory states that
only a few electrons absorb the supplied energy.

 The electrical conductivity of semiconductors and

insulators cannot be explained by this theory.
1.22 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 The photo-electric effect, Compton effect and black body

radiation cannot be explained on the basis of classical
free electron theory.

 According to the classical free electron theory, the ratio

K
is constant at all temperatures. But, it is found that
T
it is not constant at low temperature.

 According to this theory, the value of specific heat

capacity of a metal is 4.5R. But, the experimental value
is given by 3R. (Here R is the universal gas constant.)

 The susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely

proportional to temperature. But, the experimental result
shows that paramagnetism of metal is independent of
temperature. Moreover, ferro-magnetism cannot be
explained by this theory.

Quantum Free Electron (QFE) Theory

The failures of classical free electron theory were rectified
in quantum theory given by Sommerfeld in the year 1928.

This theory uses quantum concepts and hence it is

known as quantum free electron theory.

Sommerfeld used Schrodinger’s wave equation and

de-Broglie’s concept of matter waves to obtain the expression
for electron energies.

He approached the problem quantum mechanically using

Fermi - Dirac statistics instead of classical Maxwell – Boltzmann
statistics.

Postulates of Quantum Free Electron Theory

 The potential energy of an electron is uniform or
constant within the metal.
 The electrons have wave nature.
 The allowed energy levels of an electron are quantized.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.23

 The electrons move freely within the metal and they are
not allowed to leave the metal due to existance of
potential barrier at its surfaces.

 The free electrons obey Fermi - Dirac statistics.

Merits of Quantum Free Electron Theory

 This theory treats the electron quantum mechanically

rather than classically.

 It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal

conductivity, specific heat capacity of metals,
photoelectric effect and Compton effect, etc.

Demerits of Quantum Free Electron Theory

 Even though it explains most of the physical properties

of the metals, it fails to state the difference between
conductor, semiconductor and insulator.

 It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient

and some of the transport properties of the metals.

Note: The students are also asked to recollect the concept of

quantum theory which they studied in the 1st semester IV unit
(quantum physics) for more understanding.

1.7 ELECTRONS IN METALS - PARTICLE IN A

THREE DIMENSIONAL BOX
The solution of one-dimensional potential well is extended
for a three-dimensional potential box.

In a three-dimensional potential box, the particle (electron)

can move in any direction in space. Therefore, instead of one
quantum number n, we have to use three quantum numbers,
nx, ny and nz, corresponding to the three coordinate axes namely
x, y and z respectively.
1.24 Physics for Electronics Engineering

If a, b, c are the lengths of the box as shown in figure 1.7

along x, y and z axes, then

Energy of the particle  Ex  Ey  Ez

2 2 2 2 2 2
nx h ny h nz h
i.e., En ny nz
 2  2
 2
x
8ma 8mb 8mc

Fig. 1.7 Particle in a three-dimensional box

If a  b  c as for a cubical box, then

2
h 2 2 2 ...(1)
En n n  2
[nx  ny  nz ]
x y z
8ma

The corresponding normalised wave function of an electron

in a cubical box may be written as



2 2 2 nx x ny y nz z
n ny nz    sin sin sin
x a a a a a a
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.25

nx x ny y nz z


8
 n ny nz  3
sin sin sin ...(2)
x a a a a

From the equations (1) and (2), we understand that several

combinations of the three quantum numbers nx, ny and nz lead
to different energy eigen values and eigen functions.

Example
Suppose a state has quantum numbers, then

nx  1, ny  1, nz  2

2 2 2
Then, nx  ny  nz  6

Similarly, for a combination nx  1 , ny  2 , nz  1 and fo r

a c o mbinatio n nx  2, ny  1, nz  1

2 2 2
we have, nx  ny  nz  6

2
6h ...(3)
 E112  E121  E211  2
8ma

The corresponding wave functions are written as

x y 2z
a

8
112  3
sin sin sin
a a a

x z
a

8 2y
121  3
sin sin sin ... (4)
a a a

y z
a

8 2x
211  3 sin sin sin
a a a
1.26 Physics for Electronics Engineering

1.8 DEGENERATE STATES

It is seen from equations (3) and (4) that, for several
combinations of quantum numbers, we have the same
energy eigen value but different eigen functions. Such a
state of energy levels is called degenerate state.

The three combinations of quantum numbers, (112), (121)

and (211), which give the same eigen value but different eigen
functions are called 3-fold degenerate state.

Non-degenerate state:
When only one wave function corresponds to the energy eigen
vlave, such a state is called non-degenerate state.

Suppose nx  2, ny  2, nz  2.

2
12 h
Then, E222  2
8ma



8 2x 2y 2z
and 222  3
sin sin sin
a a a a

1.9 FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

Fermi - Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half
integral spin like electrons. They are known as Fermi particles
or Fermions.

Definition
Fermi distribution function gives the distribution of
electrons among the various energy levels as a function
of temperature.

It is a probability function F E of an electron

occupancy for a given energy level at absolute
temperature.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.27

It is given by

1
FE  E  EF  / kT
1e

where
E – Energy of the level whose occupancy
is being considered

EF – Fermi energy level

k – Boltzmann’s constant

T – Absolute temperature

The probability value FE lies between 0 and 1.

 If F E  1, the energy level is occupied by an electron.

 If F E  0, the energy level is vacant ie., it is not

occupied by the electron.
1
 If F E  0.5 or , then there is a 50% chance for the
2
electron occupying in that energy level.

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM

Problem 1.3

Use Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of

F E for E  EF  0.01 eV at 200 K. (A.U. May 2015)

Given data
 19  21
E  EF  0.01 eV  0.01  1.6  10 J  1.6  10 J

Temperature T  200 K
 23 1
Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK
1.28 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Solution

1
We know that F E  E  EF/kT
1e

Substituting the given values, we have

1
F E   21  23
1.6  10 /1.38  10  200
1e

1
 0.5797
1e

1

1  1.7855

1

2.7855

F E  0.359

Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

The dependence of Fermi distribution function on

temperature and its effect on the occupancy of energy level is
shown in fig. 1.8 (a) and (b).

Case (i) Probability of occupation for E  EF

at T  0 K

When T  0 K and E  EF then applying the values

in the expression, we have
1
F E  E  EF/kT
1e
1
F E   ve/0
1e
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.29

1
FE  
1e

1 1 . . 
  [ . e  0]
1  0 1

F E  1

Thus at T  0 K, there is 100% chance for the electrons to

occupy the energy levels below Fermi energy level ie., all the
energy levels are occupied by the electrons.

Fig. 1.8 Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at

different temperatures

Case (ii) Probability of occupation for E  EF at T  0 K

When T  0 K and E  EF , then applying the values in

1
the expression F E  E  EF/kT
we have
1e

1 1
F E   ve/0
 
1e 1e

1
 [ . e  ]
. .
1

1
  0

1.30 Physics for Electronics Engineering

F E  0

Thus, there is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy the

energy level above Fermi energy level ie., all the energy levels
above Fermi energy level are not occupied by the electrons
(empty).

From the above two cases, at T  0 K the variation of

F E for different energy values become a step function as shown
in fig 1.7 (a).

Case (iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary

temperature
At ordinary temperature, the value of the probability
function starts reducing from 1 for energy values E slightly less
than EF.

With the increase of temperature, i.e., T  0 K, Fermi

function F E varies with E as shown in fig. 1.7(b).

At any temperature other than 0K and E  EF

1
F E  0
1e

1 1 [... e0  1]
F E    0.5
11 2

% of FE  0.5  100

 50%

Hence, there is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy

1
Fermi energy level ie., the value of F E becomes at E  EF
2

This result is used to define Fermi energy level.

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.31

Fermi energy level

 It is the energy level at any finite temperature

above 0 K at which the probability of electron
1
occupation is or 50%.
2

 It is also the energy level of maximum energy of

the filled states at 0 K.

Further for E  EF, the probability value falls off rapidly

to zero (Fig 1.7 (b).

Case (iv) At high temperature

When kT  EF or T  , the electrons lose their
quantum mechanical character. Now, Fermi distribution
function reduces to classical Boltzmann distribution.

Uses of Fermi distribution function

 It gives the probability of an electron occupancy for a
given energy level at a given temperature.

 It is very useful to find the number of free electrons per

unit volume at a given temperature.

 It is used to find Fermi energy of the metal.

1.10 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

The ability of a metal to conduct electricity depends on

the number of quantum states and also the energy levels which
are available for the electrons.

Hence, it is essential to find the energy states which are

available for the occupation of the electrons (charge carriers).

Definition

It is defined as the number of available energy states

per unit volume in an energy interval E and E  dE.
1.32 Physics for Electronics Engineering

It is denoted by Z E. It is given by

Number of energy states in

between energy E and E  dE
in a metal piece  NE dE 
Z E dE 
Volume of the metal piece  V 

Derivation
Let us consider a cubical metal of side ‘a’. In order to find
the number of energy states available in the metal in between
the energy E and E  dE, a sphere is considered with three
quantum numbers nx , ny , nz as coordinate axes in
three-dimensional space as shown in fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Representation of energy states in quantum number

space.
A radius vector n is drawn from origin ‘O’ to a point with
co-ordinates nx, ny, nz in this space. All the points on the surface
of the sphere have the same energy E.

2 2 2 2
Thus, n such that n  nx  ny  nz denotes the radius of
 n h 
2 2
the sphere corresponding to energy E.  ... E  2 
 8ma 
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.33

This sphere is further divided into many shells. Each shell

represents a particular combination of quantum numbers
nx, ny and nz.

Therefore, a shell denotes a particular energy value E

corresponding to a particular radius n. In this space, unit volume
represents one energy state. (Fig. 1.10).

Fig. 1.10

Thus, volume of the sphere of radius n is equal to the

number energy states upto E.

Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius ‘n’

4 3 ...(1)
  n (Volume of the sphere)
3
Since the quantum numbers nx, ny, nz can have only
positive integer values, only one octant of the sphere, i.e.,
th
1
8 of the spherical volume has to be considered.
 

Only one octant of the sphere has all the quantum numbers
nx, ny and nz as positive.

Therefore, the number of available energy states within one

octant of the sphere of radius ‘n’ corresponding to energy E

14 3
  n  ...(2)
83 
1.34 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Similarly, the number of available energy states within one

octant of the sphere of radius ‘n  dn’ corresponding to energy
E  dE

14 3
  n  dn  ...(3)
8  3 
The number of available energy states between the shells
of radii n and n  dn ie., between the energy values
E and E  dE is determined by subtracting equation (2) from
equation (3). Thus, we have

14 3 14 3
N E dE   n  dn    3 n 
8  3  8  
1  4   3 3
    n  dn  n 
8 3  

 3 3 2 2 3
NE dE     n  dn  3n dn  3n dn  n 
6 

[ ... a  b  a  b  3a b  3ab ]
3 3 3 2 2

2 3
Since dn is very small, the higher powers dn and dn are
neglected.

 2
N E dE  3n dn
6

 2
NE dE  n dn
2


NE dE  n  n dn ...(4)
2

We know that the energy of an electron in a cubical metal

piece of sides ‘a’ is given by (particle in a three dimensional
box problem).

 n2  n2  n2  h2  . . . n2  n2  n2  n2 
 x y z 
 x y z 
E 2
8ma
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.35

2 2
nh ...(5)
E  2
8ma
2
2 8ma E ...(6)
n  2
h

Taking square root of eqn (6), we have

1/2
 8ma2 E  ...(7)
n   2 
 h 

Differentiating the eqn (6), we get

2
8ma dE
2ndn  2
h
2
8ma dE ...(8)
or ndn  2
2h

Substituting eqns (7) and (8) in eqn (4), we have

1/2
  8ma E   8ma2 dE 
2
N  E  dE   2   2 
2
 h   2h 
1/2
1   8ma E 
2  8ma2 dE 
  2   2 
2 2
 h   h 
1/2
  8ma   8ma2 
2
1/2
  2 
E  2 
dE
4
 h   h 
3/2
  8ma 
2
1/2
NE dE   2  E dE ...(9)
4
 h 

Pauli’s exclusion principle states that two electrons

of opposite spins can occupy each state. Hence, the number
of energy states available for electron occupancy is given by
1.36 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3/2
  8ma 
2
1/2
N E dE  2   2 
E dE
4
 h 
3/2
 8m 2 3/2 1/2
 2 3/2
a  E dE
2 h 

3/2  a  1/2
3

 8m  3E dE
2
 h 

a 
3
3/2 1/2 ... (10)
NE dE    8m E dE
2 h3
 
3/2 1 1/2
8m  8m 8m
1/2
 4  2m 4  2m
1 2 1/2
 4  2m 2  2m
3/2
 4  2  2m
3/2
 8 2m

a 
3
3/2 1/2
NE dE   3  8 2m E dE
2 h
 
3
a 3/2 1/2
 3
4 2m E dE
h

4 3 3/2 1/2 ... (11)

N E dE  3
a 2m E dE
h

Density of states is given by the number of energy

states per unit volume.

NE dE ... (12)

ZE dE 
V

on substituting for N E dE and V, we have

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.37

Density of states

4 3 3/2 1/2
3
a 2m E dE
h
[... Volume V  a ]
3
ZE dE  3
a

4 3/2 1/2
Z E dE  3
2m E dE ...(13)
h

This is the expression for the density of states in

energy between E and E  dE.

 It is used to calculate carrier concentration in metals

and semiconductors.

Carrier Concentration in Metals

Carrier concentration, i.e., the number of electrons per unit

volume in a given energy interval is calculated by summing up
the product of the density of states Z E and probability
occupancy F E.

i.e., nc 
 Z E F E dE

Substituting for Z(E) and F(E), we have


4 3/2 1/2 1
nc  3
2m E E  EF  kT
dE ...(14)
h 1e

For a metal at absolute zero temperature, the upper most

occupied level is EF and all the levels are completely filled below
EF,
1.38 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 F E  1 for the energy levels E  0 to E  EF at T  0 K

Now, the equation (14) reduces to

EF
o

nc   4
h
3
2m
3/2
E
1/2
dE
0

EFo

nc 
4
h
3
2m
3/2
 E
1/2
dE
0

EF
4 3/2  E 3/2  o

nc  2m  
h
3
 3/2  0

EF
4 3/2 1  E 3/2  o
nc  2m  0
3 3/2
h

4 2 
 0 
3/2 3/2
nc  3
2m  EFo
3
h  

8 3/2
nc  3
2mEFo ...(15)
3h

This equation (15) is used to calculate carrier

concentration in metals and semiconductors in terms of
Fermi energy.

Expression for Fermi energy

8 3/2
We know that nc  3
2m EFo
3h

8 3/2 3/2
nc  3
2m EFo
3h
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.39

on rearranging, we have

 3nc   h
3  3/2
  3/2   EFo
 8   2m 

on raising to the power of 2/3 on both sides, we have

2
3
  3nc   h
3 
    EFo
8  2m3/2
  

2/3
  3nc   h3  
EFo    
8  2m32
  

2/3 2/3
 3nc   h
3 
EFo     3/2 
 8   2m 

2/3
 3nc   3 2/3
h  
EFo     3/2 2/3 
 8   [2m ] 

2/3
 h2   3nc  ... (16)
(or) EFo    
 2m   8 

This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons

in solids at absolute zero temperature.

 It is noted that Fermi energy of a metal depends only

on the density of electrons of metal.

Expression for Fermi Energy at T  0 K

Fermi energy EF at any temperature T in terms of Fermi

energy at 0 K is given by the relation
1.40 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2
 2
 kT 

EF  EFo  1  
12  EFo  
   
 
The second term within the bracket is very small compared
to 1 (but has significant value at very high temperature). Hence,
on neglecting that term, we get

EF  EFo

Hence, the value of EF can be taken equal to EFo itself.

1.11 ELECTRON IN PERIODIC POTENTIAL

Band theory of solids (Zone theory)

The free electron theory explains the properties like
thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity and specific heat of
most of the metals.

But, it fails to explain why some solids are conductors,

some are insulators and others are semiconductors.

A solution to this problem was given by band theory

of solids and is called zone theory.

According to free electron theory, the potential energy of

the electron inside the crystal through which an electron moves
is supposed to be constant (zero). So it is completely free to
move about in the crystal, restrained only by the surface of the
crystal.

Postulates
1. According to band theory, potential energy of electron
within the crystal is periodic due to periodicity of the
crystal i.e., free electrons move inside periodic lattice
field.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.41

2. The potential energy of the solid varies periodically

with the periodicity of space lattice ‘a’ which is nothing
but interatomic spacing.
Inside a real crystal, the electrons (–) move through
periodic arrangement of positively charged holes  as shown
in the fig.(1.11a)

Fig. (1.11b) shows one dimensional periodic potential

distribution for a crystal. It is assumed that the potential energy
of the electron at the positive ion site is zero and is maximum
when it is half way between the adjacent nuclei.

Fig. 1.11 One dimensional periodic potential

distribution for a crystal

1.12 BLOCH THEOREM

Consider the Schrondinger equation for an electron moving

in a one dimension periodic potential. In this case, the potential
energy of an electron satisfies the equation.

The Schrodinger equation is

2
d  2m ...(1)
2
 2
[E  V x]   0
dx h

With reference to the solution of this equation, there is an

important theorem which states that there exist solutions of the
form
1.42 Physics for Electronics Engineering

ikx
 x  e uk x ...(2)

where uk x  uk x  a

where a is the period,

Thus the solutions are plane waves modulated by the

function uk x, which has the same periodicity as the lattice. This
theorem is known as the Bloch Theorem or Floquet’s Theorem.

The functions defined by equation (2) are known as

Bloch functions and can be decomposed into sum of
travelling waves. These functions can be assembled into
localized wave packets to represent electrons that propagate
freely through the potential fields of the iron cores.

1.13 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

According to the energy band theory of solids, the free

electrons move in a periodic potential produced by positive ion
cores. The electrons are treated as weakly perturbed by the
periodic potential.

In solid sodium, the electrons experience a periodic

potential since the atomic arrangement is periodic.

A simple qualitative explanation of the formation of energy

bands in a solid is given below.

A solid contains an enormous number of atoms packed closely

together. Each atom when isolated has a discrete set of electron
energy levels, 1s, 2s, 2p, .

If we imagine the N atoms on the solid to be isolated from

one another, they would have completely coinciding schemes of
energy levels.

The energies of electrons within any one isolated atom obey

the following conditions.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.43

(i) There are specific electronic energy levels in each atom

(fig. 1.12). Electrons cannot occupy space between these
levels.
(ii) Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first. A specific
quantity of energy, called a quantum of energy must
be supplied to move an electron to the next higher
level.

Fig. 1.12 (a) Fig. 1.12(b)

(iii) Pauli’s, exclusion principle states that no two electrons

can occupy the same quantum state. Not more than
two electrons can occupy any one energy level.
Two electrons shall occupy the same energy level because
they have opposite electron spins (fig 1.12 (b)).

When the atoms are brought in close proximity to form a

solid, the valence electrons of adjacent atoms interact and
constitute a single system of electrons common to the entire
crystal, and their outermost electronic orbits overlap.

Therefore, N electrons will now have to occupy different

energy levels, which may be brought about by the electric forces
exerted on each electron by all N nuclei.

As a result of these forces, each atomic energy level is split

up into a large number of closely spaced energy levels.

A set of such closely spaced energy levels is called

an energy band.
1.44 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Consider 11 electrons of a neutral sodium atom, each

occupying a specific energy level as indicated in fig. 1.13. The
energy levels of sodium become bands when the atoms lie close
together.

In figure 1.13, r0 represents the spacing between atoms in

solid sodium. When the atoms are part of a solid, they interact
with each other, and the electrons have slightly different
energies.

Fig. 1.13 Energy band of sodium crystal

In an energy band, allowed energies are almost continuous.

These energy bands are separated by ranges of energies that
have no allowed energy levels.

These regions are known as forbidden bands or energy

gaps (fig. 1.14).

Fig. 1.14
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.45

The amount of splitting is not the same for different levels.

The levels filled by valence electrons are disturbed to a greater
extent, while those filled by electrons of inner shells are
disturbed only slightly.

Fig. 1.13 shows the splitting of levels as a function of the

distance r between atoms.

If there are N atoms in a solid, there are N allowed

quantum states in each band. Each quantum state is occupied
by a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. Thus, each
energy band can be occupied by 2N electrons.

The valence band consists of a group of states

containing the outermost electrons or valence electrons of an
atom. The band formed from atomic energy levels containing
valence electrons is called valence band.

These electrons have the highest energy. The band is

obviously the highest occupied band.

Above the valence band, there exists the band of next

higher permitted energies called conduction band. It is
separated from the valence band by a gap (fig. 1.15). The
gap represents the range of energy which electrons cannot
possess.

The conduction band corresponds to the first excited states

and it is normally the lowest unfilled energy band.

Fig 1.15
1.46 Physics for Electronics Engineering

In conduction band, the electrons can move freely and they

are generally called conduction electrons.

According to free electron theory, the potential energy of

the electron inside the crystal through which an electron moves
is supposed to be constant (zero) and so it is completely free to
move through out the crystal, restrained only by the surface of
the crystal.

1.14 CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS

AND INSULATORS
On the basis of width of forbidden gap valence and
conduction band the solids are classified into insulators,
semiconductors and conductors.

Insulators
 In case of insulators, the forbidden energy band is very
wide as shown in the fig 1.16. Due to this, electrons can
not jump from valence band to conduction band. In
insulators, the valence electrons are bound very tightly
to their parent atoms.

Fig. 1.15 Energy band for insulator

 For example, in the case of material like glass, the

valence band is completely full at 0K and the energy
gap between valence band and conduction band is of the
order of 10 eV.

 Even in the presence of high electric field, the electrons

cannot jump from the valence band to conduction band.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.47

 When a very large energy is supplied, an electron may

jump across the forbidden gap. Increase in temperature
also enables some electrons to go to the conduction band.

 This explains why certain insulators become

conductors at high temperature. The resistivity of
7
insulators is of the order of 10  m (ohm metre).

Semiconductors
 In semiconductors, the forbidden gap is very small as
shown in the fig. 1.17. Germanium and Silicon are the
best examples of semiconductors.

 In Germanium, the forbidden gap is of the order of 0.7

eV while in case of silicon, it is of the order of 1.1 eV.

Fig. 1.17 Energy band for semiconductors

 Actually, a semiconductor is one whose electrical

properties lies between those of insulators and
conductors. At 0K there are no free electrons in
conduction band and valence band is completely filled.

 When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons

can easily jump from valence band to conduction band,
since the forbidden gap is very small.

 In semiconductors, the conductivities are of the order of

2
10 m. (ohm metre)
1.48 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Conductors
 In case of conductors, there is no forbidden gap, both
valence and conduction bands overlap each other as
shown in the fig. 1.18.

Fig. 1.18

 In conduction band, plenty of free electrons are available

for the process of electric conduction. The electrons from
valence band freely enter into the conduction band.

 The most important fact in conductors is that due to

the absence of forbidden gap, there is no structure to
establish holes. The total current in conductors is simply
the flow of electrons.

1.15 TIGHT BINDING APPROXIMATION

In solid, ionic cores at fixed lattice locations and free

electron gas enveloping these ionic cores.

In other words, it is assumed that the solid already exists.

The ionic cores are ‘tightly bound’ to their lattice locations. The
electrons are ‘free’ to run through the extend of the solid.
This is called the ‘Free electron approximation’.

There is another approach to modeling materials which

starts from opposite position.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.49

In this approach, the atoms are independent to begin with

and they are brought together to build the solid. The electrons
are bound to their respective individual atoms to begin with.

In this case the atoms are free to begin with while the
electrons are tightly bound to the atom.

 In view of the electronic properties of the materials, this

approach is referred to as the ‘Tight binding
approximation’ - highlighting the status of the electrons
at the start of the model.

 Figure 1.19 shows how the tight binding approximation

builds the band structure of the solid.

Fig. 1.19: An illustration of the tight binding approximation

to explain the properties of solids.

 When the atoms are far apart, all the bound electrons
associated with each atom, have fixed energy levels.

 Assuming that building the solid starts using atoms of

the same element. Thus, the energy levels occupied by
the resspective electrons in each atom will be identical.

 As we bring the atoms closed to each other to form the

solid, the electrons will still maintain their original
energy levels as long as the interatomic seperation is
large.
1.50 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 When the atoms get close enough, the outer shell

electrons begin to overlap with each other.

 The energy levels of these outer shell electrons are forced

to split into energy levels above and below the energy
level of these electrons when they belonged to individual
atoms.

 The splitting of energy levels occurs because electrons

obey the Pauli’s exclusion principle.

 Initially only the outer shell electrons overlap, therefore

only their levels split. But inner shell electrons still
maintain their energy levels like individual atom.

 If the interatomic separation keeps decreasing even

further, progressively more of the inner shell electron
levels will overlap and hence also split.

 At each energy level, the level will split to enough new

energy levels (band) so as to accommodate the electrons
of all the atoms in the solid taken together.

 So, for example, if a hundred atoms come together, and

there is one electron in the outer shell, the solid will
split the energy level to a hundred energy levels. Thus
the hundred outer shell electrons are filled corresponding
to the combined solid.

 In view of the starting points, the free electron

approximation lends itself more easily to the treatment
of metallic system. The tight binding approximation
is typically more consistent with the state of the
manterial in the case of insulators, so it is better
suited for modeling insulators.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.51

1.16 EFFECTIVE MASS OF ELECTRON AND HOLE

Effective mass of electron

The mass acquired by an electron when it is
accelerated in a periodic potential is called effective mass

of an electron. It is denoted by m .

Explanation:
When an electron is accelerated by an electrical or
magnetic field in a periodic potential, the mass of the electron
is not a constant. But, it varies with respect to the field applied.

This varying mass is called effective mass m .

Derivation of effective mass of electron

Consider a crystal subjected to an electric field of intensity
‘E’. Due to this applied field, the electron gains a velocity which
can be described by a wave vector k.

According to wave mechanics, a particle moving with a

velocity v is equivalent to a wave packet moving with a group
velocity vg.

 Group velocity with which the electron can travel

dw
vg  ...(1)
dk

where w angular frequency of the electron

k  wave vector

We know that E  h . .
 . w  2v 
 w 
E
hw  v 
2  2 
 h
   
h
w
Eh  2

E
w  ...2
h
1.52 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Substituting (2) in (1),

d E
vg 
dk  h 

1 dE
vg   ... (3)
h dk

The acceleration ‘a’ experienced by the electron is given by

d vg
a
dt

d  1  dE  

dt  h
–  dk  
 
2
1 d E dk ... (4)
 – 
h dk2 dt

Momentum p of an electron inside the crystal.

h
p from DeBroglie’s equation


h 2

2 

–k  . . 2  ...(5)
h  . k  
 
Differentiating the equation (5) with respect to ‘t’
dp – dk . .
h . force acting on the electron
dt dt

(or) – dk
F  h F
dp
dt dt

dk F
(or)  – ...(6)
dt h
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.53

Substituting equation (6) in (4)

2
1 d E F
a –  –
h dk2 h

2
1 d E
 2 F
– dk2
h

2
 –
h 
(or) F     a.
d E
2

 2   ...(7)
  dk  

When an electrical field is applied, acceleration of the

electron due to this field

eE F
a 
[. . F  eE]
 
.
m m


(or) Fm a ...(8)

Comparing the equations (7) and (8), we have

2
  –
h 
m a a
d E
2

 2  
  dk  

2
 –
h
 m 
 d2E 
 2 
 dk 

The above equation indicates that the effective mass of an

2
d E
electron is not a constant, but depends on the value of 2
dk
1.54 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Special cases:

d2E
case (i) If 2
is positive, then m is also positive
dk

d2E
case (ii) If 2
is negative, then m is also negative
dk

d2E
case (iii) If is more, then the electrons behave as
dk2
light particle

d2E
case (iv) If is very small, then the electrons behave
dk2
as heavy particle.

Variation of m with k:

Figure 1.19 shows the variation of m with k. Near k  0,
the effec tive mass appro ac hes m. As the value of k increases,

m increases reaching its maximum value at the point of
inflection on the E  k curve.


Above the point of inflection, m is negative and as k tends

to , it decreases to a small negative value.
a

Fig. 1.19 Effective mass as a function of k

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.55

1.17 CONCEPT OF HOLE: (OR) EFFECTIVE OR

NEGATIVE MASS OF ELECTRON

The effective mass plays an important role in conduction

process of semiconductors and insulators since they have full or
almost filled valence bands.


We can find that the effective mass m is negative near
the zone edges of almost filled valence bands. Physically
speaking the electrons in these regions are accelerated in a
direction opposite to the direction of the applied field. This is
called the negative mass behaviour of the electrons.

The electrons with the negative effective mass is considered

as a new entity having the same positive mass of that of an
electron but with positive charge. The new entity is given the
name “hole”.

The holes are not real particles like electrons or positrons,

but it is a way of looking at the negative mass behaviour of
the electrons near the zone edge.

We look upon the motion of the effective negative mass

electrons as the motion of positive holes or positive vacant sites
in a nearly full band and allow the electrons in the band to
carry the current.

The positive hole conduction and effective negative electron

mass conduction are in equilibrium. The calculations made on
the hole picture appear to be more convenient and hence the
hole concept is advantageously retained.

Several phenomena like Hall effect, Thomson effect,

etc find ready explanation on the basis of the hole
concept.
1.56 Physics for Electronics Engineering

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 1.4

Calculate electrical conductivity in copper if the mean

8
free path of electrons is 4  10 m, electron density is
28 3
8.4  10 m and average thermal velocity of electron
6 1
is 1.6  10 ms . (A.U Dec 2012)

Given data

8
Mean free path of electron   4  10 m
28 3
Electron density n  8.4  10 m
6 1
Average thermal velocity of the electrons v  1.6  10 ms
 19
Charge of an electron e  1.6  10 coulomb
 31
Mass of an electron m  9.11  10 kg

Solution

2
ne  . . 
We know that    .   
mv  

Substituting the given values, we have

28  19 2 8
8.4  10  1.6  10   4  10
   31 6
9.11  10  1.6  10

28  38 8
8.4  2.56  4  10  10  10
  31 6
9.11  1.6  10  10

7 1
  5.9  10 mho m
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.57

Problem 1.5

Calculate electrical and thermal conductivities for a

 14
metal with a relaxation time 10 second at 300 K. Also,
calculate Lorentz number using the above result
28 3
 density of electrons  6  10 m . (A.U. June 2013)

Given data
 14
Relaxation time   10 s

Temperature T  300 K

28 3
Electron concentration n  6  10 m
 31
Mass of an electron m  9.1  10 kg
 19
Charge of an electron e  1.6  10 C
 23 1
Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK

Solution
2
ne 
We know that  
m
Substituting the given values, we have
28  19 2  14
6  10  1.6  10   10
   31
9.1  10
28  52
15.36  10  10 7
  31
 1.69  10
9.1  10
7 1 1
Electrical conductivity   1.69  10  m
2 2
 nk  T
Thermal conductivity K 
3 m
(By quantum free electron theory)
1.58 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Substituting the given values, we have

2 28  23 2  14
3.14  6  10  1.38  10   10  300
K   31
3  9.1  10

1 1
K  123.80 W m K

K
Lorentz number L 
T

123.807 8 2
L  7
 2.44  10 W K
1.69  10  300

8 2
L  2.44  10 W K

Problem 1.6

Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a

8
metal of resistivity 1.54  10 ohm-m if the metal has
28 3
5.8  10 conduction electrons / m . (A.U. May 2008)

Given data
28 3
Number of electrons / unit volume n  5.8  10 m

8
Resistivity of the metal   1.54  10 m

Solution

We know that the electrical conductivity of a metal

2
ne  . . 1
   . 
m   

m m
  2
or   2
ne  ne 
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.59

Substituting the given values, we have

 31
9.1  10
 28  19 2 8
5.8  10  1.6  10   1.54  10

 14
  3.98  10 s

Problem 1.7

A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of

8
1.34  10  m at room temperature for an electric field
of 1 volt/cm. Calculate (i) the drift velocity (ii) the
mobility and (iii) the relaxation time of electrons
28
assuming that there are 5.8  10 conduction electrons
3
m of the material. (A.U. May 2009)

Given data
8
Resistivity of the wire   1.34  10 m

2 2 1
Electrical field E  1 V / cm  1 V / 10 m  1  10 Vm

28 3
Number of electron per unit volume n  5.8  10 m

Solution
2
ne 
Electrical conductivity  
m

2
1 ne   1
    
or
 m 

m
   2
ne
1.60 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Substituting the given values, we have

 31
9.1  10
  8 28  19 2
1.34  10  5.8  10  1.6  10 
 14
  4.57  10 s

eE 
Drift velocity is given by vd 
m

19 2  14
1.6  10  1  10  4.57  10
  31
9.1  10
1
vd  0.804 ms

vd 0.804 2 2 1 1
Mobility    2
 0.804  10 m V s
E 10

3 2 1 1
  8.04  10 m V s

Problem 1.8

Calculate the drift velocity and thermal velocity of

conduction electrons in copper at a temperature of
300 K. When a copper wire of length of 2 m and
resistance 0.02  carries a current of 15 A.
3 2 1 1
Given mobility   4.3  10 m V s (A.U. Jan 2014)

Given data
Temperature T  300 K

Length of the wire L  2 m

Resistance R  0.02 

Current I  15 A
3 2 1  1
Mobility   4.3  10 m V s
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.61

Solution
Voltage drop V across the wire is

V  IR  15  0.02  0.3 V

Elec tric field E across the wire is given by

V 0.3 1
E    0.15 Vm
L 2

Drift velocity

3 3
vd   E  4.3  10  0.15  0.645  10

3 1
vd  0.645  10 ms

3 1 2
We know that kT  mv
2 2

where v is thermal velocity

2 3kT
v 
m

v 

 3kT
m

Substituting the given values, we have



 23
3  1.38  10  300
  31
9.1  10

5 1
v  1.17  10 ms
1.62 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Problem 1.9

Find the drift velocity of the free electrons in a copper

2
wire whose cross sectional area is 1.0 mm when the
wire carries a current of 1A. Assume that each copper
atom contributes one electron to the electron gas. Given
28 3
n  8.5  10 m . (A.U. May 2016)

Given Data

3 28 3
Conduction electron / m , n  8.5  10 m

 19
Charge of electron e  1.6  10 C

6 2
Area of cross section A  1.0  10 m

Current I  1.0 A

Solution

The drift velocity of the free electrons is given by

I
vd 
neA ... J  ne vd and J  I  A

Substituting the given values, we have

1
vd  28  19 6
8.5  10  1.6  10  1.0  10

5 1
vd  7.4  10 ms
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.63

Problem 1.10

8
A metallic wire has a resistivity of 1.42  10  m. For
an electric field of 0.14 V/m. Find (i) average drift
velocity and (ii) mean collision time, assuming that
28 3
there are 6  10 electrons / m . (A.U. April 2015)

Given data
1
Electric field E  0.14 Vm

8
Resistivity   1.42  10 m

28 3
Number of electrons per unit volume n  6  10 m

 19
Charge of the electron e  1.6  10 C

 31
Mass of an electron m  9.1  10 kg

Solution:

The resistivity of a metal is given by,

m  2 
  2  ...   ne  
ne   m 
 
 1 
m    
  
2  
ne 

Substituting the given values, we have

 31
9.1  10
  28  19 2 8
6  10  1.6  10   1.42  10

 14
  4.17  10 s
1.64 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 eE  
Average drift velocity vd   
 m 
 19  14
1.6  10  0.14  4.17  10
   31
9.1  10

3 1
vd  1.03  10 ms

Density of energy states

Problem 1.11

Calculate the number of states lying in an energy

interval of 0.01 eV above the Fermi level for a crystal
of unit volume with Fermi energy EF  3 eV
. (A.U. June 2010)

Given data

 31
Mass of electron m  9.1  10 kg
Energy interval E  0.01 eV
 34
Planck’s constant h  6.63  10 Js
Fermi energy EF  3 eV [... 1 eV  1.6  1019 J]
 19
EF  3  1.6  10 J
 19
EF  4.8  10 J

Solution:

We know that E  E  EF

 EF  E
 19
 3  0.01 eV  3.01  1.6  10 J
 19
E  4.816  10 J
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.65

Number of states per unit volume lying between EF and E is

given by
E

n   4
h
3
 2m
3/2
E
1/2
dE ...(1)
E
F Here, ZE is taken as ‘1’.
E
Hence, the eqn (1) becomes
4

3/2 1/2
n  3
2m E dE
h EF

E
4 3/2 2 3/2 
 3
2m  3 E 
h   EF

4 2  3/2
 EF 
3/2 3/2
i.e., n 2m  E
h
3 3 

Substituting the given values, we have

 31 3/2
4  3.14  2  9.1  10 
n   34 3
6.63  10 
2  19 3/2
  4.816
3/2 3/2 
 4.8   10 
3
55  30
 3.74  10  1.108  10 
25 3
n  4.14  10 m
1.66 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

ANNA UNIVERSITY Q&A

1. Give any two postulates of classical free electron

theory.
(A.U. Dec 2016)

 According to this theory, a metal consists of a very large

number of free electrons. These free electrons move freely
throughout the volume of the metal. They are fully
responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.

 Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form

an electron gas. These free electrons move randomly in
all possible directions just like the gas molecules move
in a container.

2. Define mean free path. (A.U. Dec 2011, June 2012)

The average distance travelled by a free electron between

any two successive collisions in the presence of an applied field
is known as mean free path.

It is the product of drift velocity of electrons vd and

collision time c.

  vd  c

3. Define relaxation time of an electron.

(A.U. May 2011, Dec 2012)

The average time taken by a free electron to reach its

equilibrium state from its disturbed state due to application of
an external electrical field is called relaxation time.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.67

4. Define drift velocity of electron. How is it different

from the thermal velocity of an electron?

(A.U. May 2014, Dec 2015)

The average velocity acquired by a free electron in a

particular direction after a steady state is reached on the
application of an electrical field is called drift velocity.
It is denoted as vd and its value is very small (50 cm / s).

The thermal velocity is random in nature and its value is

5
very high 10 m/s,

5. Define mobility of electrons. (A.U. May 2016)

The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the

electrons per unit electric field is defined as the mobility of
electrons 

vd
i.e., 
E

where vd  Drift velocity of electrons

E  Electrical field.

6. Define electrical conductivity. What is its unit.

(A.U. April 2011, Dec 2012)

The amount of electrical charges (q) conducted per unit

time t across unit area (A) of the conductor for unit applied
electrical field (E) is defined as electrical conductivity.

q
 
tAE

1 1 1
Its unit is ohm m or mho m
1.68 Physics for Electronics Engineering

7. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?

(A.U. May 2012)

 It is used to verify Ohm’s law.

 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities

of metals.

 It is used to derive Wiedemann - Franz law.

 It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.

8. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron

theory? (A.U. May 2011, June 2013, Dec 2015)

 Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb

the supplied energy; on the contrary, quantum theory
states that only a few electrons will absorb the supplied
energy.
 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators
(non-metals) can not be explained.
 The phenomena such as photo-electric effect, Compton
effect and black body radiation can not be explained on
the basis of this theory because these phenomena are
based on quantum theory.
9. State Wiedemann - Franz law.
(A.U. Dec 2013, June 2014, May 2015)

It states that the ratio of thermal conductivity K to

electrical conductivity  of a metal is directly proportional to
absolute temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals
at a given temperature.
K
 T


K
i.e.,  LT


where L is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.

Electrical Properties of Materials 1.69

10. What is Lorentz number? (A.U. June 2012)

The ratio between thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to

the product of electrical conductivity () of a metal and absolute
temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called Lorentz
number and it is given by

K
L 
T

11. Define Fermi distribution function. (A.U. May 2013)

The probability F E of an electron occupancy for a given

energy level at temperature T is known as Fermi distribution
function. It is given by

1
F E  E  E /kT
1e F

EF  Fermi level

k  Boltzmann’s constant

T  Absolute temperature

E  Energy of the level whose occupancy is being

considered.

12. Write down the expression for the Fermi distribution

law and explain for the electrons in a metal.

(A.U. May 2016)

Fermi distribution function is given by

1
F E  E  EF /kT
1e

where EF is called Fermi energy

1.70 Physics for Electronics Engineering

if E  EF, all levels are filled with electrons

i.e., F E  1
if E  EF, all levels are empty

i.e., F E  0
1
if T  0 K at EF , F E 
2
13. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its
importance. (A.U. Dec. 2012, May 2013, Dec 2014,
June 2013, Dec 2016)
Fermi level: It is the energy level at finite temperature
above 0 K in which the probability of the electron occupation is
1/2 and it is also the level of maximum energy of the filled
states at 0 K.
Fermi energy: It is the energy of the state at which the
probability of the electron occupation is 1/2 at any temperature
above 0K. It is also the maximum energy of filled states at 0 K.
Importance: Fermi level and Fermi energy determine the
probability of an electron occupation for a given energy level at
a given temperature.
14. Define density of states. What is its use?
(A.U. June 2013, Dec 2014, June 2016)

It is defined as the number of available electron states per

unit volume in an energy interval E and E  dE. It is denoted
by Z E.
It is used to determine Fermi energy at any temperature.
15. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons with
3 2 1 1
a mobility of 3.5  10 m V s in copper for an
electric field strength of 0.5 V/m (A.U. June 2014)

Given data
3 2 1 1
Mobility of free electrons   3.5  10 m V s

1
Electric field strength of copper E  0.5 Vm
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.71

Solution

Drift velocity vd    E

3 3
 3.5  10  0.5  1.75  10

1
vd  0.00175 ms

ADDITIONAL Q&A

1. What is electron theory of solids?

The electrons in the outermost orbit of the atoms which

constitute the solids determine its electrical properties. The
electron theory of solids explains the structure and properties
of solids through their electronic structure.

2. What are special features of classical free electron

theory of solids?

In a metal, the free electrons of an atom are free to move

about the entire volume of the metal like the molecules of a
perfect gas in a container. These free electrons in the metal are
responsible for electrical conduction.

3. What is a periodic potential.

When an electron moves through a solid, its potential

energy varies periodically with the periodicity equal to period
of space lattice ‘a’ (interatomic distance). Thin is called periodic
potential.

4. State and explain Bloch Theorem.

The Schrodinger equation is

2
d  2m (1)
2
 2
[E  V x]   0
dx h
1.72 Physics for Electronics Engineering

With reference to the solution of this equation, there is an

important theorem which states that there exist solutions of the
form.

 ikx
 x  e uk x (2)

where uk x  uk x  a

where a is the period,

Thus the solutions are plane waves modulated by the

function uk x, which has the same periodicity as the lattice.
This theorem is known as the Bloch Theorem.

5. What is an energy band?

A set of closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.

6. What is an effective mass of electron?

The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated

in a periodic potential is called effective mass of an electron. It
is denoted by m.

PART - B ‘16’ Marks Questions

Anna University Questions

Classicial free electron theory

1. Define electrical conductivity. Obtain an expression for
electrical conductivity by free electron theory.
(AU May / June 2013)
2. (i) Based on the classical free electron theory, derive an
expression for electrical conductivity of metals.
(ii) State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law.
(AU April / May, 2014)
3. (i) State the assumption of the classical free electron
model.
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.73

(ii) Obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity on

the basis of the classical free electron theory.
(AU June 2016)
4. Starting with the classical free electron theory of metals
obtain an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity
and hence prove Wiedemann-Franz Law. (AU Dec 2009)
5. (i) List the drawbacks of classical free electron theory.
(ii) Obtain Wiedemann Franz law using the expressions of
electrical and thermal conductivity and find expression
for Lorentz number. (AU Nov/Dec, 2015)
6. (i) Deduce an expression for electrical conductivity of
conducting material.
(ii) List any four drawbacks of classical free electrons
theory. (AU Dec. 2013)
7. Deduce mathematical expressions for electrical conductivity
and thermal conductivity of a conducting material and hence
obtain Wiedemann-Franz law. (AU May / June, 2014)
8. (i) Mention any four postulates of classical free electron
theory.
(ii) Obtain an expression for the thermal conductivity of
metal and hence the Wiedemann Franz law.
(AU Nov / Dec, 2013)
9. Write Fermi - Dirac function. Obtain an expression for the
density of states. (AU Dec 2015)
10. Obtain an expression for density of states. (AU Dec. 2016)
11. Explain the meaning of ‘density of states’. Derive an
expression for the number of allowed states for unit volume
of a solid. (AU May 2017)

Additional PART - B ‘16’ Marks Questions

1. State and explain Bloch Theorem.

2. Explain periodic potential and show that it each to energy

band structures.
1.74 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3. Describe the formation of energy band in a crystalline solid.

4. Explain the origin of energy band in a solid.
5. Describe tight binding approximation to explain the
formation of energy band.
6. Derive an expression for the effective mass of an electron
moving in energy bands of a solid. Show how it varies with
the wave vector.
7. Explain the concept of hole.
8. Define valance band, conduction band forbidden energy gap
in the energy band structure.
9. Distinguish between conductors, semiconductor and insulator.

ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM

1. A copper wire whose diameter is 0.16 cm carries steady

current of 10 A. What is the current density of the wire?
Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in copper.
28 3
Given : Density of electron in copper 8.5  10 m
[Ans: J  497.6  10 4 A/m 2, vd  3.6  10  4 m/s]
3
2. The density and atomic weight of copper is 8900 kgm and
63.5 respectively. The relaxation time of electrons in copper
 14
at 300 K is 10 seconds. Calculate the electrical
conductivity of copper. [Ans: 2.375  107  1 m  1]

3. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20C are

1 1 7 1 1
390 Wm K and 5.87  10  m respectively.
Calculate the Lorentz number. [Ans: 2.267  10  8 W  K 2]

4. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal

 14
rod with relaxation time 10 second at 300 K. Also
calculate the Lorentz number. Given: Density of electrons
28 3
 6  10 / m .
[Ans: K  123.93 Wm  1 K  1 and L  2.44  10  8 W  K 1]
Electrical Properties of Materials 1.75

5. Using Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which

there is 1% probability that an electron in a metal will have
an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV. [Ans: 1260 K]

6. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of

F E for E  EF  0.01 eV at 300 K. [Ans: FE  0.4045 ]

 ... 1 eV  1.6  1019 J 

 
 1 J 
1
eV 
  19 
 1.6  10 
Semiconductor Physics 2.1

2. Semiconductor Physics

Intrinsic Semiconductors - Energy band diagram - direct

and indirect semiconductors - Carrier concentration in
intrinsic semiconductors - extrinsic semiconductors -
Carrier concentration in N -type & P -type semconductors
- Carrier transport: Velocity-electric field relations - drift
and diffusion transport - Einstein’s relation - Hall effect
and devices - Zener and avalanche breakdown in pn
junctions - Ohmic contacts - tunnel diode - Schottky
diode - MOS capacitor - power transistor.

Introduction
Semiconducting material has electrical conductivity between
a good conductor and a good insulator. It is simply called
semiconductor. It is a special class of material which is very
small in size and sensitive to heat, light and electricity.

Semiconducting materials behave as insulators at low

temperature and as conductors at high temperature. Moreover, these
materials have two types of charge carriers i.e., electrons and
holes.

Germanium and silicon are two important elemental

semiconductors. They are used in diodes and transistors.

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP)

are two important compound semiconductors. They are used in
LEDs and Laser diodes.

The study of semiconducting materials is essential for

engineers due to their wide applications in semiconductor devices
in engineering and technology.

The invention of semiconductors opened a new branch of

technology called solid state electronics.
2.2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

It leads to the development of ICs, microprocessors,

computers and supercomputers.

In short, semiconductors play a vital role in almost all

advanced electronic devices.

Definition
Based on Electrical resistance
Semiconductor has electrical resistance which is
lesser than an insulator but more than that of a
conductor. Its electrical resistivity is in the order of
4
10 to 0.5 ohm metre.

Based on Energy band

A semiconductor has nearly an empty conduction
band and almost filled valence band with a very small
energy gap 
~ 1 eV). (Fig 2.1)

Fig. 2.1 Energy band diagram of a semiconductor

General properties of the semiconductors

 They have crystalline structure.

 Bonding between the atoms is formed by covalent bond.

 They have empty conduction band at 0K.

 They have almost filled valence band.

 The energy gap is small.

 They exhibit a negative temperature coefficient of

resistance. ie., increase in temperature leads to decrease
in resistance.
Semiconductor Physics 2.3

 If impurities are added to a semiconductor, its

electrical conductivity increases. Further, if
temperature of the semiconductor is increased, its
electrical conductivity increases.

This property is in contrary to that of metals in

which if temperature is increased or impurities are
added, their electrical conductivity decreases.

Classification of semiconductors
The semiconductors are classified mainly into two types
based on the composition of materials. They are

(i) Elemental semiconductors

(ii) Compound semiconductors

Elemental Semiconductors
(Indirect band gap semiconductor)
The semiconductors which are made from a single
element of fourth group elements in periodic table are
known as elemental semiconductors.

They are also called as indirect band gap

semiconductors.

Example

Two important elemental semiconductors and their energy

band gaps are given in table 2.1.
2.4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Table 2.1

S.No. Element Eg in eV
1 Germanium 0.72
2 Silicon 1.1

Compound semiconductors
(Direct band gap semiconductors)

Semiconductors which are formed by combining

third and fifth group or second and sixth group elements
in the periodic table are known as compound
semiconductors.

They are also called as direct bandgap semiconductors.

Characteristics
 The compound semiconductor have large forbidden gap
and carrier mobility.

 They are formed by both ionic and covalent bonds.

 The recombination of electron and hole takes place

directly. During this process, the light photons are
emitted in visible or infrared region.

Some important compound semiconductors are given in

table 2.2.

Table 2.2

S.No. Group Compound semiconductor

1. Combination of Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
third and fifth Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
group elements Indium Phosphide (InP)
(III and V) Indium Arsenide (InAs)
2. Combination of Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
second and sixth Magnesium Silicon (MgSi)
group elements Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
(II and VI) Zinc Sulphide (ZnS)
Semiconductor Physics 2.5

Uses

The compound semiconductors are used in photovoltaic

materials, photoconductive cell, LEDs [Light Emitting Diode] and
Laser diodes.

The differences between elemental and compound

semiconductors are given in table 2.3.

Table 2.3

Differences between elemental and compound

semiconductors (indirect and direct band gap
semiconductor)

Elemental Compound
S.No.
Semiconductors Semiconductors
1. They are made of a single They are made of
element compounds
Example: Germanium (Ge), Example: GaA, GaP, CdS,
Silicon (Si). MgO.
2. They are known as They are known as direct
indirect band gap band gap
semiconductors. semiconductors.
3. Electron - hole Electron - hole
recombination takes place recombination takes place
through traps which are directly with each other.
present in band gap.
4. Life time of charge carriers Life time of charge carrier
is more due to indirect is less due to direct
recombination. recombination.
5. Heat energy is produced Light photons are emitted
during recombination. during recombination.
6. They carry more current. They carry less current.
7. They are used for making They are used for making
diodes and transistors. LED’s and Laser diodes.
2.6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2.1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are also classified into

(a) Direct band gap semiconductor

(b) Indirect band gap semiconductor.

The electrons and holes in a semiconductor have energy

and momentum. The momentum k depends on energy E. A
plot of energy versus momentum is as shown in fig. 2.2

The lower curves represent energy and momentum values

of holes in valence band of semiconductor. Similarly upper curves
denote corresponding values for electrons in conduction band.

In direct band gap semiconductor, the energy maximum of

valence band and the energy minimum of the conduction band
are having same momentum value.

During the recombination of electron from conduction band

with hole in valence band, the momentum of the electrons
remains vitually constant. The energy equal to band gap energy
is released as light photon.

But, in the case of indirect band gap semiconductor, the

maximum energy of valence band and minimum energy of
conduction band are having different values of momentum.

During recombination, electron firstly loses momentum

such that it has momentum equal to the momentum
corresponding to energy maximum of valance band.
Semiconductor Physics 2.7

To conserve the momentum, emission of third particle

known as a phonon is generated. Thus, in this type of
recombination phonon is produced.

Fig. 2.2 Energy - momentum diagram

(a) Direct band gap semiconductor
(b) Indirect band gap semiconductor

Types of Semiconductors
When a suitable impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, its electrical conductivity changes. Based
on this property, the semiconductors are classified into two types.
They are

(i) Intrinsic semiconductor or pure semiconductor

(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor or impure semiconductor
or Doped semiconductor
2.8 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

A semiconductor in extremely pure form is known as
intrinsic semiconductor. Its electrical conductivity is
changed only by thermal excitation.

The common examples for intrinsic semiconductors are pure

silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). They belong to fourth group
elements in the periodic table. Germanium has 32 electrons and
silicon has 14 electrons in their atomic structures.

They are tetravalent atoms since they have four valence

electrons. The neighbouring atoms form covalent bonds by
sharing four electrons with each other so as to form a stable
structure.

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

Fig. 2.3 shows a two-dimensional crystal structure of
germanium and energy band representation of intrinsic
semiconductor at very low temperature.

Fig. 2.3 Germanium crystal at 0K

Semiconductor Physics 2.9

Fig. 2.3(a) Two-dimensional representation of germanium solid.

No free electron is available as all the valence
electrons are engaged in covalent bonds.
Fig. 2.3(b) Energy band representation. Valence band is fully
occupied and conduction band is completely vacant.

At very low temperature say 0K, no free electrons are

available for conduction. Hence, this semiconductor behaves as
an insulator at very low temperature.

Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor

To get free electrons, covalent bonds must be broken. There
are many ways of breaking covalent bond and setting the
electrons free. One such way is to increase crystal temperature
above 0K.

When the temperature of intrinsic semiconductor is increased,

some of the electrons get sufficient energy to break covalent bonds.

Once the electrons are liberated from bond, they

become free electrons. These free electrons move
randomly through crystal. (Fig. 2.4(a))

As shown in fig. 2.4 (b), the energy required to break a

covalent bond and to set an electron free is equal to band gap
energy Eg. It is about 0.72 eV for germanium and 1.1 eV for
silicon.

When an electron acquires energy Eg, it jumps from valence

band to conduction band. As a result, a vacant site (empty space)
is created in valence band.

This vacant site is called as a hole. The absence of

an electron in covalent bond is known as hole. A hole
can attract an electron and hence it acts as a positive
charge.
2.10 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 2.4 Germanium crystal at temperature above 0K.

(a) Thermal vibrations of atoms lead to breaking up of

covalent bonds. Consequently, a free electron and a
vacancy are produced simultaneously.
(b) Energy band representation. Energy Eg   Ec  Ev causes
transition of electrons from valence band to conduction
band, leaving vacancies (hole) behind.

When an electrical field is applied, these free electrons

acquire directional motion and contribute to electrical conductivity.

For every electron freed from covalent bond, one hole is created
in the crystal. It is relatively easy for a valence electron in a
neighbouring atom to leave its covalent bond and fill this hole.

As a result, an electron moving from a covalent bond to

fill a hole leaves behind a hole in its original position.

The hole effectively moves in a direction opposite to that

of an electron. The hole in its new position may now be filled
by an electron from another covalent bond.

Thus hole will correspondingly move one more step in the

direction opposite to the motion of the electron.
Semiconductor Physics 2.11

Therefore, in intrinsic semiconductor, current conduction is

due to the movement of both electrons and holes.

Here, the number of electrons is equal to the number of

holes at any given temperature.

2.3 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTORS
Definition

The number of electrons in conduction band per unit

volume of the material is called as electron
concentration n.

Similarly the number of holes in valence band per unit

volume of the material is called hole concentration  p .

In general, the number of charge carriers per unit

volume of the material is called carrier concentration.
It is also known as density of charge carriers.

Density of Electrons in Conduction Band (Derivation)

The number of electrons per unit volume in conduction
band for energy between E and E  dE is given by

dn  Z E F E dE ...(1)

where Z E dE – Density of states in energy between

E and E  dE

F E – Probability of electron occupancy.

Number of electrons in conduction band for the entire

range is calculated by integrating eqn (1) between energy EC
and  .



 dn  n   Z E F E dE
...(2)
EC
2.12 Physics for Electronics Engineering

EC is energy corresponding to the bottom most level and

  is energy corresponding to the upper most level in conduction
band. (Fig 2.4).

Fig. 2.5 Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

Density of states in conduction band between the energy

range E and E  dE is given by

4  3/2 1/2
Z E dE  3
2me  E dE ...(3)
h

The bottom edge of the conduction band EC denotes the

potential energy of an electron at rest. Therefore, E  EC is
the kinetic energy of conduction electron at higher energy levels.

Thus, in eqn (3), E is replaced as E  EC

4  3/2 1/2 ...(4)

Z E dE  3
2me  E  EC dE
h
The electrons in conduction band are not totally free. They
move in a periodic potential of the crystal lattice. Therefore, in
eqn (3), the mass of the electron m is replaced by its effective

mass me according to band theory of solids.
Semiconductor Physics 2.13

The probability of electron occupation is given by Fermi

distribution function
1
F E  E  EF/kT
1e ...(5)

Substituting eqns (4) and (5) in (2), we get



n   4
h
3
2me
 3/2
E  EC
1/2

1e
1
E  EF /kT
dE
EC




1/2
4  3/2 E  EC
n  3
2me  E  EF/kT
dE...(6)
h 1e
EC

Since kT is very small and E  EF is greater than kT,

E  E   kT
e F
is very large compared to ‘1’ Hence, ‘1’ from the
denominator of eqn (6) is neglected.
E  EF  kT E  EF  kT
ie., 1  e  e .
Now, eqn (6) becomes

1/2
E  EC

4  3/2 dE
n  3
2me  E  EF  kT
h e
EC



n 
4
h
3 2me
 3/2
 E  EC
1/2  E  EF/kT
e dE
EC



n 
4
h
3 2me 
 32
 E  EC
1  2 EF  E / kT
e dE
E
C


4  3/2 EF/kT 1/2  E/kT
n  3
2me e  E  EC e dE ...(7)
h EC
2.14 Physics for Electronics Engineering

To evaluate above integral in eqn (7), let us assume

when when
E  EC  x E  EC E
E  EC  x EC  EC  x    EC  x
dE  dx  x0  x  

Substituting above values in eqn (7), we have

n 
4
h
3
2me
 3/2 EF/kT
e  x
1/2  E  x/kT
e C dx
0

n 
4
h
3
2me
 3/2 EF  EC/kT
e  x
1/2  x/kT
e dx ... (8)
0

Using the gamma function, it is shown that




3/2 1/2
1/2  x/kT kT 
x e dx  ... (9)
2
0

Substituting eqn (9) in eqn (8), we have

4  3/2 EF  EC /kT

 kT3/2 1/2 
n  3
2me  e  
h  2 

2  3/2 3/2 1/2 EF  E   kT

n  3
2me  kT  e C

h
1/2  3/2 3/2 EF  EC/kT
2 2me  kT e
n  2 3/2
h 
32
 2  m kT 
 e  EF  EC / kT
n 2  e ...(10)
 h
2

 
Semiconductor Physics 2.15

Equation (10) is the expression for concentration of

electrons in the conduction band of intrinsic semiconductor.

Density of holes in Valence Band of Intrinsic

Semiconductor (Derivation)
We know that if an electron is transferred from valence
band to conduction band, a hole is created in valence band.

Let dp be the number of holes per unit volume in valence

band between the energy E and E  dE.

dp  Z E 1  F E dE ...(1)

where Z E dE  Density of states in the energy

range E and E  dE.

Since F E is the probability of electron occupation

1  F E is the probability of an unoccupied electron state, i.e.,
probability of presence of hole.

1
1  F E  1  E  EF /kT
1e
E  E /kT
1e F 1
 E  EF/kT
1e

E  EF/kT
e ... (2)
1  F E  E  EF/ kT
1e

Since E is very small when compared to EF in valence

E  EF/kT
band, E  EF is a negative quantity. Therefore, e is
very small and it is neglected in the denominator term of eqn
(2).

E  E /kT
i.e., 1e F  1

E  EF /kT
 1  F E  e ...(3)
2.16 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Density of states in valence band,

4  3/2 1/2
Z E dE  3
2mh E dE
h ...(4)


Here, mh is the effective mass of the hole in valence band.

Ev, top of energy level in valence band is the potential

energy of a hole at rest. Hence, Ev  E is the kinetic energy
of the hole at level below Ev. So the term E in eqn (4) is replaced
as  Ev  E .

4  3/2 1/2
Z E dE  3
2mh Ev  E dE ...(5)
h

Substituting eqns (3) and (5) in (1), we get

4  3/2 E  EF /kT

dp  3
2mh Ev  E e dE
h ...(6)

The number of holes in valence band for the entire energy

range is obtained by integrating eqn (6) between limits   to
Ev.

Ev

 dp  p   4
h
3
 3/2
2mh Ev  E
1/2 E  EF/kT
e dE


Ev

p 
4
h
3
2mh
 3/2  E /kT
e F
 Ev  E
1/2 E/kT
e dE
...(7)

Semiconductor Physics 2.17

To evaluate the integral in eqn (7), let us assume,

when when
Ev  E  x E   E  Ev
E  Ev  x Ev     x Ev  Ev  x
dE   dx Ev    x x  0
x

Substituting these values in eqn (7), we have

0

p 
4
h
3
2mh
 3/2  E /kT
e F
 1/2 Ev  x/kT
x e  dx ...(8)


p 
4
h
3
 3/2 E  EF/kT
2mh e v
 x
1/2  x/kT
e dx
...(9)
0

[ –ve sign is omitted by interchanging the limits]

Using the gamma function, it is shown that


3/2 1/2
1/2  x/kT kT 
x e dx  ... (10)
2
0

Substituting eqn (10) in eqn (9), we have

4  3/2 Ev  EF/kT

 kT3/2 1/2 
p  3
2mh e  
h  2 

2  3/2 3/2 1/2 Ev  EF/kT

p  3
2mh kT  e
h

 3/2 3/2 Ev  EF/kT

1/2 2mh kT e
p  2 3/2
 h2 
 
2.18 Physics for Electronics Engineering

32
 2  m kT 
 h  Ev  EF / kT
p  2  e
 h
2
 ...(11)
 

The equation (11) is the expression for the

concentration of holes in valence band of intrinsic
semiconductor.

INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in

conduction band is equal to the number of holes in valence band.

In general, intrinsic carrier concentration ni is equal to

electrons concentration in conduction band n or holes
concentration in valence band p.

i.e., ni  n  p
...(1)

2
ni  ni  ni  np ...(2)

Substituting the expressions of n and p in eqn (2), we have

3/2 3/2
 2mkT   2m kT 
2  e  E  E /kT  h  E  E /kT
ni  2   e F C
 2  e v F

 h
2
  h
2

   

3
2  2kT    3/2 E  E /kT
ni 4 2 
me mh e v C
 h 

3
2  2kT    3/2  E /kT
ni 4 2 
me mh e g
 h  ...(3)

where EC  Ev  Eg is forbidden energy gap.

Semiconductor Physics 2.19

Taking square root on both sides in eqn (3), we have

3 1/2
2 1/2
  2 kT    3/2  E /kT

ni   4 2  me mh e g 
  h  
3/2
1/2  2 kT    3/2 1/2  Eg/kT 1/2
ni  4  2  me mh  e 
 h 
32
 2  kT    34  Eg / 2kT
ni  2  2  memh e
...(4)
 h 

The eqn (4) is expression for intrinsic carrier concentration

Limitations of intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors cannot be directly used to

fabricate devices due to the following limitations:

 Electrical conductivity is low. Germanium has a

1 1 7
conductivity of 1.67  m which is nearly 10 times
smaller than that of copper.

 Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and

increases exponentially as temperature increases.

In intrinsic or pure semiconductors, the carrier

concentration of both electrons and holes is very low at normal
temperatures.

In order to get sufficient current density through

semiconductor, a large electrical field should be applied. This
problem is overcome by adding suitable impurities into intrinsic
semiconductors.
2.20 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2.4 EXTRINSIC OR IMPURE SEMICONDUCTORS

In a semiconducting material, if the charge carriers

originate from impurity atoms which are doped to the
original material, then this type of semiconductor is
known as extrinsic or impure semiconductor.

It is also known as doped semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductor is obtained by adding trivalent or

pentavalent impurities atoms to a tetravalent semiconductor.
The electrical properties of pure semiconductors can be easily
changed even with the addition of very little amount of
impurities.

Doping
The addition of impurities to a pure semiconductor is
known as doping and added impurity is called as doping agent
or dopant.

The addition of impurities increases the number of free

electrons and holes in semiconductor and hence increases its
electrical conductivity.

Some of the common doping agents are arsenic, antimony,

phosphorus, gallium, aluminium and boron. These elements have
either five or three valence electrons in the outermost orbit.

Advantages of Extrinsic semiconductors

 Electrical conductivity is high.

 Electrical conductivity can be altered to any desired

value by controlling of doping concentration.

 Electrical conductivity is not a function of temperature.

Types of Extrinsic semiconductors

The extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types
based on the type of impurity added.
Semiconductor Physics 2.21

(i) n - type semiconductor

(ii) p - type semiconductor

n - type semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V
element) is doped to a pure semiconductor, it becomes n - type
semiconductor.

Such impurities are known as donor impurities because

they donate free electrons to semiconductor crystal.

Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are phosphorus,

(Atomic No. 15) and antimony (Atomic No. 51).

Covalent bond in n - type semiconductor

A pentavalent impurity (phosphorus) having five valence
electrons is added to a pure semiconductor having four valence
electrons (silicon or germanium).

Now, four electrons of germanium form a covalent bond

with four valence electrons of phosphorus (impurity atom). The
fifth electron which is now free finds no place in covalent bond
structure as shown in fig. 2.6 (a).

We have one electron left free. This acts as a conduction

electron. A very small amount of energy (0.01 eV for germanium
and 0.05 eV for silicon) is needed to detach this fifth electron.

The addition of pentavalent impurity gives a large

number of free electrons (negative charges) in
semiconductor. Therefore, it is called n - type
semiconductor where n stands for negative type.
2.22 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Since every pentavalent atom contributes one free electron,

in addition to thermally generated electron-hole pairs, the number
of free electrons is more than the number of holes in n-type
semiconductor.

Thus in this case, electrons are majority charge carriers

and holes are minority charge carriers.

Energy band of n - type semiconductor

The energy band diagram of n - type semiconductor is
shown in fig.2.6 (b). When the donor impurities are added, the
allowable energy levels (donor energy levels) are introduced.

(a) (b )
Fig. 2.6 n-type semiconductor
(a) crystal structure (b) Energy band diagram

These donor energy levels are slightly below the conduction

band. They are discrete and do not form a band because the
impurity atoms are far away in the crystal and hence their
interaction is small.

The donor energy level for germanium is 0.01 eV and for

silicon it is 0.05 eV below the conduction band. Therefore, even
at room temperature, almost all the fifth electrons enter into
the conduction band.
Semiconductor Physics 2.23

2.5 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN n - TYPE

SEMICONDUCTORS [Derivation]
The energy band diagram of n - type semiconductor is
shown in figure 2.7. In n - type semiconductor, the donor level
is just below conduction band.

Density of electrons per unit volume in conduction band

is given by
3/2
 2 m kT 
 e  EF  EC  / kT
n2  e
 h
2
 ...(1)
 
EC – Energy corresponding to the bottom most level of
conduction band.

Density of ionised donors  Nd [1  F Ed]

Fig. 2.7 Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor

Since, F Ed is the probability for finding electron in donot

energy level (unionised donor), therefore 1  F Ed is the
probability for finding ionised donors.
2.24 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Ed represents the donor energy level and Nd denotes donor

concentration i.e., the number of donor atoms per unit volume
of the material.

 1 
 Nd  1  Ed  EF/kT 
...(2)
 1e 

 1  eEd  EF / kT  1 
 Nd  E  E /kT 
 1e d F 

Ed  E /kT
Nd e F

 Ed  EF/kT
...(3)
1e

E  E /kT
e d F is very small in eqn (3) when compared to ‘1’.
Hence, it is neglected.

Ed  EF/kT
 1e 1 .

Ed  EF/kT ...(4)

Density of ionised donor  Nd e

At equilibrium, the density of electron in conduction band

is equal to the density of ionised donors.

Equating (1) and (4), we get

3/2
 2 m kT 
 e  E  E /kT Ed  E /kT
2  e F C  Nd e F ...(5)
 h
2

 
rearranging the terms, we have,

EF  EC/kT Nd
e
E  EF/kT
 3/2
e d
 2 m kT 
 e 
2 
 h
2

 
Semiconductor Physics 2.25

E  E /kT  E  E /kT Nd
e F C e d F  3/2
 2 m kT 
 e 
2 2 
 h 
 

E  E  E  E /kT Nd
e F C d F  3/2
...(6)
 2 m kT 
 e 
2 
 h
2

 

Taking log on both sides, we have

E  E  E  E /kT  Nd 
log e e F C F d  log e  
 3/2 
  2  mkT  
  e  
2  
  
2
h 
 

EF  EC  Ed  EF  Nd 
 log e  
kT  3/2 
  2 m kT  
  e  
2   
  
2
h 
 

 . . . log ex  x 
 e 

 Nd 
2EF  EC  Ed  kT loge  
 3/2 
  2 m kT  
  e  
2   
  h
2
 
 

 Nd 
or 2EF  Ed  EC  kT loge  
 3/2 
  2 m kT  
  e  
2  
  h
2
 
 
2.26 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Ed  EC kT  Nd 
EF   log e   ...(7)
2 2  3/2 
  2 m kT    ...(7)
  e  
2   
  h
2
 
 

Substituting the expression of EF from (7) in (1), we get

 Ed  EC  Nd 
  E 
kT
  loge 
 2 2   C

    3/2  
   2 me kT   
  
3/2
 2    
 2 me kT     2   
 h 
n2   exp   ... (8)
 h
2
  kT 
 

3/2
  
 2 me kT   Ed  EC  2EC 1  Nd  
n2   exp  lo ge   
 2
 2kT 2   
 h  
 
   3/2  
   2 m kT   
 2 
e
  
   2   
  h  

3/2
     1/2 
 2 me kT   Ed  EC  Nd 
n2   exp  loge   
 2
  2kT
 h    
    2 m kT 3/2 1/2 
   2  e 
  
   2
  
   h   

3/2
    1/2 
 2 me kT  E  E / 2kT 
Nd

n2   e d C
 loge
 2
 e  
 h     3/2 1/2 
  2 m kT 

  
 2 e
  
   2
  
  h  

3/2
 2 m kT  1/2
Nd
 e  E  E  / 2k T
n2   e d C
... (9)
 h
2
   
3/4
  1/2  2 me kT 
2  
 h
2

 
Semiconductor Physics 2.27

Rearranging the expression (9), we get

3/2
 2 m kT 
 e 
 
Nd
1/2  h
2

  Ed  EC/2kT
n2 1/2
e
2  2 m kT  3/4
 2 
 h 
3/2  3/4
Nd
1/2  2 m kT   2 m kT 
1/2 1/2  e  E  E /2kT
n2 2  2    e d c

2
1/2
 h   h
2

 

3/4
 2 m kT 
1/2 1/2  e  E  E /2kT
n2 Nd   e d C
 h
2

  ... (10)

3/4
 2 m kT 
1/2  e   E / 2kT
n  2Nd   e
 h
2
 ...(11)
 

where E  EC  Ed is the ionisation energy of the donor. i.e.,

E denotes the amount of energy required to transfer an electron
from donor energy level Ed to conduction band EC.

Results

 The density of electrons in conduction band is

proportional to the square root of the donor
concentration. The equation (11) is valid only at low
temperatures.

 At high temperature, we must take into account of

intrinsic carrier concentration of semiconductor due to
breaking of covalent bond along with electron
concentration produced by donor impurity.
2.28 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 At very high temperatures, intrinsic carrier concentration

which is generated thermally due to breaking of covalent
bond over takes electrons due to donor impurity.

 That is, at very high temperature, n - type semiconductor

behaves like intrinsic semiconductor and donor
concentration becomes insignificant.

p-type semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is doped
to a pure semiconductor, it becomes p - type
semiconductor.

The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number

of holes in semiconductor.

Typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium

(Atomic No: 31) and indium (Atomic No. 49). Such impurities
are known as acceptor impurities because holes created can
accept electrons.

In a pure semiconductor (germanium) having 4 valence

electrons, if a trivalent impurity (boron) having ‘3’ valence
electrons is added, then 3 valence electrons of trivalent impurity
form a covalent bond with three valence electrons of germanium.

The fourth valence electron of Ge atom is unable to form

a covalent bond. The incomplete covalent bond is being short of
one electron. This missing electron is called a hole.
(Fig. 2.8(a))

Every trivalent impurity atom contributes one hole in

addition to thermally generated electron - hole pairs. Therefore,
number of holes is more than number of electrons.

The addition of trivalent impurity creates large number of

holes (positive charge carriers) in semiconductor and hence it is
called p-type semiconductor where p stands for positive type.
Semiconductor Physics 2.29

Fig. 2.8 p - type semiconductor (a) crystal structure

(b) energy band diagram

Hence in this type of semiconductor, holes are majority

charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
In this case, allowable energy level (acceptor energy level)
is created just above valence band (fig. 2.8(b)).
A very small amount of energy is needed for an electron
to enter acceptor energy level from valence band. Thus, a hole
is generated in the valence band corresponding to each ionised
acceptor.
In other words, a large number of positive charge carriers
are created.

2.6 CONCENTRATION OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND

OF p  TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS [Derivation]

In p-type semiconductor, acceptor energy level is just above

valence band (fig. 2.9).

Density of holes per unit volume in valence band is given by

3/2
 2m kT 
 h  E  E  /kT ...(1)
p2   e v F
 h
2

 
Ev  Energy corresponding to top most level of valence band.
2.30 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 2.9 Energy band diagram for p-type semiconductor

Density of ionised acceptors  Na F Ea ... (1)

Na – the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume.

1
FEa  E  EF  kT
1e a

Ea – acceptor energy level

Here, F Ea is probability for finding electron in acceptor

energy level ie., ionised acceptor.

The eqn (1) becomes, density of ionised acceptors

Na ...(2)
 Ea  EF/kT
1e

E  E /kT
e a F is a large quantity and thus ‘1’ from the
denominator of R.H.S. of eqn (2) is neglected.

Now, the eqn (2) is modified as,

Na
Na FEa  Ea  EF/kT
e
Semiconductor Physics 2.31

 Ea  EF/kT
Na F Ea  Na e

EF  Ea/kT
 Na e
Density of ionised acceptors ...(3)

At equilibrium,

 Density of holes   Density of 

 in valence band    ionised acceptors 
   
3/2
 2 m kT 
 h  Ev  EF/kT EF  Ea/kT
2   e  Na e
 h
2

  ...(4)

rearranging eqn (4), we have

Ev  EF/kT Na
e
EF  Ea/kT
 3/2
e  2 m kT 
 h 
2 
 h
2

 
Ev  EF/kT  EF  Ea/kT Na
e e  3/2
 2 m kT 
 h 
2 
 h
2

 

Ev  EF  EF  E /kT Na
e a  3/2
 2 m kT 
 h 
2  ... (5)
 h
2

 

Taking log on both sides in eqn (5), we have

E  E  E  Ea/kT Na
loge e v F F  3/2
 2 m kT 
 h 
2 
 h
2

 
2.32 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Ev  2EF  Ea  Na 
 loge  
kT  3/2 
  2 m kT  
  h  
2  
  
2
h 
 

 Na 
Ea  Ev  2EF  kT lo ge  
 3/2 
  2 m kT  
  h   ... (6)
2  
  h
2
 
 

Rearranging,

 Na 
2EF  Ea  Ev  kT loge  
  2 m kT  3/2 
  h  
2  
  h
2
 
   

Ea  Ev kT  Na 
EF   loge  
2 2  3/ 2 
  2 m kT  
  h  
2  
  
2
h 
 
... (7)

Substituting eqn of EF from (7) in (1), we get

3/2
  
 2 mh kT    Ea  Ev  kT  Na  
p  2   exp  Ev     loge   
 2
   2  2     3/2  
 h      2 mh kT   
  2   
    2
  
    h   

  Ev  Ea  kT  Na 
 Ev   2   2 lo ge    3/2

    
  2 mh kT  

 2  
  
2
  
3/2
 h 
   
 2 mh kT   
p  2   exp  
 h
2
  kT 
 
...(8)
Semiconductor Physics 2.33

3/2
  
 2 mh kT   2E  E  E 1  Na 
exp  loge  
v v a
p  2   
 2   2kT 2     3/2 
 h     2 mh kT  
 2  
   2
 
   h  

  Na  1/2

3/2      
 2 m kT     2   
 h   Ev  Ea   
p  2  exp   lo g   
  3/2 
2  2kT e  
h    
   
  
2 m kT   
  
 
a
 
   2
  
  h  
1/2
 
  a

N 
3/2      
 2 m kT   E E   2  
 h   v  
p  2 2  exp 
a
 log 
e


 h  
2kT
 3/2  
     2 m kT  
  h  
   
  h
2  
 
1/2
  Na  
3/2    
 2 m kT    2  
 h  E  E  / 2kT log  
p  2   e v a
e e
 
 h
2
  3/4 
   
2 mh kT  

  
  
2
h
 
1/2
 Na 
 2 m kT 
3/2  
 h  Ev  Ea / 2kT  2 
p  2   e
 h
2
  2 m kT 
3/4
   h 
 
 h
2

 
3/2
 2 m kT 
 h 
 
Na
1/2  h
2

  E  E  / 2kT
p  2 1/2 3/4
e v a

2  2 m kT 
 h 
 
 h
2

 
2.34 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3/2  3/4
2
1/2 1/2
2
1/2
Na  2 m kT   2 m kT 
 h   h  E  E   2kT
p      e v a

2
1/2
 h
2
  h
2

   
3/4
  
1/2  2 mh kT  Ev  E /2kT ...(9)
p  2 Na   e a
 h
2

 
34
 2m kT 
12
 h   E/2kT ...(10)
p   2Na    e
   h
2

 
where E  Ea  Ev is the ionisation energy of acceptors.

Results
 Density of holes in valence band is proportional to the
square root of acceptor concentration.
 At high temperature, we must take into account of the
intrinsic carrier concentration of semiconductor due to
breaking of covalent bond along hole concentration
produced by acceptor impurity.
 At very high temperature, intrinsic carrier concentration
over takes holes due to acceptor concentration.
 i.e., At very high temperature, p - type semiconductor
behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor and acceptor
concentration becomes insignificant.
Table 2.4
Differences between
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic
S.No. Extrinsic semiconductor
semiconductor
1. It is a pure form of An impurity or doping agent is
semiconductor. added in the pure semiconductor
forms extrinsic semiconductor.
2. Number of electrons Number of electrons and holes are
and holes are equal. not equal because of doping.
3. Conductivity is poor. Conductivity is improved.
Semiconductor Physics 2.35

Table 2.5
Differences between
n - type and p - type semiconductors
S.No. n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
1. When pentavalent impurity When trivalent impurity is
is doped to intrinsic doped to intrinsic
semiconductor, n - type semiconductor, p - type
semiconductor is formed. semiconductor is formed.
2. The impurity is called The impurity is called
donor impurity since it acceptor impurity since it
donates electron. accepts electron.
3. Majority charge carriers Majority charge carriers
are electrons. are holes.
4. Minority charge carriers Minority charge carriers
are holes. are electrons.
5. The donor energy level is The acceptor energy level is
very close to the bottom of very close to the top of the
the conduction band. valence band.
6. Fermi energy decreases with Fermi energy increases with
increase of temperature. increase of temperature.

2.7 CARRIER TRANSPORT VELOCITY - ELECTRIC

FIELD RELATIONS

Mobility and Intrinsic Electrical Conductivity

When an electrical field is applied in a semiconducting
material, the free charge carriers such as free electrons and
holes attain drift velocity vd.
The drift velocity attained by the carriers is proportional
to the electrical field strength E.
i.e., vd  E

vd   E ...(1)

where  is a proportionality constant and it is known as the

mobility of the charge carrier.
2.36 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This velocity vd is different for different semiconductors and

for different types of charge carriers.

If E  1 V/m then   vd Thus, mobility  is defined as the

velocity of a charge carrier per unit electrical field strength.

n and p denote electron mobility and hole mobility

respectively.

Since the types of drift of electrons and of holes are

different, the mobility of an electron at any temperature is
different from (greater than) that of the hole.

Table 2.6 gives the values of electron and hole mobilities

at 300K.

Table 2.6
Electron and hole mobilities at 300 K
Electron mobility Hole mobility
Material 2
m /volt-sec m2/volt-sec
Silicon 0.135 0.048
Germanium 0.39 0.19

Expression for Electrical conductivity

If the density of free electrons in the material is n, the
net charge available per unit volume of the material for the
conduction is equal to ne, where e is the charge of the electron.

When an external electrical field E is applied, the electrons

move with a drift velocity vdn. Thus,

vdn  n E ...(2)

where n is the mobility of electron.

The drift current density Jn due to electrons is defined as

the charge flowing across unit area of cross-section per
Semiconductor Physics 2.37

unit time due to their drift under the influence of an

electrical field E. It is given by,

J n  nevdn ...(3)

If n is the conductivity of a semiconductor due to free

electrons, the current density Jn is related to the applied electric
field E by
Jn  n E ...(4)

Jn ne vdn ...(5)
or n  
E E
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (5), we have
n e n E
n 
E

n  n e n ...(6)

If p is the number of holes per unit volume and p the

conductivity due to the drift of holes, then

p  pe p ...(7)

where p is the mobility of holes in the material.

Thus, total conductivity  due to a free electrons and holes

  n  p

  ne n  pe p

  e n n  p p  ...(8)

where  is the total conductivity of the material and it is

generally expressed in mho/m.
2.38 Physics for Electronics Engineering

For the intrinsic semiconductor which contains the same

number of free electrons and holes, n  p  ni.

Therefore, the electrical conductivity i of an intrinsic

semiconductor having ni electron-hole pairs per unit volume is
given by

From eqn (8)

i  e ni n  ni p

i  eni n  p ...(9)

2.8 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION TRANSPORT

The net current flows across a semiconductor has two

components:

(i) Drift current

(ii) Diffusion current.

Drift Current

Definition
The electric current produced due to the motion of
charge carriers under the influence of an external electric
field is known as drift current.

When electrical voltage is applied to a material as shown

in fig. 2.10, electric field is produced at every point within the
material.

The charge carriers are forced to move in a particular

direction due to the electric field. This is known as the drift
motion and the current is known as drift current.
Semiconductor Physics 2.39

Fig. 2.10 Drift of charge carriers in a semiconductor

Drift current density in a semiconductor due to electrons

Jn (drift)  n n e E ...(1)

Drift current density due to hole

Jp (drift)  p p e E ...(2)

where n and p are number of electrons and holes per unit

volume. n and p are the mobilities of electrons and holes
respectively, e is charge of electrons and E is electric field.

So total drift current density

J  Jn drift  Jp drift

J  ne n E  pe p E ...(3)

For intrinsic semiconductor

. .
J  ni e n  p E  . n  p  ni

Diffusion Current

Definition
The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers
creates the regions of uneven concentrations in the
semiconductor.
The charge carriers move from the regions of higher
concentration to the regions of lower concentration. This process
is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion current.
2.40 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Consider a semiconductor having a concentration gradient

dn
of electrons within the semiconductor.
dx

The electrons diffuse from high concentration to low

concentration due to the concentration gradient as shown in
Fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11 Uneven distribution of electrons in a semiconductor

 dn 
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area    
 dx 
Here, negative sign denotes that the electrons are diffusing
from higher concentration to lower concentration region.

 dn 
Rate of flow of electrons through unit area   Dn  
 dx 

where Dn is a proportionality constant and it is known as

diffusion coefficient of electrons.

Rate of flow of electrons through unit area

 dn 
  e   Dn  
 dx 
Rate of flow electrons through unit area is the diffusion
current density of electrons Jn (diffusion)

 dn 
Jn (diffusion)  e Dn  
 dx 
Semiconductor Physics 2.41

Similarly, the diffusion current density of holes is given by

 dp 
Jp (diffusion)   e Dp  
 dx 
where Dp is diffusion constant of holes.

2.9 EINSTEIN’S RELATION

Definition
The relation between the mobility  and diffusion
coefficient D of a semiconductor is known as Einstein’s
relation.

Derivation
We know that

Drift current density due to electrons

Jn (drift)  n n e E ...(1)

Diffusion current density due to electrons

 n  ...(2)
Jn (diffusion)  e Dn  
 x 
The drift and diffusion currents balance with each other
at equilibrium.

 Jn drift  Jn diffusion

 dn 
n n e E  e Dn  
 dx 
Rearranging,

Dn  dn 
neEe
n  dx 

Dn  dn  ...(3)
Fe
n  dx 
2.42 Physics for Electronics Engineering

where F  n e E is the force on the charge carriers due to the

internal electric field.

The diffusion of electrons in a material is just like that of

gas molecules in a chamber.

From kinetic theory of gases, according to Fick’s law the

force on excess of electrons

 dn 
F  kT  ...(4)
 dx 

where k – Boltzmann constant

T – absolute temperature

From eqns. (3) and (4), we get

 dn  Dn  dn 
kT   e
 dx  n  dx 

Dn
kT  e
n

Dn kT ...(5)
 
n e

Similarly for holes, we get

Dp kT ...(6)

p e

Comparing eqns (5) & (6), we get

Dn Dp ...(7)

n p
Semiconductor Physics 2.43

Dn n ...(8)

Dp p

This relation (8) is known as Einstein’s relation.

Note:
kT
At T  300 K,  26 mV.
e

3 2 3 2
For silicon Dn  3.6  10 m /s and Dp  1.3  10 m /s

3 2 3 2
For germanium Dn  10  10 m /s and Dp  5  10 m /s.

2.10 HALL EFFECT

 The electrical conductivity measurements are not
sufficient for the determination of number of charge
carriers and their mobilities. Moreover, these
measurements do not indicate whether current
conduction is due to electrons or holes.

 Hence, it is very difficult to distinguish between p - type

and n - type semiconductors. Besides, the electrical
conductivity measurements do not give any information
about the sign of the majority (p type or n type) charge
carriers.

 Therefore, Hall effect is used to distinguish between two

types of charge carriers (electrons and hole). It also
provides information about the sign of charge carriers.

Statement
When a conductor carrying a current (I) is placed
perpendicular to a magnetic field (B), a potential
difference is produced inside the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to both current and magnetic field.
(Fig. 2.12)
2.44 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This phenomenon is known as Hall effect. The

voltage thus generated is called Hall voltage.

Fig. 2.12 Hall Effect

Hall effect in n - type semiconductor

Consider a n - type semiconductor in the form of a
rectangular slab. In this slab, the current flows in X - direction
and magnetic field B is applied in Z-direction. Due to Hall effect,
voltage is developed along Y - direction as shown in fig. 2.13.

V VV V
V V

Fig. 2.13 Hall effect

The current flow is entirely due to the flow of electrons

moving from right to left along X-direction.
Semiconductor Physics 2.45

When a magnetic field (B) is applied in Z-direction, then

the electrons moving with velocity v experience a downward
force.

Downward force experienced by the electrons  Bev ... (1)

This downward force deflects the electrons in downward

direction. Hence, there is an accumulation of negative charge
(electrons) on the bottom face of the slab (fig 2.14).
It causes bottom face to be more negative with respect to
top face.

VVVVV

C u rre n t

Fig. 2.14 Hall effect in n-type semiconductor

Now, a potential difference is developed between top and

bottom faces of the slab.

This potential difference produces an electric field EH in

negative Y - direction. It is called Hall field.

This electric field develops a force (Lorentz force). This force

is acting in the upward direction on each electron.

Upward force acting on each electron  eEH

... (2)
At equilibrium, downward force balances upward
force.

 Bev  eEH

EH  Bv ...(3)
2.46 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The current density Jx along X - direction is related to

velocity v as

Jx   nev ...(4)

where n is concentration electrons.

 Jx ...(5)
v 
ne

Substituting eqn (5) in eqn (3), we have

 B Jx ...(6)
EH 
ne

EH  RH Jx B ...(7)

1
where RH   for electrons
ne

EH ...(8)
RH 
Jx B

RH is a constant and it is known as Hall coefficient.

The negative sign indicates that the electric field is

developed in negative Y – direction.

Hall effect in p-type semiconductor

Similar to n-type semiconductor, we can write for p-type
semiconductor
EH  RH Jx B

where Hall coefficient.

1
RH  
pe
where p is concentration of holes.
Semiconductor Physics 2.47

The positive sign indicates that the electrical field (Hall

field) is developed in positive Y - direction.

Hall coefficient in terms of Hall voltage

If t is the thickness of the sample and VH is the voltage
developed, then
VH  EH t

where EH is Hall field. ...(1)

Substituting eqn (7) in eqn (8), we have

VH  RH Jx B t ...(2)

If b is breadth of the sample, then

Cross sectional area of the sample A
 Breadth b  Thickness t
 bt
Ix
Current density Jx 
Area of the sample A
Ix ...(3)

bt

Substituting eqn (3) in eqn (2), we get

RH Ix Bt
VH 
bt

RH Ix B
VH 
b

VH b
Hall coefficient RH  ...(4)
Ix B

Note:
For n-type, the polarity (sign) of VH is opposite to that of
p-type.
2.48 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Determination of Hall coefficient

The experimental arrangement to measure Hall-coefficient
is shown in fig. 2.15.
A semiconductor is taken in the form of a rectangular slab
of thickness t and breadth b. A suitable current Ix ampere is
passed into this sample along X-axis by connecting it to a battery.
Now, it is placed in between north and south poles of an
electromagnet. The magnetic field is applied along Z-axis.

Fig. 2.15 Experimental arrangement to measure Hall coefficient

Due to Hall effect, Hall voltage VH is developed in the

sample. This voltage is measured by fixing two probes at the
centers of the bottom and top faces of the sample.

By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is determined

from the formula

VH b
RH 
Ix B

From Hall coefficient, carrier concentration and mobility

can be determined.
Semiconductor Physics 2.49

Applications of Hall effect

(i) Determination of semiconductor type

The sign of the Hall coefficient is used to to find whether
a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

(ii) Calculation of carrier concentration

By measuring Hall coefficient RH, carrier concentration is
determined from the relation

1
n 
e RH

(iii) Determination of mobility

We know that electrical conductivity,

e  ne e.

e
e 
ne

e  e RH

Thus, by measuring electrical conductivity and Hall coefficient

of a sample, the mobility of charge carriers can be calculated.

2.11 HALL DEVICES

The device which uses the hall effect for its

application is known as Hall device.

There are three types of Hall devices.

They are
(a) Gauss Meter
(b) Electronic Multiplier
(c) Electronic Wattmeter
2.50 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(a) Gauss Meter

RH BZ Ix
The Hall voltage VH  . In this, VH  BZ for a given
t
hall element; RH and t are constant. The current I through Hall
element is also kept constant.

This principle is used in Gauss meter. It is used for

measuring magnetic field. (Fig. 2.16)

Fig. 2.16 Gauss Meter

The variation of Hall voltage with magnetic field is shown

in fig. 2.17. The voltmeter which is used to measure VH can be
directly calibrated in terms of Gauss. The graph can be also
used to measure any unknown magnetic fields.

Fig. 2.17 BZ Verses VH

Semiconductor Physics 2.51

(b) Electronic Multipliers

RH BZ I1
From Hall effect, we have VH 
t

Since RH and t are constant for an element

VH  BZ I1

But, the magnetic field Bz is proportional to current I2

through the coil.

i.e., BZ  I2

 VH  I1 I2

i.e., VH is a measure of the product of two currents. This

is the basic principle used in analog electronic multipliers. The
fig. 2.18 shows the circuit diagram for electronic multiplier.

Fig. 2.18 Electronic multiplier

(c) Electronic Wattmeter

Hall effect is used to measure electrical power dissipated
in a load. The instrument used to measure the power in a circuit
using Hall effect principle is known as Hall effect - Watt meter.
2.52 Physics for Electronics Engineering

S is Hall effect sample. It is placed in a magnetic field

BZ produced by the load current IL passing through the coils
CC as shown in fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19 Hall effect wattmeter

The voltage across the load VL drives the current

VL
Iy  through the sample. R is a series resistance which is
R
  than the resistance of the sample and that of the load.
Also Iy   IL.

If ‘t’ thickness of the sample, then the measured Hall

voltage

RH BZ Iy
VH 
t

VH  BZ  Iy
(Since RH and t are constant)s

Since BZ  IL and Iy  VL

VH  IL VL

This is the electric power dissipated by the load. The

voltmeter that measures VH can be calibrated to read power
directly.
Semiconductor Physics 2.53

Semiconductor devices

PN junction diode
A PN junction is formed from a piece of
semiconductor (Germanium or Silicon) by doping P-type
material (acceptor impurity atoms) to one half and N-type
material to (donor impurity atoms) other half side.

The plane dividing the two zones is known as a junction.

It is called PN junction diode.

The immobile positive and negative ions set up a potential

across the junction. This potential is called potential barrier
VB or junction barrier.

Symbol of diode:
The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in fig. 2.20. The
P-type and N-type regions are known as anode and cathode.

Fig. 2.20 Diode symbol

Working of PN Junction Diode

The behaviour of the PN junction diode is studied by
applying a bias (voltage) across its terminals.

The voltage is applied in two ways

(i) Forward bias

(ii) Reverse bias

Forward bias:
When a positive terminal of the external battery is
connected to P-region and a negative terminal to N-region, the
PN junction is said to be forward biased as shown in fig. 2.21.
2.54 Physics for Electronics Engineering

When the junction is forward biased, the holes in the

P-region are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery and
they are forced to move towards the junction.
Similarly, the electrons in the N-region are repelled by the
negative terminal of the battery and they are forced to move
towards the junction.

Fig. 2.21 PN junction under forward bias

This reduces the width of the depletion layer and barrier

potential. When the applied voltage is greater than potential
barrier VB, then the majority carriers (holes in P-region and
electrons in N-region) cross the barrier.
Now, the current flows in the forward direction. The PN
junction offers very low resistance under forward biased condition.

Reverse bias:

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to

the N-region and negative terminal to the P-region, PN junction
is said to be reverse biased as shown in fig. 2.22.

Fig. 2.22 PN junction under reverse bias

Semiconductor Physics 2.55

When the junction is reverse biased, the holes in the

P-region are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons in the N-region are attracted by
the positive terminal of the battery. This increases the width
of the depletion layer and barrier potential VB.

The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the

majority carriers to diffuse across the junction. Thus, there is no
current due to majority carriers. In otherwords, PN junction offers
very high resistance under reverse biased condition.
In a reverse biased PN junction, a small amount of current
(in  A) flows through the junction due to minority carriers.

VI Characteristics of PN junction diode

A graph is drawn between voltage applied across its
terminals and the current flows through it.

The complete graph consists of parts, namely forward and

reverse characteristics. Fig. 2.23 shows the VI characteristics
of PN junction diode.

Fig. 2.23 VI characteristics of PN junction diode

2.56 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Advantages of semiconductor diodes

 They are light in weight.

 They are smaller in size and occupy less space.
 They have longer life.
 They are mechanically strong.
 Their operating efficiency is very high.

Applications & uses of Diode

 They are used as rectifier elements in DC power supplies.
 They are used as signal diodes in communication circuits
for modulation and demodulation.
 They are used in clipper and clamper circuits.
 They are used as a switch in logic circuits used in computers.

2.12 BREAKDOWN IN PN - JUNCTIONS

If the reverse bias applied to a PN junction is increased,

a point is reached where the junction breakdown occurs. The
reverse current rises sharply. This critical value of the
voltage is known as breakdown voltage VBR.

Definition
The reverse voltage at which the PN junction break down
with sudden rise in reverse current is called breakdown
voltage.

The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion

region which, in turn, depends on the doping concentration.

The following two mechanisms are responsible for junction

breakdown under increasing reverse voltage:

(i) Zener break down

(ii) Avalanche break down
Semiconductor Physics 2.57

(i) Zener Breakdown

Definition
In a heavily doped junction diode, breaking of covalent
bonds occurs due to increase in reverse voltage which leads
to junction breakdown. It is called zener breakdown.

This form of breakdown occurs in junctions which are

heavily doped and have narrow depletion layers.

The breakdown voltage sets up a very strong electric field

8
(about 10 V/m) across this narrow layer. This field is strong
enough to break or rupture the covalent bonds thereby
generating electron-hole pairs.

Even a small further increase in reverse voltage is capable

of producing large number of current carriers. Thus, the junction
has very low resistance in the breakdown region.

(ii) Avalanche Breakdown

Definition
In a lightly doped junction diodes, at a relatively
high reverse voltage breaking of covalent bond occurs
due to collision of accelerated electrons with valence
electrons.

The multiplication of collision leads avalanche effect. Thus

the junction breakdown occurs. It is known avalanche
breakdown.

This form of breakdown occurs in junctions which are

lightly-doped and have wide depletion layers. The electric field
is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdown. But, the
minority carriers (accelerated by this field) collide with the
semiconductor atoms in the depletion region.

Upon collision with valence electrons, covalent bonds are

broken and electron-hole pairs are generated.
2.58 Physics for Electronics Engineering

These newly-generated charge carriers are also accelerated

by the electric field resulting in more collisions and hence further
production of charge carriers. This leads to an avalanche (or
flood) of charge carriers and consequently, to a very low reverse
resistance.

The two breakdown phenomena are shown in fig. 2.24.

Fig. 2.24 Breakdown in Diodes

Temperature dependence of breakdown voltage

In heavily doped diodes like zener diodes, an increase in
temperature increases the energies of valance electrons. Hence, it
is easier for these electrons to escape from covalent bonds.

Thus, less applied voltage is sufficient to knock or pull

these electron from their respective position in the crystal and
convert them into conduction electrons. Thus, the zener
breakdown voltage decreases with temperature.

In lightly doped diode like PN junction diode, an increase

in temperature increases the probability of collision of electrons
and increases the depletion width.

Thus, the electrons and holes need a high voltage to cross

the junction. Therefore, the avalanche breakdown voltage is
increased with increased temperature.
Semiconductor Physics 2.59

Table 2.7
Comparison of
Zener and Avalanche breakdowns

S.No. Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1. It occurs in a heavily doped It occurs in a lightly doped
junction. junction.
2. It occurs with reverse bias It occurs in PN junction
voltage less than 6V. diode with reverse voltage
greater than 6V.
3. The reverse bias of VI The reverse bias of VI
characteristics is very characteristics is not sharp.
sharp in breakdown region. (i.e., soft)
5. It occurs by breaking It occurs by breaking
covalent bonds due to very covalent bonds due to
high electrical field developed collision of accelerated
by the reverse bias. electrons as a chain reaction.
6. The breakdown voltage The breakdown voltage
decreases if the junction increases if the junction
temperature increases. temperature increases.

Metal - Semiconductor (MS) Contact

Metal-Semiconductor (MS) contact plays a very
important role in the present day electronic devices and
Integrated Circuit (IC) technology.

When a metal and a semiconductor are brought into

contact, there are two types of junctions formed depending
on the work functions of the metal and semiconductor.

Types of Metal - Semiconductor junction

(i) Schottky junction - m  semi

(ii) Ohmic junction - semi  semi

m – Work function of metal

z – Work function of semiconductor
2.60 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Work Function: Energy required to raise the electrons

from the metal or the semiconductor to the vacuum level.

2.15 SCHOTTKY DIODE

Definition:
It is a junction formed between a metal and n-type
semiconductor.
When the metal has a higher work function than that
of n-type semiconductor then the junction formed is
called schottky diode. The Fermi level of the semiconductor
is higher (since its work function is lower) than the metal.
Fig. 2.25 shows schottky diode and its circuit symbol.

Fig. 2.25 Schottky Diode

(a) metal-semiconductor contact and (b) circuit symbol

The electrons in the conduction level of the semiconductor

move to the empty energy states above the Fermi level of the metal.
This leaves a positive charge on the semiconductor side and
a negative charge (due to the excess electrons) on the metal
side as shown in figure 2.26. This leads to a contact potential.

Fig. 2.26 Schottky junction between metal

and n-type semconductor
Semiconductor Physics 2.61

Energy band diagram

When a Schottky junction is formed between metal and
semiconductor, Fermi level lines up. Also a positive potential is
formed on the semiconductor side.

The formation of a depletion region of width WD within

the semiconductor is shown in figure 2.27.

Because the depletion region extends within a certain depth

in the semiconductor, there is bending of the energy bands on
the semiconductor side. Bands bend up in the direction of the
electric field produced in depletion region.

Figure 2.27 Schottky junction energy band

There is a built in potential V0 in the Schottky junction.

From the figure 2.27, this is given by the difference in work functions.

eV0  m  semi

The contact potential thus formed prevents further motion

of the electrons between the metal and semiconductor. This is
called the Schottky barrier and denoted by B.
2.62 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Working

The behaviour of the schottky diode is further studied by

biasing (applying voltage). The voltage is applying in two ways
(a) Forward bias
(b) Reverse bias

(a) Forward bias

In this bias, metal is connected to positive terminal
and n-type semiconductor is connected to negative
terminal of the battery.

In the forward biased Schottky junction, the external

potential opposes the in-built potential.

The electrons injected from the external circuit into the

n-type semiconductor have a lower barrier to overcome before
reaching the metal.

This leads to a current in the circuit which increases with

increasing external potential.

(b) Reverse bias

In reverse bias, metal is connected to negative terminal
and n-type semiconductor to positive terminal of the battery.

In the case of a reverse bias, the external potential is

applied in the same direction as the junction potential. This
increases the width of depletion region further and hence there
is no flow of electron from semiconductor to metal.

So a Schottky junction acts as a rectifier ie. it conducts

in forward bias but not in reverse bias.

V-I Characteristics

The V  I characteristics of the junction is shown in

figure 2.28. There is an exponential increase in current in the
forward bias while there is a very small current in reverse bias.
Semiconductor Physics 2.63

Fig. 2.28 V  I characteristics of the Schottky diode

Advantages of schottky diode

 In schottky diode, stored charges or depletion region is
negligible. So a schottky diode has a very low capacitance.
 In schottky diode, the depleting region is negligible. So
the schottky diode will immediately switch from ON to
OFF state (fast recovery time).
 The depletion region is negligible in schottky diode. So
applying a small voltage is enough to produce large current.
 It has high efficiency.
 It operates at high frequencies.
 It produces less noise.

Applications of schottky diodes

 Schottky diode can be used for rectification of signals of
frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.

 It is commonly used in switching device at frequencies

of 20 GHz.
 It is used in radio frequency (RF) applications.
 It is widely used in power supplies.
2.64 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 It is used to detect signals.

 It is used in logic circuits.

 Its low noise figure finds application in sensitive

communication receivers like radars.

 It is also used in clipping and clamping circuits and in

computer gating.

Note

This diode is also referred as hot carrier diode because

when it is forward biased, conduction electrons on the N
side gains sufficient energy to cross the junction and enter
the metal. Since these electrons enter into the metal with
large energy, they are commonly called as hot carrier.

Table 2.8

Differences between schottky diode and pn diode

S.No. Schottky Diode pn Diode

1. Forward current due to Forward current due to
thermionic emission diffusion currents
(majority carrier transport) (majority carrier transport)
2. Reverse current only due to Reverse current due to
majority carriers that minority carriers diffusing
overcome the barrier to the depletion layer and
(less temperature dependent) drifting to the other side
(strong temperature
dependence)
3. Cut-in voltage is small Cut-in voltage is large
(about 0.3 V) (about 0.7V)
4. High switching speed, Switching speed limited by
because of majority carrier the recombination time of
transport. No recom- the injected minority
bination time needed carriers
Semiconductor Physics 2.65

2.16 OHMIC CONTACTS

Definition
An Ohmic contact is a type of metal semiconductor
junction. It is formed by a contact of a metal with a
heavily doped semiconductor.

When the semiconductor has a higher work function

than that of metal, then the junction formed is called the
Ohmic junction.

Here, the current is conducted equally in both directions

and there is a very little voltage drop across the junction.

Before contact, Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor

are at different positions as shown in fig. 2.29(a).

Fig. 2.29 Ohmic junction (a) before and (b) after contact.

Working
After contact, the ohmic junction is shown in figure 2.29
(b). At equilibrium, the electrons move from the metal to the
empty states in the conduction band of semiconductor. Thus,
there is an accumulation region near the interface (on the
semiconductor side).

It results in line up of Fermi levels of metal and

semiconductor as shown in Fig. 2.29 (b).
2.66 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The accumulation region has a higher conductivity than

the bulk semiconductor due to this higher concentration of
electrons.

Thus, a ohmic contact behaves as a resistor conducting in

both forward and reverse bias (Fig. 2.30). The resistivity is
determined by the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor.

Fig. 2.30 Ohmic contact: Metal-semiconductor contact

V-I characteristics
The volt-ampere (V-I) characteristic of the ohmic contact
is shown in Fig. 2.31.

Fig. 2.31 Voltage - Current V  I characteristics

of ohmic contact

The current is directly proportional to the potential across the

junction and it is symmetric about the origin, as shown in fig. 2.31.

Thus, Ohmic contacts are non-rectifying and show

negligible voltage drop and resistance irrespective of the
direction and magnitude of current.
Semiconductor Physics 2.67

Applications

The use of ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor

device to another, an IC, or to connect an IC to its external
terminals.

Table 2.7
Differences between schottky diode and ohmic contact

S.No Schottky Diode Ohmic contact

1. It acts as a rectifier It acts as a resistor
2. Very low forward resistance Resistance is same in both
but very high reverse forward and reverse bias
biased resistance
3. Work function of metal is Work function of metal is
greater than that of smaller than that of
semiconductor m  semi semiconductor m  semi

2.17 TUNNEL DIODE

It was invented in 1958 by Dr. Esaki hence it is also called

ESAKI DIODE.

Tunneling
The phenomenon of penetration of charge carriers
directly through the potential barrier, instead of climbing
over it, is called tunneling.

Definition
A tunnel diode is a simple pn junction in which
both p and n sides are very heavily doped with
impurities.

It is a pn junction which exhibits negative resistance

between two values of forward voltage (i.e., between
peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage).
2.68 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Construction
It is basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p-type
and n-type semiconductor.

This heavy doping gives a large number of majority

carriers. As a result, the depletion layer becomes very narrow.

The symbol for the diode is shown in fig. 2.33.

Fig. 2.32 Symbol of Tunnel Diode

Such diodes are usually fabricated from germanium,

gallium-arsenide (GaAs) and gallium antimonide (GaSb).

Working

The operation of the tunnel diode depends on the tunneling

effect.

The energy band diagram is shown in fig. 2.33(a) without

any forward applied voltage V  0. There is a large mismatch
between the energy levels of the electrons and the holes. As the
forward voltage is increased, the energy level of the electrons shifts.

At a particular voltage VP, the energy levels of the

electrons and the holes coincide. Now the electrons tunnel
through barrier and falls into the holes (Fig. 2.33(b)).

The effect of electrons directly falling into the holes without

climbing the potential hill is known as tunnelling.
Semiconductor Physics 2.69

Fig. 2.33 Tunnel diode - Energy band diagram

As the voltage further increases, the mismatch also

increases and the current decreases. At a particular voltage
VV the current drops to a minimum value.

V-I Characteristics
The V-I characteristics is as shown in fig. 2.34. The forward
bias produces immediate conduction i.e., as soon forward bias
is applied, the current flows.

The current quickly rises to its peak value Ip when the

applied forward voltage reaches a value Vp (point A) as shown
in fig. 2.34.
When forward voltage is increased further, diode current
starts decreasing till it reaches its minimum value called valley
current IV corresponding to valley voltage VV (point B). For
voltages greater than VV, current starts increasing again as in
an ordinary junction diode.
The characteristics of the tunnel diode is obtained by
superimposition of the tunnelling characteristics and the
conventional diode characteristics.
2.70 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 2.34 Tunnel diode V-I Characteristics

As seen from fig. 2.34, between the peak point A and valley
point B, current decreases with increase in the applied voltage. This
means that tunnel diode shows negative resistance in this region.

Advantages
 Tunnel diode has low noise.
 It is easy to operate this diode.
 The switching speed is high.
 It consumes low power.

Disadvantages
 Voltage range over which it can be operated is 1 V or less
 Being a two terminal device, there is no isolation
between the input and output circuit.

Applications
 Tunnel diode is used as ultra-high speed switch with
switching speed of the order of nano second ns or pico
second ps
 It is used in logic memory storage device
 It is used in microwave oscillator
 It can be used in relaxation oscillator circuit
Semiconductor Physics 2.71

Table 2.9
Comparison between
Tunnel diode and PN junction diode

S.No Tunnel Diode PN Junction Diode

1. Doping levels at p and n Doping in both p and n
sides are very high. sides is normal.
2. Majority carriers current Majority carrier current
responds much faster to does not respond so fast to
voltage changes - suitable voltage changes-suitable for
to microwaves. low frequency applications
only.
3. At a small values of reverse Current is extremely small
voltage, a large current (leakage current) upto
flows due to considerable considerable reverse bias
overlap between conduction voltage and then increases
band and valence band - abruptly to extremely high
useful as frequency at a particular voltage
converter. called breakdown voltage.
4. Shows negative resistance Does not show negative
characteristics - useful for resistance - used as detector
oscillators. and rectifers.
5. Preferred semiconductors Preferred semiconductors
are Ge and GaAs. are Ge and Si.
6. It is a low noise device. Moderate noise
characteristics.

2.18 METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR (MOS) -

CAPACITORS

Metal Oxide Semiconductors (MOS) are used as

capacitors.

Structure
MOS capacitor consists of a Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
structure as shown in figure 2.35.
2.72 Physics for Electronics Engineering

It consists of a semiconductor substrate with a thin oxide

layer and a top metal contact known as the gate.

A second metal layer forms an ohmic contact to the back

of the semiconductor and it is bulk contact. It is an n-type MOS
and nMOS capacitor (layer-contains electrons).

Fig. 2.35 MOS capacitance structure

Principle of operation
To understand the different bias modes of the MOS
capacitor, three different bias voltages are considered.

(i) Below the flatband voltage VFB

(ii) Between the flatband voltage V FB  and the

threshold voltage VT

(iii) Larger than the threshold voltage.

These three bias modes are called

(a) accumulation,

(b) depletion

(c) inversion mode of operation.

These three modes as well as the charge distributions

associated with each of them are shown in figure 2.36.
Semiconductor Physics 2.73

Accumulation mode
It occurs for negative voltages where the negative charge
on the gate attracts holes from the substrate to
oxide-semiconductor interface.

Depletion mode
It occurs for positive voltages. The positive charge on the
gate pushes the mobile holes into the substrate.

Therefore, the semiconductor is depleted of mobile carriers

at the interface. But, a negative charge due to the ionized
acceptor ions, is left in the space charge region.

Fig. 2.36 Charges in an n-type Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

structure (p-type substrate) under accumulation,
depletion and inversion conditions

The voltage separating the accumulation and depletion

regime is referred to as the flatband voltage VFB.

Inversion mode
It occurs at voltages beyond the threshold voltage. In
inversion, there exists a negatively charged inversion layer at
the oxide-semiconductor interface in addition to the
depletion-layer.
2.74 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This inversion layer is due to the minority carriers that

are attracted to the interface by the positive gate voltage.

Energy band diagram

The energy band diagram of an n-MOS capacitor biased
in inversion is shown in fig. 2.37. The oxide is considered as a
semiconductor with a very large bandgap and blocks any flow
of carriers between the semiconductor and the gate metal.

Fig. 2.37 Energy band diagram of n-MOS

structure biased in inversion

The band bending in the semiconductor is consistent with

the presence of a depletion layer. At the semiconductor-oxide
interface, Fermi energy is close to the conduction band edge (as
expected when a high density of electrons is present).

The semiconductor remains in thermal equilibrium even

when a voltage is applied to the gate.

Advantages
 It is smaller in size.

 It is inbuilt in IC’s.
Semiconductor Physics 2.75

Application

These types of capacitors are widely used as internal

capacitors in Integrated circuits (IC’s).

2.19 POWER TRANSISTORS

Definition

Transistors handle high voltage and high current

rating are known as power transistors.

 These transistors are mostly used in switching mode ie.,

it is operated in saturation region and cut off region.

The power transistor, requires modification on various

transistor limitations of small signal BJT.

The power transistor should handle

(i) maximum rated current of the order of amperes,

(ii) maximum rated voltage of the order of 100 V

(iii) maximum rated power of the order of watts or

tens of watts.

Classification

Power transistors are classified broadly into three types.

They are

(i) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

(ii) Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect

Transistors (MOSFET)

(iii) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT)

Let us discuss Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) only

2.76 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Power Bipolar Junction Transistor (PBJT)

Construction
It has a vertically oriented four layers structure of
alternating p-type and n-type doping (npn transistor) as shown
in figure 2.38.
It has three terminals collector C, emitter E and base B.
The term ‘bipolar’ indicates that current flow is due to
movement of both holes and electrons.
The vertical structure maximizes the cross-sectional area.
Further, it minimizes the on-state resistance and thus the power
dissipation in the transistor.

Fig. 2.38 Cross section of vertical power BJT

The doping concentration and thickness of each layer have

a significant effect on the characteristics of the device. The
19 3
doping in the emitter layer is large (10 cm ). The base doping
16 3
is moderate (10 cm ).
The n - region between the collector and base region is
called as collector drift region and it has a light
14 3 
(10 cm ) doping level. The n region collector has a doping
level similar to that of the emitter.
The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown
voltage of the transistor. It is a current controlled device where
the collector current is under the control of base drive current.
Semiconductor Physics 2.77

Characteristics of Power BJT

Typical IC versus VCE characteristics are shown in fig. 2.39.

Fig. 2.39 Collector current versus collector emitter voltage

characteristics of a biopolar transistor
The relatively wide base region gives a smaller current gain
  20 to 25) for power transistors as compared to small signal
transistors. The large area of the device gives a larger junction
capacitance and hence lower cutoff frequency for a power
transistor as compared to a small signal transistor.
Table 2.10 compares the parameters of a general-purpose
small-signal BJT to those of power BJTs.
Table 2.10
Comparison of the characteristics and
maximum ratings of small-signal and power BJTs

Small-signal
Power BJT Power BJT
Parameter BJT
(2N3055) (2N6078)
(2N2222A)
VCE max V 40 60 250
IC max A 0.8 15 7
PD max W 1.2 115 45
(at T  25 C
 35-100 5-20 12-25
2.78 Physics for Electronics Engineering

When the transistor is biased in the forward-active mode,

the collector current begins to increase significantly before the
actual breakdown voltage is reached.
All the curves tend to merge to the same collector-emitter
voltage once breakdown has occurred.
This voltage, VCE, sus, is the minimum voltage necessary to
sustain the transistor in breakdown.
The average power dissipated in a BJT must be kept below
a specified maximum value to ensure that the temperature of
the device remains below a maximum value.
If we assume the collector current and collector-emitter
voltage are dc values, then at the maximum rated power PT
for the transistor is given by

P T  V CE I C

The maximum current, voltage, and power limitations are

illustrated IC versus VCE characteristics as shown in fig. 2.40.

Fig. 2.40 The safe operating area (SOA) of a bipolar

transistor plotted on logarithmic scales

Advantages

 The power loss is low.

 The switching speed is high.

Semiconductor Physics 2.79

 The size of this transistor is large.

 It can handle high power with high efficiently.

 It thermal resistance is low.

Disadvantages
 It has little ability to withstand a reverse voltage.

Applications
 It is used in power switching devices.

 It is also used in power amplifiers.

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor

Problem 2.1

Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm

long, 1 mm wide and 1 mm thick at 300 K.
19 3
For germanium ni  2.5  10 m
2 1 1
e  0.39 m V s
2 1 1
h  0.19 m V s at 300 K
[A.U. Dec. 2014]

Given data
19 3
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni  2.5  10 m

2 1 1
Electron mobility e  0.39 m V s

2 1 1
Hole mobility h  0.19 m V s

2
l  length of the rod  1 cm  1  10 m
2.80 Physics for Electronics Engineering

A  Area of cross-section (width  thickness)

3 3
A  1  10  1  10 

Solution
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor

  nie e  h

Substituting given values, we have

19  19
  2.5  10  1.6  10  0.39  0.19
1 1
  2.32  m

l l .. 1
Resistance R 
A
or R 
A  . 
 
2
1  10 1 2 6
R  3 3
  10  10
2.32  1  10  1  10  2.32

 4310 

Resistance of germanium  4310 .

Extrinsic semiconductor
Problem 2.2
Find the concentration of holes and electrons in n - type
silicon at 300 K, if the conductivity is
4 1 1
3  10 ohm m . Also find these values for p - type
silicon.
Given data
16 3
For silicon at 300 K, ni  1.5  10 m
4 2 1 1
e  1300  10 m V s
4 2 1 1
h  500  10 m V s
(A.U. May 2015)
Semiconductor Physics 2.81

Solution

(a) Concentration in n-type silicon

  nee


n
ee

4
3  10
n  19 4
1.6  10  1300  10

24 3
 1.442  10 m

2
We know that np  ni

(From the law of mass action)

2
ni
p 
n

16 2
1.5  10 
p  24
1.442  10

8 3
p  1.56  10 m

(b) Concentration in p-type silicon

  peh


p 
eh

4
3  10
p   19 4
1.6  10  500  10
24 3
p  3.75  10 m
2.82 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2
ni
n 
p

16 2
1.5  10 
 24
3.75  10

8 3
n  0.6  10 m

Problem 2.3

A silicon material is uniformly doped with phosphorus

19 3
atoms at a concentration of 2  10 m . The mobilities
2 1 1
of holes and electrons are 0.05 and 0.12 m V s
16 3
respectively, ni  1.5  10 m . Find the electron and hole
concentrations and electrical conductivity.
(A.U. June 2014)

Solution

2 16 2
ni 1.5  10 
Hole concentration p   19
ND 2  10

13 3
 1.125  10 / m

19 3
Electron concentration n  ND  2  10 / m

Electrical conductivity   e ND e
 19 19
  1.602  10  2  10  0.12

1 1
  0.384 ohm m
Semiconductor Physics 2.83

Problem 2.4

Find the hole and electron concentrations in a p-type

20 3
semiconductor, if the acceptor density is 10 atoms/m
19 3
and the intrinsic concentration is 2.5  10 per m at
300 K. (A.U. May 2016)

Solution
In a p-type semiconductor, the hole concentration is equal
to the acceptor density.

20 3
p  Na  10 holes/m

2 19 2
ni 2.5  10  18 3
n   20
 6.25  10 electrons/m
.
Na 10

18 3
n  6.25  10 m

Hall effect

Problem 2.5

The Hall coefficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is

4 3
found to be 3.66  10 m /C. The resistivity of the
3
specimen is 8.93  10  m. Find the mobility and
density of the charge carriers. (A.U.April 2015)

Given data
4 3
Hall coefficient of the specimen RH  3.66  10 m /C

3
Resistivity of the specimen   8.93  10 m

Mobility of the carrier h  ?

2.84 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Density of charge carriers nh  ?

Solution
We know that density of charge carriers

1
nh 
RH e

Substituting the given values, we have

1
nh  4  19
3.66  10  1.610  10
22 3
nh  1.708  10 m

1
h 
 nh e

RH
e 


4
3.66  10
h  3
8.93  10
2 1 1
h  0.041 m V s

Problem 2.6

Find the Hall coefficient and electron mobility of

germanium for a given sample (length 1 cm, breadth 5
mm, thickness 1 mm). A current of 5 milliampere flows
from a 1.35 volt supply and develops a Hall voltage of
20 millivolt across the specimen in a magnetic field of
2
0.45 Wb  m . (A.U. May 2013)

Given data
3
Current through the specimen I  5 mA or 5  10 A
Semiconductor Physics 2.85

Voltage across the specimen V  1.35 V

2
Length of the sample L  1 cm or 1  10 m

3
Breadth of the sample b  5 mm or 5  10 m

3
Thickness of the sample t  1 mm or 1  10 m

3
Hall voltage Vy  20  10 V

2
Magnetic field H  0.45 Wb/m

Solution:
Ra
We know that resistivity  
l

where R  Resistance of the specimen

V 1.35
R   3
I 5  10

a  Area of cross-section  b  t

3 3
a  5  10  1  10

6 2
 5  10 m

6
1.35 5  10
  3
 2
5  10 1  10

 0.135  m

3
Vy 20  10
Hall field Ey   3
Thickness 1  10

1
 20 Vm
2.86 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Current
Current density Jx 
Area of crosssection
3
5  10
Jx  6
5  10
3 2
 1  10 Am

1 Ey 20
  3
ne HJx 0.45  10
3
 0.044 m /C

Hall coefficient
1
RH  1.18   1.18  0.044
ne
3
 0.0524 m /C
3
RH  0.0524 m /C

Electron mobility
RH 0.0524
e  
 0.135
2 1 1
 0.39 m V s

2 1 1
e  0.39 m V s

Problem 2.7

A copper strip 2.0 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick is placed

2
in a magnetic field with B  1.5 weber/m perpendicular
to the strip. Suppose a current of 200 A is set up in the
strip. What Hall potential difference would appear
across the strip?
28 3
Given N  8.4  10 electrons /m . (A.U. May 2015)
Semiconductor Physics 2.87

Given data

Current flowing Ix  200 A

2
Applied magnetic field Hz  1.5 Wb m

Number of electrons,
28 3
per unit volume n  8.4  10 electrons m

3
Thickness of the strip t  1.0  10 m

Solution

RH Ix Bz
Hall potential Vy 
b
Ix Bz .. 1 
Vy 
neb  . RH  ne 
 
Substituting the given values, we have
200  1.5
VH  28  19 3
8.4  10  1.6  10  1.0  10 
5
VH  2.2  10 V

Note

This problem is important in the sense that it shows

that Hall voltage can be also observed in metals besides
semiconductor.

In semiconductors, Hall voltage is comparatively much

larger; it is of the order of milli-volts as compared to the order
of micro-volts in metals.

Moreover, to observe Hall voltage in metals, current of the

order of amperes is needed when compared to the order of
milliamperes as in the case of semiconductors.
2.88 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

ANNA UNIVERSITY Q&A

1. What are elemental semiconductors? Give some

important elemental semiconductors. (A.U Dec 2014)

Elemental semiconductors are made from single element of

the fourth group elements of the periodic table.

Example
Germanium and silicon.

2. What are the properties of semiconductors?

(A.U. June 2013)

 They are formed by covalent bond.

 They have empty conduction band.

 They have almost filled valence band.

 These materials have comparatively narrow energy gap.

3. What are compound semiconductors? Give some

important compound semiconductors. (A.U April 2015)

Semiconductors which are formed by combining third and

fifth group elements or second and sixth group elements in the
periodic table are called compound semiconductors.

S.No. Group Compound semiconductor

1. Combination of Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
third and fifth Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
group elements Indium Phosphide (InP)
(III and V) Indium Arsenide (InAs)
2. Combination of Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
second and sixth Magnesium Silicon (MgSi)
group elements Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
(II and VI) Zinc Sulphide (ZnS)
Semiconductor Physics 2.89

4. Mention any four advantages of semiconducting

materials. (April 2013, April 2014)

 It behaves as insulator at 0 K and as conductor at high

temperatures.

 It has some properties of both conductor and insulator.

 On doping, n and p-type semiconductors are produced

with charge carriers of electrons and holes respectively.

 It has many applications in electronic field such as

manufacturing of diodes, transistors, LED’s, IC etc.

5. What are the differences between elemental

semiconductors and compound semiconductors?
(A.U June 2012, April 2014, Dec 2015)

S. Elemental Compound
No. Semiconductors Semiconductors
1. They are made of single They are made of
element. Examples: Ge, Si compounds. Examples:
GaAs, GaP, MgO etc.
2. Heat is produced during The photons are emitted
recombination. during recombination.
3. They are used for the They are used for making
manufacture of diodes and LED’s, Laser diodes and
transistors. IC’s.

6. Write an expression for the concentration of electrons

in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
(A.U. Jan 2014)

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band of

an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

3/2
 2mkT 
 e  EF  EC/kT
n2 2  e
 h 
 
2.90 Physics for Electronics Engineering


where me  effective mass of electron

EF  Fermi energy level

EC  Energy corresponds to the bottom of

conduction band

T  Absolute temperature

7. Write an expression for the concentration of holes in

the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
(A.U. May 2015)

The concentration of holes in the valence band is given by

3/2
 2 m kT 
 h  Ev  EF/kT
p2  e
 h
2

 

mh  effective mass of hole

T absolute temperature

EF  Fermi energy

Ev  Energy corresponds to the top of valence band

8. What is Fermi level in a semiconductor?

(A.U. May 2016)

Fermi level in a semiconductor is the energy level situated

in the band gap of the semiconductor. It is exactly located at
the middle of the band gap in the case of an intrinsic
semiconductor.

9. Write an expression for carrier concentration in

n-type semiconductor. (A.U. May 2015)

The carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor is given

by
Semiconductor Physics 2.91

3/4
  
1/2  2mekT   E/2kT
n  2 Nd   e
 h
2

 
where

E  EC  Ed  Ionisation energy of the donor

Nd  Number of donor atoms per unit volume of

the material.

me  Effective mass of an electron.

T Absolute temperature

10. Write an expression for carrier concentration of holes

in the valence band of p-type semiconductor.
(A.U. Jan 2014)

The carrier concentration in p-type is given by

3/4
  
1/2  2 mhkT   E/2kT
p  2 Na   e
 h
2

 
where

E  Ev  Ea  ionisation energy of acceptor level


mh  Effective mass of hole

Na  Number of acceptor atoms per unit volume

of the material.

T  Absolute temperature.

11. Define Hall-effect and Hall voltage.

(A.U. May 2015, Dec 2016)

When a conductor carrying a current (I) is placed in a

transverse magnetic field (B), a potential difference is produced
2.92 Physics for Electronics Engineering

inside the conductor in a direction normal to the directions of

the current and magnetic field.

This phenomenon is known as Hall-effect and the generated

voltage is called Hall-voltage.

12. Mention the uses of Hall effect.

(A.U. May 2013, June 2014)

 It is used to find type of semiconductor.

 It is used to measure carrier concentration.

 It is used to find mobility of charge carrier.

 It it used to measure the magnetic flux density using a

semiconductor sample of known Hall coefficient.

13. What are the differences between intrinsic and

extrinsic semiconductor?
(A.U 2008, June 2009, 2012)

Extrinsic
S.No. Intrinsic semiconductor
semiconductor
1. Semiconductor in a pure Semiconductors which are
form is called intrinsic doped with impurity is
semi conductor. called extrinsic
semiconductor.
2. Here, the charge carriers Here, the charge carriers
are produced only due to are produced due to
thermal agitation. impurities.
3. Examples: Si, Ge, etc. Examples: Si and Ge
doped with Al, In, P, As
etc.
Semiconductor Physics 2.93

14. What are the differences between n-type and p-type

semiconductor?

Differences between
n - type and p - type semiconductors

S.No. n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

1. When pentavalent impurity When trivalent impurity is
is doped to intrinsic doped to intrinsic
semiconductor, n - type semiconductor, p - type
semiconductor is formed. semiconductor is formed.
2. The impurity is called The impurity is called
donor impurity since it acceptor impurity since it
donates electron. accepts electron.
3. Majority charge carriers Majority charge carriers
are electrons. are holes.
4. Minority charge carriers Minority charge carriers
are holes. are electrons.

ADDITIONAL Q&A

1. What is a semiconductor?

Semiconductor is a special class of material which behaves

like an insulator at 0 K and acts conductor at temperature other
than 0 K. Its resistivity lies in between a conductor and an
insulator.

2. Draw the energy level diagram of a semiconductor.

Energy band diagram of a semiconductor

2.94 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3. What is an intrinsic semiconductor?

Semiconductor in an extremely pure form (without

impurities) is known as intrinsic semiconductor.

4. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

A semiconducting material in which impurity atoms added

(doped) to the material to modify its conductivity is known as
extrinsic semiconductor or impurity semiconductor.

5. What is an n-type semiconductor?

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to

a pure semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic or impure
semiconductor and it is known as n-type semiconductor.

6. What is a p-type semiconductor?

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a

pure semiconductor, it becomes extrinsic semiconductor or
impure semiconductor and it is called p-type semiconductor.

7. What is meant by doping and doping agent?

The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor

is known as doping and the added impurity is called doping
agent.

8. Explain the concept of hole in semiconductor.

In intrinsic semiconductor, charge carriers are created due to

breaking of covalent bonds. When a covalent bond is broken, an
electron escapes to the conduction band leaving behind an empty
space in the valence band. This missing electron is called a hole.
9. What is meant by donor energy level?

A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic

semiconductor donates one electron which produces an energy level
called donor energy level.
Semiconductor Physics 2.95

10. What is meant by acceptor energy level?

A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic

semiconductor accepts one electron which produces an energy
level called acceptor energy level.

11. Mention the uses of compound semiconductor.

They are used as photovoltaic materials, photoconductive

cell, laser materials and for making LED [Light Emitting Diode].

12. Define drift velocity.

When an electrical field is applied in a semiconducting

material, the free charge carriers such as free electrons and
holes attain drift velocity vd.

The drift velocity attained by the carriers is proportional

to the electrical field strength E.

i.e., vd  E

vd   E ...(1)

where  is a proportionality constant and it is known as the

mobility of the charge carrier.

13. Define drift current.

The electric current produced due to the motion of charge

carriers under the influence of an external electric field is known
as drift current.

14. Define diffusion current.

The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the

regions of uneven concentrations in the semiconductor.

The charge carriers move from the regions of higher

concentration to the regions of lower concentration. This process
is known as diffusion. The current is known as diffusion current.
2.96 Physics for Electronics Engineering

15. Write down Einstein’s relation.

The relation between the mobility  and diffusion

coefficient D of a semiconductor is known as Einstein’s relation.

Dn n

Dp p

where Dn - Diffusion coefficient of electron.

Dp - Diffusion coefficient of holes.

n - Mobility of electron.

p - Mobility of holes.

16. What is a Hall device?

The device which uses the hall effect for its application is
known as Hall device.

17. What are different types of Hall devices?

There are three types of Hall devices.

They are
(a) Gauss Meter
(b) Electronic Multiplier
(c) Electronic Wattmeter
18. What is breakdown voltage in pn junction?

The reverse voltage at which the PN junction break down

with sudden rise in reverse current is called breakdown voltage.

19. What is zener breakdown?

In a heavily doped junction diode, breaking of covalent

bonds occurs due to increase in reverse voltage which leads to
junction breakdown. It is called zener breakdown.
Semiconductor Physics 2.97

20. What is avalanche breakdown?

In a lightly doped junction diodes, at a relatively high

reverse voltage breaking of covalent bond occurs due to collision
of accelerated electrons with valence electrons.

The multiplication of collision leads avalanche effect. Thus

the junction breakdown occurs. It is known avalanche
breakdown.

21. What are the differences between zener and

avalanche breakdown?

S.No. Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1. It occurs in a heavily doped It occurs in a lightly doped
junction. junction.
2. It occurs with reverse bias It occurs in PN junction
voltage less than 6V. diode with reverse voltage
greater than 6V.
3. The reverse bias of VI The reverse bias of VI
characteristics is very characteristics is not sharp.
sharp in breakdown region. (i.e., soft)
5. It occurs by breaking It occurs by breaking
covalent bonds due to very covalent bonds due to
high electrical field developed collision of accelerated
by the reverse bias. electrons as a chain reaction.
6. The breakdown voltage The breakdown voltage
decreases if the junction increases if the junction
temperature increases. temperature increases.

22. What is a schottky diode?

It is a junction formed between a metal and n-type

semiconductor.

When the metal has a higher work function than that of

n-type semiconductor then the junction formed is called schottky
diode.
2.98 Physics for Electronics Engineering

23. What are advantages of schottky diodes?

 In schottky diode, stored charges or depletion region is

negligible. So a schottky diode has a very low
capacitance.

 In schottky diode, the depleting region is negligible. So

the schottky diode will immediately switch from ON to
OFF state (fast recovery time).

 The depletion region is negligible in schottky diode. So

applying a small voltage is enough to produce large
current.

 It has high efficiency.

 It operates at high frequencies.

 It produces less noise.

24. What are the application of scholtky diode?

 Schottky diode can be used for rectification of signals of

frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.

 It is commonly used in switching device at frequencies

of 20 GHz.

 It is used in radio frequency (RF) applications.

 It is widely used in power supplies.

25. What are the differences between scholtky diode and

pn diode?

S.No. Schottky Diode pn Diode

1. Forward current due to Forward current due to

thermionic emission diffusion currents
(majority carrier transport) (majority carrier transport)
Semiconductor Physics 2.99

S.No. Schottky Diode pn Diode

2. Reverse current only due to Reverse current due to

majority carriers that minority carriers diffusing
overcome the barrier to the depletion layer and
(less temperature dependent) drifting to the other side
(strong temperature
dependence)
3. Cut-in voltage is small Cut-in voltage is large
(about 0.3 V) (about 0.7V)
4. High switching speed, Switching speed limited by
because of majority carrier the recombination time of
transport. No recom- the injected minority
bination time needed carriers

26. What is ohmic contact?

An ohmic contact is a type of metal semiconductor junction.

It is formed by a contact of a metal with a heavily doped
semiconductor.

When the semiconductor has a higher work function than that

of metal, then the junction formed is called the Ohmic junction.

27. What are the uses of ohmic contact?

The use of ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor

device to another, an IC, or to connect an IC to its external
terminals.

28. What are the differences between scholtky diode and

ohmic contacts?

S.No Schottky Diode Ohmic contact

1. It acts as a rectifier It acts as a resistor
2. Very low forward resistance Resistance is same in both
but very high reverse forward and reverse bias
biased resistance
2.100 Physics for Electronics Engineering

S.No Schottky Diode Ohmic contact

3. Work function of metal is Work function of metal is
greater than that of smaller than that of
semiconductor m  semi semiconductor m  semi

29. What is a tunnel diode?

A tunnel diode is a simple pn junction in which both p

and n sides are very heavily doped with impurities.

It is a pn junction which exhibits negative resistance

between two values of forward voltage (i.e., between peak-point
voltage and valley-point voltage).

30. What are the advantages of tunnel diodes?

 Tunnel diode has low noise.

 It is easy to operate this diode.

 The switching speed is high.

 It consumes low power.

31. What are the disadvantages of tunnel diodes?

 Voltage range over which it can be operated is 1 V or less

 Being a two terminal device, there is no isolation

between the input and output circuit.

32. What are the application of tunnel diodes?

 Tunnel diode is used as ultra-high speed switch with

switching speed of the order of nano second ns or pico
second ps

 It is used in logic memory storage device

 It is used in microwave oscillator

 It can be used in relaxation oscillator circuit

Semiconductor Physics 2.101

33. What are the differences between tunnel diode and

PN junction diode?

S.No Tunnel Diode PN Junction Diode

1. Doping levels at p and n Doping in both p and n
sides are very high. sides is normal.
2. Majority carriers current Majority carrier current
responds much faster to does not respond so fast to
voltage changes - suitable voltage changes-suitable for
to microwaves. low frequency applications
only.
3. Shows negative resistance Does not show negative
characteristics - useful for resistance - used as detector
oscillators. and rectifers.
4. Preferred semiconductors Preferred semiconductors
are Ge and GaAs. are Ge and Si.
5. It is a low noise device. Moderate noise
characteristics.

34. What is metal oxide semiconductor capacitor?

Metal Oxide Semiconductors (MOS) are used as capacitors.

35. What are the application of metal oxide
semiconductor capacitor?

These types of capacitors are widely used as internal

capacitors in Integrated circuits (IC’s).
36. What are power transistors?

Transistors handle high voltage and high current rating

are known as power transistors.
37. What are the advantages and disadvantages of power
transistor?

Advantages
 The power loss is low.
 The switching speed is high.
 The size of this transistor is large.
2.102 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 It can handle high power with high efficiently.

 It thermal resistance is low.

Disadvantages
 It has little ability to withstand a reverse voltage.
38. What are the applications of power transistors?

 It is used in power switching devices.

 It is also used in power amplifiers.

PART - B (16 Marks Questions)

Anna University Questions:

Intrinsic semiconductor
1. Obtain an expression for intrinsic carrier concentration in
an intrinsic semiconductor. (AU May 2014)
2. Derive an expression for the density of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor. (AU July, Dec. 2015)
3. Derive an expression for concentration of holes (absence of
electrons) in intrinsic semiconductors. (AU Nov/Dec 2013)
4. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of
electrons in an intrinsic semiconductor. (AU May/June 2014)
5. Assuming the Fermi - Dirac distribution derive an
expression for the concentration of electrons per unit volume
in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.
(AU April/May 2014; Nov/Dec 2015)

Extrinsic semiconductors
6. Derive the relation for carrier concentration in N - type
semiconductor. (AU Dec 2014)
7. Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the
conduction band of an n - type and density of holes in the
valence band of a p - type extrinsic semiconductor.
(AU Dec 2015)
Semiconductor Physics 2.103

8. Obtain an expression for the density of electrons in the

conduction band of an n - type semiconductors and show
that it is proportional to the square root of the donor
concentration at low temperatures. Also state what happens
at high temperatures. (AU Nov/Dec 2013)
9. Obtain an expression for the density of holes in the valence
band of p - type semiconductors and show that it is
proportional to the square root of the acceptor concentration
at low temperatures. (AU April/May 2012)

Hall Effect
10. (i) Give the theory of Hall effect.
(ii) Using that effect how will you determine the electrical
conductivity of a semiconductor. (AU Oct 2014)
11. (i) What is Hall effect? Derive an expression of Hall
coefficient.
(ii) Describe an experimental set-up for the measurement
of the Hall voltage and give its applications.
(AU July 2015)
12. (i) What is Hall effect? Show that for a p - type
semiconductor the Hall coefficient RH is given by 1/pe.

(ii) Mention the applications of Hall effect. (AU Dec 2016)

13. What is Hall effect? Give the theory of Hall effect. Describe
the Hall effect experiment to determine the Hall coefficient
of semiconductor. (AU Dec 2013)
14. (i) Obtain expression for Hall coefficient.
(ii) How will you measure Hall coefficient experimentally?
(iii) Describe any two applications of Hall effect.
(AU May 2014)
15. (i) Explain Hall effect in p-type and n-type semiconductors.
(ii) Derive an expression for Hall coefficient.
(iii) Describe the experimental setup for the measurement
of Hall coefficient. (AU, Dec 2016)
2.104 Physics for Electronics Engineering

16. What is Hall effect? Derive an expression for Hall

coefficient. Describe an experiment for the measurement of
the Hall coefficient and mention its applications.
(AU, May / June 2016)
17. (i) Explain the phenomenon of Hall effect.
(ii) Derive an expression for Hall coefficient for a n - type
semiconductor and for p - type semiconductor. Also
state how Hall voltage is related.
(AU, May / June 2014)

Additional PART - B (16 Marks Questions)

1. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity of intrinsic

semiconductor.
2. Write down expression for drift current and diffusion
currents. Derive Einstein’s relation.
3. Explain working of any two Hall devices.

4. Explain zener and avalanche breakdowns in PN junction.

5. Describe construction and working of scholtty diode.

6. Write a note on ohmic contact.
7. Describe the construction and working of tunnel diode.
8. Explain principle and working metal oxide semiconductor
capacitor.
9. Describe the construction and working of power transistor.

ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS

1. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the effective mass of the

electron is 0.07 mo and that of the hole is 0.4 mo where
mo is the rest mass of the electron. Calculate the intrinsic
concentration of charge carriers at 300 K. Given
Eg  0.7 eV.
[Ans: 2.3  10 18 / m3]
Semiconductor Physics 2.105

2. In a Hall experiment, a current of 25 A is passed through

a long foil of silver which is 0.1 mm thick and 3 cm wide.
2
A magnetic field of flux density 0.14 Wb/m is applied
perpendicular to the foil. Calculate Hall voltage developed
and estimate the mobility of electrons in silver. Given the
7 1 1
conductivity of silver is 6.8  10  m and Hall
 11 3
coefficient is  8.4  10 m /C.
[Ans: 29.4 V and e  57.7  10  4 m 2 V  1 s 1]
2.106 Physics for Electronics Engineering
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.1

3. (a) Magnetic Properties

of Materials

Magnetism in materials - magnetic field and induction -

magnetization - magnetic permeability and susceptibility
- types of magnetic materials - microscopic classification
of magnetic materials - Ferromagnetism: origin and
exchange interaction - saturation magnetization and
Curie temperature - Domain Theory.

Introduction

A very large number of modern devices depend upon

magnetic properties of materials for their working. For example,
the speakers, electrical power generators, electrical machines,
transformers, television, data storage devices like magnetic tapes
and disks, magnetic compass etc.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scan is an

important non-invasive diagnostic tool used in the
medical field.

An understanding the origin of magnetism and the

behaviour of magnetic materials will be helpful not only in the
selection of suitable materials for a particular application but
also in proper utilization of such devices.

Further, it is highly useful in designing new applications

of these materials.

3.1 MAGNETISM IN MATERIALS

It arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of

the magnetic materials. When an electron revolves around the
positive nucleus, orbital magnetic moment arises. Similarly when
the electron spins, spin magnetic moment arises.
3.2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Materials which can be magnetised by an external

magnetic field are called magnetic materials.

The space around the magnet or the current

carrying conductor where the magnetic effect is felt is
called magnetic field.

Magnetic line of force is a continuous curve in a

magnetic field as shown in fig. 3.1. The tangent at any point
of this curve gives the direction of resultant intensity at that point.

Fig. 3.1 Magnetic field

All the molecules of a material contain electrons rotating

around the nucleus. These orbits are equivalent to circulating
currents. So they produce a magnetic motive force (m.m.f). m.m.f.
is a force which produces the magnetic effect.

In most of the molecules, each m.m.f due to an individual

orbit is neutralised by an opposite one. But, in the magnetic
materials like iron and steel, there are number of unneutralised
orbits. Then, the resultant axis of m.m.f produces a magnetic
dipole.

In unmagnetised specimens, the molecular m.m.f axes lie

along continuous closed paths. Therefore, no external magnetic
effect can be found.
In magnetic specimens, the magnetic dipoles will line up
parallel with the exciting m.m.f.

When the exciting m.m.f. is removed, the magnetic dipoles

may remain aligned in the direction of the external field. Thus,
it produces permanent magnetism.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.3

Basic Definitions
To understand the magnetic properties of materials in
detail, we must study the basic terms and definitions involved
in magnetism.

Magnetic flux 

Total number of magnetic lines of force passing
through a surface is known as magnetic flux.

It is represented by symbol  and its unit is weber (Wb).

3.2 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY (or) MAGNETIC

INDUCTION B 

Magnetic flux density at any point in a magnetic

field is defined as the magnetic flux  passing normally
through unit area of cross section  A  at that point.

It is denoted by the symbol ‘B’ and its unit is

2 2
weber  metre Wb / m  or tesla  T .

Magnetic flux density is given by

 2
B  weber / metre or tesla T.
A

It is also called magnetic induction

3.3 INTENSITY OF MAGNETISATION I 

The term magnetisation means the process of

converting a non - magnetic material into a magnetic
material.

When an external magnetic field is applied to the metals

such as iron, steel, some alloys etc, they are magnetised to
different degrees.
3.4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The intensity of magnetisation I is the measure of

magnetisation of magnetised specimen.

It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit

volume of the material.

M 2
i.e., I  weber / metre
V

where M  Magnetic moment of the substance

V  Volume of the specimen

3.4 MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY (or) STRENGTH H

Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field

is the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.

It is denoted by ‘H’ and its unit is newton per weber

N / Wb or ampere turns per metre A / m.

3.5 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY 

Magnetic permeability of a substance measures the degree

to which the magnetic field can penetrate through the substance.

It is found that magnetic flux density B is directly

proportional to the magnetic field strength H

B  H

B  H

where  is a constant of proportionality.

It is known as permeability or absolute permeability of the

medium

B
 
H
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.5

Thus, the permeability of a substance is the ratio of

magnetic flux density  B  inside the substance to magnetic field
intensity  H .

Absolute permeability of a medium or a material is

also defined as the product of permeability of a free space
 o  and the relative permeability of the medium  r 

i.e.,   o  r

Unit of permeability is henry / m (or) H / m

Relative Permeability r of a Medium

Relative permeability of a medium is defined as the

ratio between absolute permeability of a medium    to
permeability of a free space  o 


r 
o

Thus, the relative permeability is purely a number and it

has no unit. For air and non - magnetic material, its value is ‘1’.

3.6 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY   

Magnetic susceptibility    of a specimen is a

measure of how easily a specimen can be magnetised in
a magnetic field.

It is defined as the intensity of magnetisation

produced in the substance per unit magnetic field
strength  H .

I
 
H
3.6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

It is a dimensionless quantity because both I and H have

same units.

Magnetic induction in a given magnetic material for the

applied field strength ‘H’ is given by

B  o  H  I 

 I 
B  oH  1  
 H 
B
 o 1   ...(1)
H
I
. . .  
H

But, we know that

B
   o r ...(2)
H
. .
 .   o r 

From the eqns (1) and (2), we have

o r  o 1  

r  1  

  r  1

3.7 MICROSCOPIC CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC

MATERIALS
Magnetic materials are classified into two categories based
on existence of dipole moment and the response of magnetic
material to external magnetic fields namely,

(i) Diamagnetic materials - no permanent magnetic moment.

(ii) Paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic
and ferrimagnetic materials - having permanent
magnetic moment.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.7

Generally, diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are

known as non-magnetic materials, due to poor response to an
external magnetic field.
The ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials are known as magnetic materials. These materials
strongly respond to an external magnetic field.

Diamagnetism

Diamagnetism is exhibited by all the materials.

The atoms in diamagnetic materials do not possess

permanent magnetic moments.

However, when the diamagnetic material is placed in an

external magnetic field, the electrons in the atomic orbits tend
to counteract the external magnetic field. Hence, the atoms
acquire an induced magnetic moment.

As a result, the material becomes magnetised.

The direction of the induced dipole moment is opposite to that
of externally applied magnetic field.

Due to this effect, the material is very weakly repelled in

magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as diamagnetism.
3.8 Physics for Electronics Engineering

We can understand diamagnetism by the schematic

illustration in fig 3.2 (a) and (b).

When the magnetic field H is zero, the atoms possess zero

magnetic moment (fig 3.2 (a)).

When a magnetic field Ho is applied in the direction shown

(fig 3.2 (b)), the atoms acquire an induced magnetic moment in
the direction opposite to that of the magnetic field.

Fig. 3.2
(a) Diamagnetic material. The atoms do not possess magnetic
moment.

(b) When a magnetic field Ho is applied, the atoms acquire

induced magnetic moment in the direction opposite to the
applied field resulting in negative susceptibility

The strength of the induced magnetic moment is proportional

to the applied field and hence the magnetisation of the material
varies directly with the strength of the magnetic field.

The induced dipoles and magnetization vanish as soon as

the applied magnetic field is removed.

The susceptibility of the diamagnetic material is negative.

Due to this, the material is weakly repelled in the magnetic field.

Diamagnetic materials
The materials which exhibit diamagnetism are called
diamagnetic materials.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.9

Properties
(i) The diamagnetic materials repel the magnetic lines of
force. The behaviour of a perfect diamagnetic materials
in the presence of the magnetic field is shown in
fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Behaviour of diamagnetic material

in a magnetic field

(ii) There is no permanent dipole moment. Therefore, the

magnetic effects are very small in these materials.
(iii) The magnetic susceptibility is negative and it does not
depend on temperature and applied magnetic field
strength.
Example: Gold, germanium and silicon.

Paramagnetism
In certain materials, each atom or molecule possesses a net
permanent magnetic moment (due to orbital and spin magnetic
moments) even in the absence of an external magnetic field.
The magnetic moments are randomly oriented in the
absence of an external magnetic field as shown in fig. 3.4(a).
This makes the net magnetic moment zero and hence the
magnetisation of the material is zero.
But, when an external magnetic field is applied, the
magnetic dipoles tend to align themselves in the direction of
the magnetic field as shown in fig. 3.4(b) and the material
becomes magnetized.
3.10 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This effect is known as paramagnetism.

With an increase in temperature, increase in thermal

agitation disturbs the alignment of the magnetic moments.

It tends to randomize the dipole direction thus leading to

decrease in magnetization.

Fig. 3.4 Paramagnetic material.

(a) Each atom possesses a permanent magnetic moment.

When H = 0, all the magnetic moments are randomly
oriented so M = 0.
(b) When a magnetic field H0 is applied, the magnetic
moments tend to orient themselves in the direction of
the field, resulting in positive susceptibilty

This indicates that the paramagnetic susceptibility

decreases with increase in temperature. It is noted that the
paramagnetic susceptibility varies inversely with temperature.

1
 
T

C
 
T
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.11

This is known as the Curie’s law of paramagnetism.

C is a constant which is called as Curie’s constant.

Paramagnetic materials
The magnetic materials which exhibit paramagnetism
are called as paramagnetic material.

Properties
(i) The paramagnetic materials attract the magnetic lines
of force.
(ii) They possess permanent dipole moments.
(iii) The value of susceptibility is positive and it depends
on temperature. It is given by
C
 
T

(iv) The spin alignment is shown in fig 3.5.

Fig 3.5 Dipole alignment for paramagnetic materials

Example: Manganous sulphate, ferric oxide,

ferrous sulphate and nickel sulphate

3.8 FERROMAGNETISM

Certain metals like iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni) and
certain alloys exhibit high degree of magnetisation.
These materials show the spontaneous magnetization
i.e., they have magnetisation (atomic magnetic moments are
aligned) even in the absence of an external magnetic field.
This indicates that there is a strong internal field within
the material which makes the atomic magnetic moments align
with each other.
This phenomenon is known as ferromagnetism.
3.12 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3.9 ORIGIN OF FERROMAGNETISM AND EXCHANGE

INTERACTION
The ferromagnetic property is exhibited by transition elements
such as iron, cobalt, and nickel at room temperature and rare earth
elements like gadolinium and dysprosium.
The ferromagnetic materials possess parallel alignment of
dipoles. This parallel alignment of dipoles is not due to the
magnetic force existing between any two dipoles. The reason is
that the magnetic potential energy is very small and it is smaller
than thermal energy.
2 2 6 2
The electronic configuration of iron is 1s , 2s , 2p , 3s ,
6 6 2
3p , 3d , 4s . For iron, the 3d subshell is an unfilled one. This
3d subshell have five orbitals.
For iron, the six electrons present in the 3d subshell occupy
the orbitals such that there are four unpaired electrons and two
paired electrons as shown in figure 3.5.
These four unpaired electrons contribute a magnetic
moment of 4. This arrangement shows the parallel alignment
of four unpaired electrons.

Fig. 3.5 Orientation of electrons spins

in 3d subshell in iron atom

The parallel alignment of dipoles in iron is not due to the

magnetic interaction. It is due to the Pauli’s exclusion principle
and electrostatic interaction energy.

The Pauli’s exclusion principle and electrostatic

interaction energy are combined together and constitute
a new kind of interaction known as exchange interaction.
The exchange interaction is a quantum mechanical
concept.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.13

The exchange interaction between any two atoms depends

upon the interatomic separation between the two interacting
atoms and the relative spins of the two outer electrons. The
exchange interaction between any two atoms is given by

Eex   Je S1 S2

where Je is the numerical value of the exchange integral,

S1 and S2 are the spin angular momenta of the first and second
electrons.
The exchage integral value is negative for a number of
elements. Therefore, the exchange energy value is negative
(minimum energy configuration) when the spin angular
momentum S1 and S2 are opposite direction.
Hence, antiparallel alignment of dipole is favoured. This
explains the antiparallel alignment of dipoles in
antiferromagnetic materials.
In some materials like iron, cobalt and nickel the exchange
integral value is positive. The exchange energy is negative when
the spin angular momentum is in the same direction. This will
produce a parallel alignment of dipoles.
A plot between the exchange integral and the ratio of the
interatomic separation to the radius of 3d orbital r/rd is shown
in figure 3.6.

r
Fig. 3.6 Exchange integral as a function of
rd
3.14 Physics for Electronics Engineering

For the transition metals like iron, cobalt, nickel and

gadolinium the exchange integral is positive, whereas for
manganese and chromium the exchange integral is negative.
The positive value of the exchange integral represents the
material is ferromagnetic and the negative exchange integral
value represents the material is antiferromagnetic.
In general, if the ratio, r/rd  3, the material is
ferromagnetic, otherwise the material is antiferromagnetic. It
should be noted that manganese is suitably alloyed so that
r/rd  3, then it will become ferromagnetic.

3.10 SATURATION MAGNETIZATION AND CURIE

TEMPERATURE

Definition

The maximum magnetization in a ferromagnet when

all the atomic magnetic moments are aligned is called the
saturation magnetization Msat.

When temperature is increased, lattice vibrations become

more energetic which leads to a disruption of the alignments of
the spins. The spins cannot align perfectly with each other.

The lattice vibration may be sufficient to disorientate the

spin of the atom.

The ferromagnetic behaviour disappears at a critical

temperature called the Curie temperature, denoted by TC. At
this temperature the thermal energy of lattice vibrations in the
crystal can overcome the potential energy of the exchange
interaction and hence destroy the spin alignments.

Above the Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic materials

behaves like paramagnetic.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.15

The saturation magnetization Msat therefore decreases from

its maximum value Msat 0 at absolute zero temperature to zero
at the Curie temperature.

Figure 3.7 shows the dependence of Msat on the

temperature when Msat is normalized to Msat 0 and temperature
is the reduced temperature, that is T/TC. at
T/TC  1, Msat  0.

Fig. 3.7 Normalized saturated magnetization versus reduced

temperature T / TC where TC is Curie temperature
(1043 K).

Since at the Curie temperature, the thermal energy kTC,

is sufficient to overcome the exchange energy Eex then

Eex  k Tc

The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials is

very large.

The Curie temperature Tc depends on the substance and

it is well above the room temperature.
3.16 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material is given by

Curie-Weiss law:
C
Magnetic susceptibility, 
T  Tc

Where C is the Curie constant.

Table 3.1 gives Tc values along with the saturation

magnetization for certain ferromagnetic substances.

Table 3.1
Curie temperature Tc and saturation magnetization
Ms at 300 K for ferromagnetic substances

Tc Ms o Ms
Substance
K   105 JT 1 m 3 T
Iron 1043 17.1 2.15
Cobalt 1388 14.0 1.76
Nickel 627 4.85 0.61
Gadolinium* 292 20.6 2.60
CrO2 386 5.18 0.65
*For Gd, the Ms value is at 0 K.

3.11 DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

Weiss proposed the concept of domains in order to explain
the properties of ferromagnetic materials.

Principle
The group of atomic dipoles (atoms with permanent
magnetic moment) organised in tiny bounded regions in
the ferromagnetic materials are called magnetic domains.

Explanation
Ferromagnetic material contains a large number of
domains. In each domain, the magnetic moments of the atoms
are aligned in same direction.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.17

Thus, the domain is a region of the ferromagnetic material

in which all the magnetic moments are aligned to produce a
net magnetic moment in one direction only. Thus, it behaves
like a magnet with its own magnetic moment and axis.

In a demagnetized ferromagnetic material, the domains are

randomly oriented as shown in fig.3.8 (a) so that the
magnetization of the material as a whole is zero.

The boundaries separating the domains are called domain

walls. These domain walls are analogous to the grain
boundaries in a poly crystalline material.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.8
(a) Schematic illustration of magnetic domains in a
demagnetised ferromagnetic material. In each domain the
magnetic dipoles are aligned but the domains are aligned
at random so that the net magnetization is zero.
(b) Domain configuration in a magnetized body. The magnetic
moments of domains are aligned resulting in strong net
magnetization.

However, the domain walls are thicker than the grain

boundaries. Like grain growth, the domain size can also grow
due to the movement of domain walls.
When a magnetic field is applied externally to a
ferromagnetic material, the domains align themselves with field
as shown in fig.3.9(b).
3.18 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This results in a large net magnetization of the material.

Note: The domain walls are also known as Bloch walls.

Process of Domain Magnetisation

We know that in an unmagnetised specimen, the domains
are randomly oriented and the net magnetization is zero.

When the external magnetic field is applied, domains align

with the direction of field resulting in large net magnetisation
of a material.

There are two possible ways in which the domains are

aligned in the external field direction.

(a) By the motion of domain walls

Fig. 3.9 (a) shows an unmagnetised specimen in which
domains are randomly aligned.

When a small magnetic field is applied, the domains with

magnetisation direction parallel or nearly parallel to the field,
grow at the expense of others as shown in fig.3.9 (b).

This domain growth occurs due to the movement of domain

walls away from the minimum energy state.

Fig. 3.9
(a) Random domain alignment
(b) Domain wall movement
(c) Domain rotation.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.19

(b) By rotation of domains

As the magnetic field is increased to a large value (i.e.,

near saturation) further domain growth becomes impossible
through domain wall movement.

Therefore, most favourably oriented and fully grown

domains tend to rotate so as to be in complete alignment with
the field direction, as shown in fig. 3.9(c)

Origin of domains
We know that according to thermodynamics, the free
energy of a solid tends to reach a minimum. It is found that
the domain structure occurs in order to minimise the total
energy of ferromagnetic solid.

Types of Energy involved in the process of domain

growth
To study the domain structure clearly, we must know four
types of energy involved in the process of domain growth. They
are

(i) Exchange energy

(ii) Magnetostatic energy
(iii) Crystal anisotropy energy
(iv) Magnetostrictive energy

(i) Exchange energy

It is the energy associated with the quantum mechanical
coupling that aligns the individual atomic dipoles within a single
domain. It arises from interaction of electron spins. It depends
upon the interatomic distance.

Fig 3.10 (a) shows a cross section through ferromagnetic

crystal having a single domain structure established by exchange
energy with a saturation.
3.20 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(ii) Magnetostatic energy

Magnetostatic energy or magnetic potential energy is the
energy present in any ferromagnetic materials when that
material produces an external field.

This is due to the presence of resultant dipole moment in

that material even in the absence of external magnetic field.

The magnetic energy of the specimen can be reduced by

dividing the single domain into two domains as shown in
fig. 3.10 (b).

Further subdivision into N domains (fig. 3.10c), reduces the

magnetic energy to 1 / N of the magnetic energy of the material
with single domain.

A domain structure shown in fig 3.10 (d) and (e) have zero
magnetic energies due to the introduction of triangular domains
at the top and bottom of the crystal. These triangular domains
are called closure domains.

Fig. 3.10 Origin of domains

(iii) Crystal anisotropy energy

It is the energy of magnetisation which is the function of
crystal orientation.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.21

In fig. 3.11, magnetisation curves for iron with applied field

along different crystallographic directions have been drawn.

Fig. 3.11 Hard and easy directions for magnetisation

It is obvious from the figure 3.11 that much greater fields

are needed to produce magnetic saturation in [1 1 1] direction
as compared to the field required in [1 0 0] direction.

The difference in magnetic energy to produce saturation in

an easy [1 0 0] direction and hard [1 1 1] direction is called
crystal anisotropic energy.

(iv) Magnetostrictive energy

When a material is magnetised, it is found that it suffers
a change in dimensions. This phenomenon is known as
magnetostriction.

This deformation is different along different crystal directions.

So if the domains are magnetised in different directions,

they will either expand or shrink. This means that work must
be done against the elastic restoring forces.

The workdone by the magnetic field against these elastic

restoring forces is called the magneto - elastic energy or
magnetostrictive energy.

Ferromagnetic materials
The materials which exhibit the ferromagnetism are
called ferromagnetic materials.
3.22 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Properties
 All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to
the magnetic interaction between the dipoles.

 They have permanent dipole moment. They are

strongly attracted by the magnetic field.

 They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of

magnetic field. This property of ferromagnetic materials
is called as spontaneous magnetisation.

 They exhibit hysteresis (lagging of magnetisation with

applied magnetic field).

 On heating, they lose their magnetisation slowly.

 The dipole alignment is as shown in fig. 3.12

Fig. 3.12 Dipole alignment for ferromagnetic materials

 The magnetic susceptibility is very high and it depends

on temperature.

It is given by
C
  (for T  , paramagnetic behaviour
T

T  , ferromagnetic behaviour)

where C is Curie constant and  ferromagnetic Curie temperature.

Antiferromagnetism

Antiferromagnetic materials are magnetic materials

which exhibit a small positive susceptibility of the order
3 5
of 10 to 10 .
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.23

Table 3.2

Comparison of Dia, Para and Ferro-magnetic Materials

Dia-magnetic Para-magnetic Ferro-magnetic

S.No.
material material material

1. In diamagnetic In paramagnetic In Ferromagnetic,

material, there material, there there are large
are equal number are unequal number of
of electron spins number of unequal electron
which are electron spins and spins and hence
randomly oriented hence there exists there exists
and hence the net a permanent enormous amount
magnetic moment magnetic moment. of permanent
of atom is zero. magnetic moment.
2. When the When the When the
material is placed material is placed material is placed
in the magnetic in the magnetic in the magnetic
field, the field the magnetic field the magnetic
magnetic flux flux lines passes flux lines are
lines are repelled through the highly attracted
away from the material. towards material.
material.
3. The susceptibility The susceptibility The susceptibility
is negative is positive and is positive and
   ve small    ve large    ve
4. The susceptibility The susceptibility The susceptibility
is independent of varies inversely depends upon the
temperature. with the absolute temperature.
temperature.
5. Permeability is Permeability is Permeability is
less than 1. greater than 1. very much greater
than 1.
6. Examples: Examples: Examples:
Gold, antimony, Platinum, copper Iron, nickel,
bismuth, water, sulphate, cobalt, steel, etc.
hydrogen, alcohol, chromium,
germanium, aluminium,
silicon. manganese
sulphate.
3.24 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The variation of susceptibility with temperature shows a

peculiar pattern in these materials. The susceptibility increases
with increasing temperature and it reaches a maximum at a
certain temperature called Neel temperature, TN (Fig. 3.13 (a)).

With further increase in temperature, the material reaches

paramagnetic state. The material is antiferromagnetic below
TN. The transition temperature TN lies far below the room
temperature for most of the materials.
In the paramagnetic state, the variation of inverse
susceptibility 1/ with temperature is linear, as shown in
fig. 3.13(b).
The extrapolation of the paramagnetic line in fig. 3.13(b)
to 1/  0 yields a negative . Therefore, the variation of
susceptibility with temperature obeys modified Curie - Weiss law.
C C
a.f   when T  TN
T    T

where  is called paramagnetic Curie temperature and

C is Curie constant.

Fig. 3.13

(a) Variation of susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic

material crystal as a function of temperature (T)
(b) The reciprocal of susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic
material versus temperature
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.25

In antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of sub lattices

in crystal cell are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction,
so they cancel out each other. This gives net zero magnetization.

Antiferromagnetic materials
Magnetic materials exhibit antiferromagnetism are called as
antiferromagnetic materials.

The elements manganese and chromium exhibit

antiferromagnetism at room temperature. Most of the
antiferromagnetic materials are ionic compounds.
MnO, MnS, Cr2O3, NiCr are some of the compounds which
exhibit antiferromagnetism.

Properties of antiferromagnetic materials

(i) The adjacent magnetic dipoles are aligned antiparallel.
(fig 3.14)

Fig. 3.14 Dipole alignment in antiferromagnetic material

(ii) Antiferromagnetic susceptibility mainly depends on

temperature.
(iii) The magnetic susceptibility of the antiferromagnetic
material is small and positive. It is given by
C
  when T  TN
T

where TN  Neel temperature.

  T when T  TN

(iv) The magnetic susceptibility initially increases slightly

with temperature and beyond Neel temperature, it
decreases with temperature.
3.26 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Ferrimagnetism
There are some magnetic materials in which the magnetic
moments of two sub lattices are opposite in direction but not
exactly equal in magnitude (because of two different types of
ions in the lattices).

Such crystals possess spontaneous magnetization and

exhibit most of the properties of ferromagnetic materials. This
uncompensated antiferromagnetism is known as ferrimagnetism.

Ferrimagnetic materials or Ferrites

Materials exhibit ferrimagnetism are called ferrimagnetic
materials or ferrites.

Properties of ferrites
 Ferrites has net magnetic moment.
 Above Curie temperature, it becomes para - magnetic
and it behaves as ferrimagnetic material below Curie
temperature.
 The susceptibility of ferrite is very large and positive. It
depends on temperature. It is given by
C
  for T  TN
T

 Spin alignment is antiparallel of different magnitudes as

shown in fig. 3.15.

Fig. 3.15 Spin alignment of ferrites

 Mechanically, it has pure iron character.

 They have high permeability and high resistivity

 They have low eddy current loss and low hysteresis loss.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.27

Applications of ferrites
 Hard magnetic ferrites are used in the manufacture of
permanent magnets.

 Such magnets are used in super-high frequency

technology.

 Soft magnetic ferrites are used in the production of cores

for inductor coils used in telecommunication and
low-power transformers.

 Ferrites are used in magnetic films in which

demagnetization process occurs at the speed exceeding
million times/second. This technology is important for
electronics, automobiles and computer hardware
engineering.

 Ferrites are used in information storage devices such as

magnetic discs and tapes.

 Ferrite rods are used to produce ultrasonics by

magnetostriction principle.

 Ferrite rods are used in radio receiver to increase

sensitivity and selectivity.

 Since the ferrite has low hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss, it is used in two port microwave devices such as
gyrator, circulator and isolator.

3.12 TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials also are classified into two types based

on magnetisation

(i) Soft magnetic materials

(ii) Hard magnetic materials

3.28 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Soft magnetic materials

Definition
Materials which are easy to magnetise and
demagnetise are called soft magnetic materials.
These magnetic materials do not retain the alignment of
magnetic domains after the removal of the external magnetic field.

Properties of soft magnetic materials

 The soft magnetic materials can be magnetised and
demagnetised easily.

 They have high permeability.

 They have low residual magnetism.

Fig. 3.16 Hysteresis loop for soft magnetic materials

 They have low coercivity.

 They exhibit low hysteresis loss. (fig. 3.16).

 The magnetic energy stored is low.

Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.29

Examples of soft magnetic materials

 Pure or ingot iron

 Cast iron (carbon above 2.5 %)

 Carbon steel

 Silicon steel (little addition of silicon to steel)

 Manganese and nickel steel (addition of manganese

and nickel to steel)

 Permalloy: (nickel iron alloy contains Ni - 78.15%, Fe -

21% and small quantities of Cr, Co, Cu, and Mn)

 Mumetal: (nickel iron alloy Ni - 75.4%, Cu - 4%, Cr -

1.5% and the remaining iron)

 Perminar (Cobalt - nickel - iron alloys as Ni - 50%, Co

- 25% Fe - 25%)

 Soft ferrites

Applications of soft magnetic materials

 Cast iron is used in the structure of electrical machinery
and the frame work of D.C machine.

 Carbon steel has high mechanical strength is used in

making motor of turbo alternators

 Silicon steel is used for the construction of poles of

motor and dynamo and core plates of transformer.

 Manganese and nickel steel is used for making-cable

boxes, meter cases and end rings of turbo-alternators.

 Permalloy is used as thin tape wrapped around the

conductors of loaded submarine cables.

 Mumetal is used for making cores of transformers.

 Perminar is used in armatures of motors, transformer

cores etc.
3.30 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Hard Magnetic Materials

Definition
Materials which retain their magnetism and are
difficult to demagnetise are called hard magnetic materials.

These magnetic materials retain the alignment of the

magnetic domains permanently even after the removal of
external magnetic field.

Properties
 The hand magnetic materials have low permeability and
strongly repel the magnetic field.

 They have high retentivity and coercivity.

 They require high magnetising force to attain magnetic

saturation.

 They have large hysteresis loop area and large energy

loss (fig. 3.17).

Fig. 3.17 Hysteresis loop for hard magnetic materials

 The value of B - H product is high.

Examples of Hard magnetic materials

 Tungsten steel: It contains 4.5 to 6% tungsten, 0.5 to
0.7% carbon and the remaining is iron.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.31

 Cobalt steel: It contains 34% cobalt, 5% chromium, 3.5

to 6% tungsten and remaining is iron.

 Alini: It contains 10 - 15% aluminium,

25 - 30% nickel and 65 - 75% iron.

 Alnico: It contains 18% nickel, 10% aluminium, 5%

copper, 15% cobalt and remaining is iron.

 Cunife: It contains 50% copper, 30% nickel and 20% iron.

 Hypernic: It contains 50% nickel and 50% iron.

Applications of hard magnetic materials

 Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets
for dynamos and motors.
 Cobalt steel is used in motors, fans and heavy duty
instruments.
 Alini is used in the design of portable and light weight
instruments.
 Alnico is used for the production of permanent magnets
in smaller size.
 Cunife is useful in producing small size magnets.

Energy Product
The product of retentivity Br and coercivity Hc is known
as energy product. It represents the maximum amount of energy
stored in the specimen.

Therefore, for permanent magnets the value of energy

product should be very high as shown in fig. 3.18.

Fig. 3.18
3.32 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Table 3.3
Differences between Soft and Hard magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

1. They can be easily magnetised They cannot be easily

and demagnestised. magnetised and demagnetised.

2. They have high They have low permeability.

permeability.

3. Magnetic energy stored is Magnetic energy stored is

low. high.

4. Low hysteresis losses due to Large hysteresis losses due to

small hysteresis loop area. large hysteresis loop area.

5. Coercivity and retentivity are Coercivity and retentivity are

small. large.

6. The eddy current loss is The eddy current loss is more

small due to its high due to its small resistivity.
resistivity.

7. The domain walls are easy to The domain walls are hard to
move. move.

8. Examples: Iron silicon alloy, Examples: Tungsten steel,

Nickel iron alloy, silicon Cobalt steel, Alini, Alnico
steels and ferrites. and Cunife.

9. They are used in temporary They are used in permanent

magnets electric motor, magnets loud speakers and
generators, transformers, electrical measuring
relays, telephone receivers, instruments.
radar and Sonar equipments.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.33

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 3.1
6
The magnetic field strength of copper is 10
ampere / metre. If the magnetic susceptibility of copper
5
is  0.8  10 , calculate the magnetic flux density and
magnentisation in copper. (A.U. May 2014)

Given data
6 1
Magnetic field strength H  10 Am
5
Magnetic susceptibility of copper    0.8  10

Solution
I
We know that  
H

I  H

5 6
  0.8  10  10

1
Magnetisation in copper I   8 Am

5
r  1    1   0.8  10 

5
 1  0.8  10

r  0.999

 H

 r o H

7 6
 0.999  4  10  10
7 6
B  0.999  4  3.14  10  10
2
Magnetic flux density B  1.26 wb m
3.34 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Problem 3.2
A magnetic field of 1800 ampere / metre produces a
5
magnetic flux of 3  10 weber in an iron bar of cross
2
sectional area 0.2 cm . Calculate magnetic permeability.
(A.U. May 2015)

Given data

1
Magnetizing field H  1800 Am

5
Magnetic flux   3  10 weber

2 4 2
Area of cross section A  0.2 cm  0.2  10 m

Solution


Magnetic flux density B 
A

Substituting the given values, we have

5
3  10
B 4
0.2  10

2
B  1.5 weber / metre

B
Magnetic permeability ‘’ 
H

1.5
 
1800

4 1
Magnetic permeability   8.333  10 Hm
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.35

Problem 3.3
The saturation magnetic induction of nickel is 0.65
2 3
weber / metre . If the density of nickel is 8906 kg / m and
atomic weight is 58.7, calculate the magnetic moment of
the nickel atom in Bohr magneton. (A.U. Dec 2016)

Given data

2
Magnetic induction of nickel B  0.65 wb m

3
Density of Nickel   8906 kg m

Atomic weight M  58.7

7 1
o  4  10 Hm

26
Avagadro’s number N  6.023  10

Solution

We know that B  N o m

N
N 
M

3
N is the number of atoms per unit volume (atoms / m )

Substituting the given values, we have

26
8906  6.023  10
N 
58.7

28 3
N  9.14  10 atoms / m

B . .
m  [ . B  N o m ]
No
3.36 Physics for Electronics Engineering

0.65
m  28 7
9.14  10  4  10

 24 2
m  5.66  10 Am

We know that 1 Bohr magneton

 24 2
 9.27  10 Am

 24
5.66  10
m   24
9.27  10

m  0.61 Bohr magneton.

Problem 3.4

A paramagnetic material has bcc structure with a cube

edge of 2.5 Å. If the saturation value of magnetisation
6
is 1.8  10 ampere / metre. Calculate the average
magnetisation contributed per atom in Bohr magneton.
(A.U. Dec. 2016)

Given data

 10
Interatomic distance a  2.5 Å  2.5  10 m

6 1
Magnetisation M  1.8  10 Am

 19
Electronic charge ‘e’  1.6  10 coulomb

 34
Planck’s constant h  6.625  10 Js
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.37

Solution

Number of atoms per unit volume

No. of atoms in an unit cell

 3
volume of the unit cell a 

2 29 3
  10 3
 1.28  10 m
2.5  10 

6 1
Total magnetisation M  1.8  10 Am

Average magnetisation produced per atom

6
1.8  10  23 1
 29  1.406  10 Am
1.28  10

eh
Bohr magneton B 
4m

 19  34
1.6  10  6.625  10
B   31
4  3.14  9.1  10

 24 2
 9.27  10 Am

Average magnetisation   23
 1.4065  10
produced per atom    24
in Bohr magneton  9.27  10

 1.52 Bohr magneton

3.38 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

ANNA UNIVERSITY Q&A

1. On the basis of spin how the materials are classified

as para, ferro, antiferro and ferri magnetic.
(A.U. May 2012)

 Paramagnetic materials have few unpaired electron spins

of equal magnitudes.

 Ferro magnetic materials have many unpaired electron

spins with equal magnitudes.

 Anti ferro magnetic materials have equal magnitude of

spins but in antiparallel manner.

 Ferrimagnetic materials have spins in antiparallel

manner but with unequal magnitudes.

2. What is Curie constant? or What is Curie law?

(A.U. May 2008)

It is found that susceptibility  is inversely proportional

to the temperature T

1
 
T
C
 
T
where C is constant and it is known as Curie constant. This
relation is known as Curie law.

3. State Curie - Weiss law and its importance.

(A.U. May 2010)

Curie - Weiss law is given by

C
x 
T
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.39

where C  Curie constant

T  Absolute temperature

  Curie temperature

Importance: It determines the susceptibility of the magnetic

materials in terms of temperatures ie., If the temperature is
less than curie temperature, a paramagnetic material becomes
diamagnetic.

If the temperature is greater than Curie Temperature, a

ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material.

4. What is ferromagnetism? (A.U. May 2010)

Certain materials like Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni)

and certain alloys exhibit spontaneous magnetization i.e., they
have a small amount of magnetisation (atomic moments are
aligned) even in the absence of an external magnetic field.

This phenomenon is known as ferromagnetism.

5. What are ferromagnetic materials? (A.U. Jan 2008)

The materials which exhibit ferromagnetism are called as

ferromagnetic materials.

6. What are the properties of ferromagnetic materials?

(A.U. June 2011)

 All the dipoles are aligned parallel to each other due to

the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles.

 They have permanent dipole moment. They attract the

magnetic field strongly.

 They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of

magnetic field. This property of ferromagnetic materials
is called as spontaneous magnetisation.
3.40 Physics for Electronics Engineering

7. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?

(A.U. Dec 2009, Jan 2012)

According to domain theory, a specimen of ferromagnetic

material consists of a number of regions or domains which are
spontaneously magnetized due to parallel alignment of all
magnetic dipoles. The direction of spontaneous magnetisation
varies from domain to domain.

8. Mention the energies involved in origin of domains

in ferromagnetic material. (A.U. June 2009, May 2011)

(i) Magnetostatic energy (ii) Crystalline energy

(iii) Domain wall energy (iv) Magnetostriction energy.

9. What is antiferromagnetism? (A.U. June 2010, Jan 2013)

In anti-ferromagnetism, electron spin of neighbouring

atoms are aligned antiparallel. Anti-ferromagnetic susceptibility
is small and positive and it depends greatly on temperature.

10. State the applications of ferrites. (A.U. Dec. 2011)

 They are used in transformer cores for high frequencies

upto microwaves.

 They are used in radio receivers to increase the

sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.

 Ferrites are used in digital computers and data processing

circuits as magnetic storage elements.

 They are used as an isolator, gyrator and circulator

which are used in microwave devices.

11. What are soft - magnetic materials? (A.U. Dec 2009)

Materials which are easy to magnetise and demagnetise

are called soft magnetic materials.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.41

12. State the properties of soft magnetic material.

(A.U. Dec 2010)

 They have high permeability.

 They have low coercive force.

 They have low hysteresis loss.

13. Mention few soft magnetic materials and their

applications. (A.U. Jan 2012)

Soft magnetic materials:

(i) Pure or ingot iron
(ii) Cast iron (carbon above 2.5%)
(iii) Carbon steel

Applications:
 Cast iron is used in the structure of electrical machinery
and frame work of d.c.machine.

 Carbon steel has high mechanical strength used in

making motor of turbo alternators.

14. What are hard magnetic materials? (A.U. June 2010)

Materials which retain their magnetism and are difficult

to demagnetise are called hard magnetic materials.

15. State the properties of hard magnetic materials.

(A.U. May 2013)

 They possess high value of B-H product

 They have high retentivity

 They have high coercivity

 They have low permeability.

3.42 Physics for Electronics Engineering

16. Mention few hard magnetic materials and their

application. (A.U. May 2008)

 Tungsten steel contains 4.5 to 6% tungsten, 0.5 to 0.7%

carbon and the remaining is iron.
 Cobalt steel contains 34% cobalt, 5% chromium 3.5 to 6%
tungsten and remaining is iron.
Applications:
 Tungsten steel is used in making permanent magnets
for dynamos, motor.
 Cobalt steel is used in motor, fans and heavy duty
instruments.
17. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials.
(A.U. April 2008, Jan 2009)

S.
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
No
1. Magnetic materials can be Magnetic materials cannot be
easily magnetised and easily magnetised and
demagnetised demagnetised.
2. They have high permeability They have low permeability.
3. Magnetic energy stored is Magnetic energy stored is
low. high.
4. Low hysteresis loss due to High hysteresis loss due to
small hysteresis loop area. large hysteresis loop area.

18. What are ferrimagnetic materials. (A.U. Dec 2011)

Materials which exhibit ferrimagnetism are called

ferrimagnetic materials. They are also known as ferrites.
19. Mention the properties of ferrimagnetic materials.
(A.U. June 2013)

(i) These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal

number of opposite spins with different magnitudes
such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in
antiparallel manner.
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.43

(ii) Susceptibility is positive and very large for these

materials.
20. Why ferrites are advantageous for use as transformer
cores?
(A.U. Dec 2010)

Ferrites are used as transformer cores for frequencies upto

microwaves. This is because the eddy current which prevents
the penetration of magnetic flux into the material is very much
less in ferrites than in iron.

21. What is saturation magnetisation?

The maximum magnetisation in a ferromagnet when all

the atomic magnetic moments are aligned is called saturation
magnetization.

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

5
1. A magnetic field strength of 2  10 amperes / metre
is applied to a paramagnetic material with a
relative permeability of 1.01. Calculate the values
of B and M [A.U. May 2015]

Given data
5
Magnetic field strength H  2  10 A/m
Relativepermeabilityr  1.01

Solution

M
We know that  r  1
H
M  H r  1
3.44 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Substituting the given values, we have

5
 2  10 1.01  1

3
M  2  10

B  o M  H

7 3 5
 4  10 2  10  2  10 

7 5 5
 4  10 0.02  10  2  10 

7 5
 4  10 2.02  10 

2
B  0.2537 Wbm

2. Magnetic field intensity of a paramagnetic material

4
is 10 ampere / metre. At room temperature its
3
susceptibility is 3.7  10 . Calculate the
magnetization of the material. [A.U. Dec 2014]

Given data

4
Magnetic field intensity H  10 ampere / metre

3
Susceptibility   3.7  10

Magnetization of the material  ?

Solution

We know that Magnetization   H

Substituting the given values, we have

3 4
 3.7  10  10

M  37 ampere / metre
Magnetic Properties of Materials 3.45

Part - B ‘16’ Marks Questions

1. Discuss the domain theory of ferromagnetism.

(A.U. June 2009)

2. Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials.

(A.U Dec. 2009, June 2011)

3. Describe the ferromagnetic domain theory in detail.

(A.U May 2009)

4. Explain domain theory of ferromagnetism.

(A.U Dec. 2009, Dec 2012)

5. Differentiate a soft magnetic material from a hard magnetic

material.
6. Discuss the origin of ferromagnetism and exchange
interaction.
3.46 Physics for Electronics Engineering

. .
[ .   ro]
. . 7
[ . o  4  10 henry]

Fig 3.2 (a) Electron spins Fig. 3.2 (b) Electron spin
around its own axis produces magnetic lines
of force
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.47

3. (b) Dielectric Properties

of Materials

Dielectric materials: Polarization processes - dielectric

loss - internal field - Clausius - Mosotti relation -
dielectric breakdown - high-k dielectrics.

Introduction
Dielectric materials are electrically non - conducting
materials such as glass, ebonite, mica, rubber, wood and paper.
All the dielectric materials are insulating materials. The
difference between a dielectric and an insulator lies in its
applications.

If the main function of non - conducting materials is to

provide electrical insulation, then they are called as insulators.
On the otherhand, if the main function of non-conducting
materials is to store electrical charges, then they are called as
dielectrics.

Therefore, the study of dielectrics is similar to the

study of insulators.

General properties of Dielectric materials

 Generally, the dielectrics are non - metallic materials of
high resistivity.

 All the electrons in the dielectrics are tightly bound to

their parent nucleus.

 As there are no free electrons to carry the current, the

electrical conductivity of dielectrics is very low.

 They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance

and high insulation resistance.
3.48 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 They have a very large energy gap (more than 3 eV)

(fig. 3.19).

Fig. 3.19 Energy band for a dielectric material

Basic Definitions
'NGEVTKE FKRQNG
A system consisting of two equal and opposite charges
q,  q separated by a distance  d  is called an electric dipole
(fig. 3.20).

Fig. 3.20 Electric dipole

Dipole moment 

The product of the magnitude of the charge q and
distance between two charges  d  is called as dipole moment.

i.e., Dipole moment   qd

Its unit is coulomb - metre (Cm).

Permittivity 
The permittivity denotes the dielectric property of a
medium. It indicates easily polarisable nature of the material.
1
Its unit is farad metre .
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.49

Example:
Permittivity of vacuum or free space,

 12 1
o  8.854  10 Fm

Dielectric constant r 

Dielectric characteristics of a material is determined by its

dielectric constant. It is a measure of polarisation in dielectrics.

Definition
It is the ratio of absolute permittivity of the medium
 and permittivity of free space  o .

Absolute Permittivity 

Dielectric constant r 
Permittivity of free space o


r 
o

Since dielectric constant is the ratio of same quantity, it

is a dimensionless quantity and it has no unit.

The value of r  1 for air or vacuum. Dielectric constant

is also called as relative permittivity.

Polarisation
The electrical behaviour of a dielectric material can be
changed by the application of an external electrical field.

When an external electric field is applied to a dielectric,

it exerts a force on both positive and negative-charged particles
of each atom present in the dielectric material.
3.50 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The positive charges are pushed in the same direction as

that of the electrical field while negative charges are pushed in
the opposite direction. (fig. 3.21)

Fig. 3.21 Electronic polarisation

Consequently, the centres of positive and negative charges

of each atom are displaced from their equilibrium positions in
opposite directions.

This displacement of electrical charges produces local

dipoles or electrical doublet throughout the dielectric. Now, the
dielectric is said to be polarised.

Definition
The process of producing electrical dipoles inside the
dielectric by the application of an external electrical field
is called polarisation in dielectrics.

Polarisability   

It is found that the average dipole moment    of a system
is proportional to the applied electric field (E).

i.e.,   E

or   E

where  is proportionality constant and it is known as the

polarisability.


 
E
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.51

Polarisability is defined as the ratio of average

dipole moment to the electric field applied. Its unit is
2 2
farad m or F m .

Polarisation vector  P 
It is defined as the average dipole moment per unit
volume of a dielectric. If N is the number of atoms per unit
volume and  is average dipole moment per atom, then

Polarisation vector
 
PN
2
Its unit is coulomb / m

Electric displacement vector D
Since the electric field intensity depends on the medium, we
define another electric vector which depends only on magnitude
of charge and its distribution. It is independent of the nature of
medium. This electric vector is known as electric displacement

vector D.

The electric displacement vector is used for analysing

electrostatic fields in the presence of dielectrics.

 q ...(1)
It is given by D  2
4r

We know that electric field intensity,

 q
E  2
4r ...(2)

q
or E 2
4r

From equations (1) and (2), we have

 
D  E
3.52 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 
D  or E ... (3)
. .
[ .   o r]

  . .
D  o 1  e E [ . r  1  e ]

where e is electrical susceptibility.

  
D  oE  oeE

 
Since P  oeE , we have

   ... (4)
D  oE  P

Equating eqns (3) and (4), we have

  
orE  oE  P
  
P  o r E  o E

 
P  E o r  1


P
  o r  1
... (5)
E

Electrical susceptibility e

It is found that for a large number of dielectrics, the


polarisation vector P is proportional to the applied electrical

field E for field strengths that are not too large.

 
Thus, P  E

 
P  o e E ... (6)
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.53

where e is a scalar constant. It is known as electrical

susceptibility. It is a characteristic property of every dielectric.

  
P o r  1 E .. P 
e      .    
o r
 1 
o E o E  E 

e  r  1 ... (7)

3.13 POLARIZATION PROCESSES IN DIELECTRICS

Dielectric polarisation occurs due to several microscopic

mechanisms. In electric field, the macroscopic polarisation vector

P is created by the following four microscopic polarisation
mechanisms.
ii(i) Electronic polarisation
i(ii) Ionic polarisation
(iii) Orientational polarisation
(iv) Space - charge polarisation

Electronic polarisation
Electronic polarisation is due to the displacement of
positively - charged nucleus and negatively - charged electrons
of an atom in opposite directions on the application of an
electrical field. This induces dipole moment in the dielectric.

Dipole moment  is proportional to the electric field

strength E.

i.e.,   E

  eE

where e is proportionality constant and it is known as electronic

polarisability.
3.54 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Calculation of Electronic polarisability e

(i) Without electric field

Consider an atom of a dielectric material of nuclear charge
 Ze at the centre (point change), where Z is the atomic number.
The electrons of charge  Ze are distributed uniformly throughout
the atom (sphere) of radius R as shown in fig. 3.22.

Fig. 3.22 Atom without any electric field

The centres of electron cloud and positive nucleus are at

the same point and hence there is no dipole moment.

Negative charge density of atom is given by

Total negative charge Ze

  
Volume of the atom 4 3
R
3

3 Ze
 
4  R3
... (1)

(ii) With electric field

When the atom of the dielectric is placed in an electrical
field of strength E, two phenomena occur

(a) Lorentz force (due to electrical field) tends to move the

nucleus and electron cloud of that atom from their
equilibrium positions.
The positive nucleus moves towards the field direction
and the electron cloud moves in opposite direction of
the field as shown in fig.3.23.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.55

(b) After separation, an attractive

Coulomb force arises between the
nucleus and the electron cloud which
tends to maintain the original
equilibrium position.
When these two forces are equal and
opposite, there is a new equilibrium between the
nucleus and electron cloud of the atom.
Fig. 3.23
The electron cloud and the nucleus are Atom with
separated by a distance ‘x’. It results in electric field
formation of electrical dipole in the atom.
Lorentz force between 
F  Charge  electrical field
nucleus and electron  L

ZeE
... (2)

Coulomb attractive force  FC  between nucleus and

electron cloud being separated at a distance x,

Qp Qe
FC  2
4  o x ... (3)

 Total negative 
Nuclear  charges enclosed 
  
Charge Ze 
in the sphere

  of radius x 
2
4 o x

Total negative 
charges enclosed  Volume of the
in the sphere   Charge density   sphere of radius x

of radius x 

3 Ze 4 3
  3
 x  by substituting  from 
4 R 3  equation 1 
 
3.56 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3
 Zex
 3 ...(4)
R

To tal po sitive c harge o f ato m present in the sphere o f

radius x,

Qp   Ze (being a point charge)

Substituting the equation (4) in (3), we have

  Z e x3 
Ze 3 
FC   R 
2
4  o x

2 2
Z e x
i.e., FC  3
...(5)
4  o R

At equilibrium, Coulomb force and Lorentz force must be

equal and opposite.

i.e., FL   FC

Substituting for FL and FC from equation (2) and (5), we

have

 2 2
Z e x   2 2 

ZeE        Z e x 
3   3 
 4  o R   4  o R 
   
Zex
E  3
4  o R

3
4  o R E
or x  ... (6)
Ze

Due to the application of electrical field on the atom, the

charge centres are displaced from their equilibrium position and
hence the atom gains some dipole moment.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.57

From the definition of dipole moment, induced dipole

moment ind is given by

ind  Magnitude of charge  Displacement

i.e., ind  Z e x ... (7)

Substituting equation (6) in (7), we have

3
4  o R E
ind  Z e 
Ze

3
ind  4  o R E ... (8)

But, the induced dipole moment

in terms of polarisability is given by,

ind  e E ... (9)

where e is called as electronic polarisability.

On comparing the equations (8) and (9), we have

3
e  4  o R ...(10)

Conclusion

(i) Electronic polarisability is independent of temperature.

(Refer equation (10), there is no term representing
temperature)
(ii) It is proportional to the volume of atoms in the
3
material e  R .

(iii) Electronic polarisation takes place in all dielectrics.

3.58 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Ionic polarisation
Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of
cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions) in
opposite directions.
This occurs in ionic dielectrics (e.g. NaCl crystal) by the
influence of external electrical field (fig. 3.24 (a)).
When an electrical field E is applied on an ionic dielectric,
there is a shift of one ion with respect to another from their
mean positions.
The positive ions displace in the direction of applied electrical
field through the distance x1. The negative ions displace in
opposite direction through the distance x2 (fig. 3.24 (b)).

Fig. 3.24 Ionic polarisation

(a) NaCl crystal without (b) NaCl crystal with electric
electric field field

We assume that there is one cation and one anion in each

unit cell of the ionic crystal.

Hence, the net distance between two ions

x  x1  x2 ... (1)

When the ions are displaced from their mean positions in

their respective directions, then the restoring forces appear
which tend to move the ions to move back to their mean position.
The restoring force produced is proportional to the displacement.

For positive ion

Restoring force F  x1

or Restoring force acting 

on the positive ion  F  1x1
 ... (2)
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.59

For negative ion

Restoring force F  x2

or Restoring force acting 

F  2 x2
on the negative ion  ... (3)

where 1 and 2 are restoring force constants which depend upon

the masses of ions and angular frequency of vibrating molecule
in which ions are present.

If m is the mass of positive ion, M is the mass of negative

ion and o is the angular frequency, then

2
1  mo ... (4)

2
2  Mo ... (5)

Substituting for 1 from eqn (4) in eqn (2), the restoring force
for positive ion can be rewritten as

2
F  mo x1 ... (6)

We know that force F  eE ... (7)

Equating the eqn (6) and (7), we get

2
eE  mo x1

eE
or x1  2 ... (8)
mo

Similarly for the negative ion, we can write

eE
x2  2 ... (9)
Mo

Adding the equations (8) and (9), we have

3.60 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 eE eE 
x  x1  x2   2
 2 
 mo
Mo 

eE  1 1  ... (10)
 2  m
 
o  M 

The dipo le mo ment is equal to the pro duc t o f c harge and

distanc e o f separatio n betw een the c harges.

i.e.,   e  x ... (11)

Substituting x from eqn (10) in eqn (11), we have

eE  1 1 
  e  2  m

o  M 

2
e E 1 1 
 
2  m M 
... (12)
o 

But E

or   i E ... (13)

where i is ionic polarisability of dielectric material

On comparing the equations (12) and (13), we have

2
e  1 1 
i  2   
o  m M 

Conclusion
(i) Ionic polarisability i is inversely proportional to the
square of angular frequency of the ionic molecule.
(ii) It is directly proportional to its reduced mass given by
 1 1 
 m  M .
 
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.61

(iii) It is independent of temperature.

(iv) It occurs in ionic substance.

Orientational polarisation
Orientational polarisation takes place only in polar
dielectrics. Polar dielectrics have molecules with permanent
dipole moments even in the absence of an electrical field as
shown in fig. 5.7.

Fig. 3.25 Orientational polarisation

When the polar dielectrics are subjected to an electric field,

the molecular dipoles are oriented in the direction of electric
field.

The contribution to polarisation due to orientation of

molecular dipoles is called orientational polarisation.

This polarisation depends on temperature. When the

temperature is increased, thermal energy tends to disturb the
alignment.

From the Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism, net intensity

2
N B
of magnetisation  .
3kT

Sinc e the same princ iple c an be applied to the applic atio n

o f elec tric field in dielec tric s, w e may w rite
3.62 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Orientational polarisation

2
N E ... (1)
Po 
3kT

But, orientational polarisation is proportional to applied


field E and it is given by


Po  No E ... (2)

Comparing the equations (1) and (2),

2

we get o 
3 kT

where o is orientational polarisability.

Example

Orientational polarisation occurs only in polar dielectrics

such as H2O, HCl and CO etc.

Conclusion

The orientational polarisability is inversely proportional to

absolute temperature of the material.

Note
Orientational polarisation occurs only in polar dielectrics ie.,
dielectric with molecules having permanent dipoles.

Space - charge polarisation

This polarisation occurs due to the accumulation of

charges at the electrodes or at the interfaces of
multiphase dielectric materials (two or more phases).
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.63

When such materials are subjected to an electrical field at

high temperature, the charges get accumulated at the interfaces
(fig. 3.26). These charges create dipoles. As a result, polarisation
is produced. This kind of polarisation is known as space -
charge polarisation.

Fig. 3.26 Space-charge polarisation

Space - charge polarisation is very small when compared

to other polarisation mechanisms and it is not common in most
of the dielectrics.

Example
This polarisation occurs in ferrites and semiconductors.

Total polarisation eio

Since the space - charge polarisation is very small and it
is neglegible.

Substituting the corresponding expressions for e, i and

o, we have

2 2
3 e  1 1  
  4  o R  2   
o  M m 3kT

We know that total polarisation, P  N  E

Substituting for , we have

3.64 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 2
e  1 1   
2
 3
P  NE  4 o R  2   
 o  m M  3kT 
 

This equation is known as Langevin - Debye equation.

Table 3.5 Comparison of various types of

polarisation mechanisms
Space -
Electronic Ionic Orientational
Factor charge
Polarisation polarisation polarisation
polarisation

Definition Electron clouds Cations and Alignment of Ion diffusion

are shifted with anions are random takes place.
respect to shifted molecules takes
nucleus place

Temperature Independent of Independent of Decrease with Increase with

dependence temperature temperature increase in increase in
temperature temperature

Relaxation time Very fast Slow Slower Slowest

Power loss Low High Higher Highest

Frequency 1015 Hz 1013 Hz 106-1010 Hz 102 Hz

range and above

Examples Inert gases Ionic crystals Alcohol, Ferrites,

methane, semiconductors
CH3Cl

3.14 INTERNAL FIELD OR LOCAL FIELD

When a dielectric material is placed in an external

electrical field, it produces an induced dipole moment.

Now, there are electrical fields acting at any point inside

dielectrics.

(i) macroscopic electric field due to external electrical

field
(ii) electrical field due to electric dipole moment
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.65

This long-range coulomb electrical field produced

due to dipoles is known as internal field or local field.

It is responsible for polarisation of each atom or

molecule in a solid.

Lorentz method to find internal field (Derivation)

The dielectric material is uniformly polarised by placing it
in between two plates of a parallel plate capacitor (uniform
electrical field) as shown in fig. 3.27.

Fig. 3.27 Dielectric with Electrical field

To find internal field acting on an atom at C of dielectric,

let us consider an imaginary small spherical cavity around the
atom.

The internal field  Eint  at the atom site is considered

to be resultant of the following four components. E1, E2, E3 and
E4.
3.66 Physics for Electronics Engineering

i.e., Eint  E1  E2  E3  E4 ... (1)

where

E1  Electrical field due to charges on the plates of

the capacitor (without dielectric)

E2  Electrical field due to polarised charges (induced

charges) on the plane surface of the dielectric

E3  Electrical field due to polarised charges induced

on the surface of the imaginary spherical cavity
(to be calculated)

E4  Electrical field due to permanent dipoles of

atoms inside the spherical cavity considered

Macroscopically, we can take E  E1  E2, i.e., the electrical

field externally applied E1 and the electrical field induced on
the plane surface of the dielectric E2 is considered as a single
electrical field E.

If we consider a dielectric that is highly symmetric, the

electrical field due to dipoles present inside the imaginary cavity
will cancel out each other. Therefore, the electrical field due to
permanent dipoles present inside the cavity E4  0.

Now, the equation (1) reduces to

Eint  E  E3 ... (2)

Calculation of E3
Let us consider a small area ds on the surface of spherical
cavity. It is confined within an angle d at an angle  in the
direction of electrical field E.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.67

Polarisation P is parallel to E. PN is the component of

polarisation perpendicular to the area ds as shown in fig. 5.10.
PN  P cos 

q is the charge on the area ds.

Polarisation is also defined as the surface charges

per unit area.

q
PN 
ds

q
PN  P c o s  
ds

Charge on ds, q   P cos  ds ... (3)

Electrical field intensity at C due to charge q  (Coulomb’s law)

is given by

q
E  2
4  o r

Substituting for q from the eqn (3), we have

P cos  ds ... (4)

E  2
4  o r

This electrical field intensity is along the radius r and it is

resolved into two components (Ex and Ey) as shown in fig. 3.28(a).

Fig. 3.28
3.68 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The component of intensity parallel to the electrical field

direction
Ex  E c o s  ... (5)

Substituting E from eqn (4) in eqn (5), we have

P cos  ds cos 
Ex  2
4  o r

2
P cos  ds
Ex  2
... (6)
4  o r

The component of intensity perpendicular to the

field direction,
Ey  E sin 

Since the perpendicular components are in opposite

directions [fig. 3.28 (a)], they cancel out each other. Hence, the
parallel components alone are taken into consideration.
Now, consider a ring of area dA which is obtained by
revolving ds about AB [fig. 3.28 (b)].
Ring area dA  Circumference  Thickness
 2  y  r d . . y
 . sin   r 
 2  rsin   r d  
 y  r sin  
 
2
i.e., dA  2 r sin  d
2 ... (7)
Electrical field intensity  P cos  dA
 
due to elemental ring dA  4  o r
2
... (8)
Substituting eqn (7) in eqn (8), we have
2
P cos  2
E  2
 2 r sin  d
4  o r
2
P cos  sin  d ... (9)
E 
2 o
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.69

Electrical field intensity due to charges present in the

whole sphere is obtained by integrating equation (9) within the
limits 0 to . This electric field is taken as E3.


2
P c o s  sin  d
E3   2 o
0

E3 
P
2 o  2
cos  sin  d
0

P 2   
E3   . . 2
2 o 3  .  cos2 sin d 
3 

 0 
P
E3 
3 o
... (10)
Substituting eqn (10) in eqn (2), we get

P ... (11)
Eint  E 
3 o

Eint is the internal field or Lorentz field.

The equation (11) shows that Eint is larger than the

macroscopic field intensity E. Hence, the molecules are more
effectively polarised.

3.15 CLAUSIUS - MOSOTTI EQUATION

Let N be the number of molecules per unit volume and  be

the molecular polarisability.

Total polarisation P  N Eint

P ... (1)
Eint 
N
3.70 Physics for Electronics Engineering

we know that D   E  o E  P

 E  o E  P

  o E  P

P ... (2)
E 
  o

P
Lorentz field is given by Eint  E  ... (3)
3 o

Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (3), we have

P P
Eint  
  o 3 o

 1 1 
P 
  o 3 o 
 

 3 o    o 
 P 
 3 o   o 

P    2 o 
Eint    ... (4)
3 o    o 

Equating eqns (1) and (4), w e have

P P    2 o 
  
N 3 o    o 

  
 1
N   o  o
or  
3 o   2 o   
 2
 o

N r  1 ... (5)

3 o r  2
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.71

..  
where r is dielectric constant.  . r   
 o 

The equation (5) is Clausius - Mosotti relation which

relates the dielectric constant (a macroscopic quantity) of the
material with polarisability (a microscopic quantity).

3.16 DIELECTRIC LOSS

When a dielectric is applied with AC voltage, the
electrical energy is absorbed by the dielectric and certain
quantity of electrical energy is dissipated in the form of
heat energy.
This dissipation of electrical energy is known as dielectric loss.
Dielectric loss can occur in both direct and alternating
voltages. It is less in direct voltage than that of alternating voltage.

Expression for dielectric loss (or loss tangent)

When an AC voltage is applied to a perfect dielectric like
vacuum or purified gas, it does not absorb electrical energy and
there is no loss of electrical energy [fig. 3.29 (a)].

Fig. 3.29 Dielectric loss

Polarisation of the dielectric is in phase with the voltage.

In such a case, the charging current leads the applied voltage
by an angle of 90 as shown in fig 3.29 (b).

We know that power loss,

PL  V I cos 
3.72 Physics for Electronics Engineering

When   90 , PL  V I c o s90

PL  0
[... cos 90  0]
This means that there is no power loss in the perfect
dielectric.

However, a practical dielectric has always some loss of

electrical energy. In this case, the leakage current does not lead
the applied voltage exactly by 90.

The phase angle  is always less than 90 as shown in

fig. 3.29(c).

The current leads the voltage by 90  . This shows that
there is some loss in electrical energy.  is called dielectric loss
angle. This loss angle is a measure of the power dissipated in
each cycle.

The power loss in a dielectric having a capacitance C for

applied voltage V of frequency f is given by

PL  V I cos 

Since   90  , we have

PL  V I cos 90   ... (1)

PL  V I sin  . .
[ . c o s 90    sin ]
V
We know that V  IR or I 
R

Similarly, for capacitor if the capacitive reactance is Xc,

we can write

V
I  ... (2)
XC
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.73

Further, XC depends on frequency of applied a.c voltage

and capacitance. It is given by

1 ... (3)
XC 
2fC

substituting the eqn (3) in (2), we have

V
I   V2fC ... (4)
1
2fC

substituting eqn (4) in (1), we have

PL  V V 2 f C sin 

2 ... (5)
PL  2 f C V sin 

In most of the dielectrics, the angle  is very small.

 sin   tan 

2 ... (6)
Dielectric power loss PL  2 f C V tan 

It is noted that the power loss depends on tan  as long as

other factors like voltage, frequency and capacitance are constant.

tan  is called the power factor of the dielectric.

Variation of power loss with frequency

The power loss changes with frequency. Its value is high in
the electrical frequency and low in the optical frequency (fig. 3.30).

Fig. 3.30 Variation of power loss with frequency

3.74 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Factors affecting dielectric loss

Dielectric loss may increase due to the following factors.

 high frequency of the applied voltage

 high value of the applied voltage

 presence of humidity

 temperature rise

Note: Dielectric loss is an engineering problem involving

heat generation and heat dissipation. It plays a
dominant role in high - voltage applications.

3.17 DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN

When the strength of electric field applied to a dielectric
exceeds a critical value, very large current flows through it. The
dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes a conductor.
This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown.

Dielectric strength

The electric field strength at which dielectric

breakdown occurs is known as dielectric strength. It is
the breakdown voltage per unit thickness of the material.
Dielectric breakdown voltage
Dielectric strength 
Thickness of dielectric

In practical applications, the failure or breakdown of a

dielectric material is of great concern to engineers. There are
different mechanisms by which dielectric breakdown takes place.

Types of dielectric breakdown

Some important types of dielectric breakdown are

(i) Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown

(ii) Thermal breakdown
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.75

(iii) Chemical and electrochemical breakdown

(iv) Discharge breakdown
(v) Defect breakdown

(i) Intrinsic breakdown

In dielectric, the charge displacement increases with
increasing electrical field strength.

Beyond a critical value of electrical field strength, there is

an electrical breakdown due to physical deterioration in dielectric
material (fig. 3.31).

Fig. 3.31 Intrinsic breakdown

When the applied electrical field is large, some of the

electrons in the valence band cross over to the conduction band
across the large forbidden energy gap. They become conduction
electrons producing large conduction current.

As a result, a large current flows through the dielectric

and breakdown occurs. This type of breakdown is called
intrinsic breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown
The conduction electrons are accelerated to very high
velocity and energy on further application of electrical field.

These conduction electrons collide with valence electrons in

the covalent bond and they transfer their energy to valence
electron. The valence electrons on acquiring this energy, jump
from the valence band to the conduction band.

This process continues as more and more valence electrons

jump to the conduction band by breaking the covalent bond.
3.76 Physics for Electronics Engineering

As a result, a large current flows through the dielectric

and breakdown occurs. This type of breakdown is called
Avalanche breakdown.

Characteristics
 Intrinsic and avalanche breakdowns require large
electrical field.

 They occur even at low temperatures (about room

temperature and at lower temperature).

 They do not depend on the size and shape of the

dielectric material and configuration of electrodes.

 They can occur in thin samples.

 They occur within a short span of time (microseconds).

(ii) Thermal breakdown

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material,
some amount of heat is produced. This heat must be dissipated
from the material.

In some cases, the amount of heat produced is very large

as compared to the heat dissipated. Due to excess of heat, the
temperature inside the dielectric increases and may produce local
melting in the dielectric material.

During this process, a large amount of current flows

through the material and causes the dielectric to breakdown.
This type of breakdown is known as thermal breakdown.

Characteristics
 This type of breakdown occurs only at high temperatures.

 The strength of the electrical field to create dielectric

breakdown depends upon the size and shape of the
dielectric sample.

 The breakdown time is of the order of few milliseconds.

 It requires moderate electrical fields.

Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.77

(iii) Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown

Electrochemical breakdown is similar to thermal
breakdown. When the temperature of a dielectric material
increases, mobility of ions increases and hence the
electrochemical reaction may take place.

This leads to leakage current and energy loss in the

material and finally dielectric breakdown occurs.

This type of breakdown is known as chemical and

electrochemical breakdown.

Characteristics
 It occurs even at low temperatures.

 It depends on the concentration of ions and magnitude

of leakage current.

(iv) Discharge breakdown

Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains
occluded gas bubbles (fig. 3.32). When this type of dielectric is
subjected to electrical field, the gases present in the material
will easily ionise and thus produce large ionisation current.

Fig. 3.32 Discharge breakdown

The gaseous ions bombard the solid dielectric. This causes

electrical deterioration and leads to dielectric breakdown. This
is known as discharge breakdown.

Characteristics
 This breakdown occurs at low voltages.

 It occurs in the dielectric material where there are a

large number of occluded gas bubbles.
3.78 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 When discharge takes place at a point, the surrounding

places are burnt and hence their electrical properties are
affected.

Thus, the life of an insulating material depends upon the

number of discharges which are taking place inside the material.
That is, it depends upon the frequency of applied voltage.

(v) Defect breakdown

The surface of the dielectric material may have defects such
as cracks, porosity and blow holes (fig. 3.33). Impurities like dust
or moisture may present at these discontinuities (defects). This
leads to a breakdown in a dielectric material.

Fig. 3.33 Defect breakdown

Remedies for dielectric breakdown

To avoid breakdown, the insulating material should have
the following properties:

 It should have high resistivity to reduce leakage current.

 It should have high dielectric strength to withstand high

voltage.

 It should have small dielectric loss.

 It should have sufficient mechanical strength.

 It should be resistant to oils, liquids, gas fumes, acids

and alkalies.

 It should have small thermal expansion to prevent

mechanical damage.

 It should be fire-proof.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.79

Classification of dielectric materials

Dielectric materials are classified based on the physical
state as

(i) Solid dielectric materials

(ii) Liquid dielectric materials

(iii) Gaseous dielectric materials

Types of Dielectrics
Based on the applications, there are two types of dielectric
materials

(i) Active dielectrics (Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics and

pyroelectrics)
(ii) Passive dielectrics (electrical insulating materials)

Active dielectrics or Ferroelectric materials

Active dielectrics are the materials which are used to
generate, amplify, modulate and convert the electrical signals.
They are used to store electrical energy.

Passive dielectrics (Insulating materials)

The function of the insulating material is to obstruct the
flow of electric current.

Uses of dielectric materials

 Almost all electrical devices depend on insulating
materials in some way or the other. Most of the failures
in such devices may be due to defective insulation.

 Insulating materials are used in power and distribution

transformers, rotating machines, capacitors, cables,
transmission equipment, switch-gear and electronic
appliances.
3.80 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3.18 HIGH K DIELECTRICS

The term high-k dielectric refers to a material with a

high dielectric constant k. High-k dielectrics are used in
semiconductor manufacturing processes where they are usually
used to replace a silicon dioxide gate dielectric or another
dielectric layer of a device.

The using of high-k gate dielectrics is one of several

methods developed to allow further reduction of the size of the
microelectronic components.

Need for high-k materials

 Silicon dioxide SiO2 is used as a gate oxide material
for decades. As transistors have decreased in size, the
thickness of the silicon dioxide gate dielectric has steadily
decreased to increase the gate capacitance and thereby
drive current, raising device performance.

 As the thickness scales below 2 nm, leakage currents

due to tunneling increase drastically, leading to high
power consumption and reduced device reliability.

 Replacing the silicon dioxide gate dielectric with a high-k

material allows increased gate capacitance without the
associated leakage effects.

Concept of high k-dielectrics

The gate oxide in a MOSFET is made as a parallel plate
capacitor as shown in fig. 3.35. The capacitance C of this parallel
plate capacitor is given by

o k A
C
t

where
A - capacitor area
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.81

k - the relative dielectric constant of the material

(3.9 for silicon dioxide)
0 - permittivity of free space
t - thickness of the capacitor oxide insulator

Fig. 3.35 Cross-section of a N channel MOSFET transistor

showing gate oxide dielectric

The leakage current limitation constrains further reduction

of thickness t of capacitor. Thus, an alternative method to
increase gate capacitance is to alter k by replacing silicon dioxide
with a high-k material as shown in fig. 3.36.

Fig. 3.36 Conventional silicon dioxide gate dielectric structure

compared to a potential high-k dielectric structure

In such a case, a thicker gate oxide layer may be used

which can reduce the leakage current flowing through the
structure as well as improving the gate dielectric reliability.
3.82 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Table 3.6
High k Dielectrics

Material k - value
SiO2 3.9

Si3N4 7.5

Al2O3 8.5 - 10.5

Y2O3 12 - 20

Ta2O5 20 - 35

CeO2 26

La2O3 27

TiO2 30 - 100

HfO2 35

BaSrTiO3 200 - 300

Major applications of high-k materials

They have a wide range of applications other than gate
oxides. Some of their important applications are listed below:
 Storage capacitor dielectrics

 High aspect ratio diffusion barriers for Cu interconnects

 Adhesion layers

 Highly conformal coatings for micro fluidic and MEMS

applications

 Coating of nano-porous structures

 Fuel cells, e.g. single metal coating for catalyst layers

 Bio-MEMS

 Electroluminescence
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.83

ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 3.5

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two plates each of

4 2
area 5  10 m . They are separated by a distance
3
1.5  10 m and filled with a dielectric of relative
permittivity 6. Calculate the charge on the capacitor if it
is connected to a 100 volt DC supply. (A.U. Dec 2012)

Given data

4 2
Area of the capacitor plate A  5  10 m

3
Distance between the plates d  1.5  10 m

Relative permittivity of the dielectric r  6

Applied voltage V  100 V

 12 1
Permittivity in free space, o  8.85  10 Fm

Solution:

We know that Q  CV

Also, we have the relation

or A
C 
d

or AV
Q 
d

Substituting the given values, we have

 12 4
8.85  10  6  5  10  100
Q  3
1.5  10
3.84 Physics for Electronics Engineering

9
Q  1.77  10 C

9
Charge on the capacitor  1.77  10 coulomb.

Problem 3.6

If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electrical field of

1000 V/m and the resulting polarisation is
8 2
4.3  10 C  m , calculate the relative permittivity of
NaCl. (A.U. April 2012)

Given data

1
Applied electrical field E  1000 V m

8 2
Polarisation P  4.3  10 Cm

 12 1
Permittivity in free space o  8.85  10 Fm

Solution:

We know that P  o r  1 E

P
r  1 
o E

P
r  1 
o E

Substituting the given values w e have

8
4.3  10
r  1   12
8.85  10  1000

 1  4.86

r  5.86
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.85

Problem 3.7

Calculate the electronic polarisability of argon atom given

25 3
r  1.0024 at NTP and N  2.7  10 atoms  m .
(A.U. Nov 2011

Given data
Relative permittivity r  1.0024

25 3
Number of atoms per unit volume N  2.7  10 atoms m

 12 1
Permittivity in free space o  8.85  10 F m

Solution:

We know that P  o r  1 E

Also, P  N e E

N e E  o r  1 E

o r  1
i.e., e 
N

Substituting the given values, we have

 12
8.85  10  1.0024  1
e  25
2.7  10

 40 2
e  7.9  10 Fm
3.86 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Problem 3.8

The dielectric constant of He gas at NTP is 1.0000684.

Calculate the electronic polarisability of He atoms if the
25 3
gas contains 2.7  10 atoms per m (A.U. Nov 2014)

Given data
Dielectric constant of the gas at NTP r  1.0000684
25 3
Number of He atoms per unit volume N  2.7  10 m .

Solution

Electronic polarisability is given by

o r  1
e 
N

Substituting the given values, we have

 12
8.85  10 1.0000684  1
e  25
2.7  10

 41 2
 2.242  10 Fm

Problem 3.9

A parallel plate condenser has a capacitance of 2  F.

The dielectric has permittivity r = 100. For an applied
voltage of 1000 V, find the energy stored in the
condenser as well as the energy stored in polarising the
dielectric. (A.U. Dec 2016)

Given data
6
C  2  10 F

3
V  1000 V  10 V

r  100
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.87

Solution:

1 2
Total energy stored in the capacitor E  CV
2

1 6 3 2
E   2  10  10   1 J
2

To calculate the energy stored in the dielectric material

which is in between the parallel plates of the condenser,
capacitance has to be calculated by removing the dielectric
material.
6
C 2  10
Co    0.02 F
r 100

Energy stored without the dielectric,

1 2 1 6 3 2
E  Co V   0.02  10  10 
2 2

 0.01 J

Hence, energy stored in the dielectric

E   E  Eo  1  0.01

E   0.99 J
3.88 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

ANNA UNIVERSITY Q&A

1. Define dielectric constant. (A.U. Jan 2014)

It is the ratio between absolute permittivity of the medium

 and permittivity of free space 0

Absolute permittivity 

Dielectric constant r 
permittivity of free space 0


r 
o

2. Define polarisation of a dielectric material.

(A.U. June 2015)

The process of producing electrical dipoles inside the

dielectric by the application an external electrical field is called
polarisation in dielectrics.

Induced dipole moment    E

E  Applied electrical field

  Polarizability

3. Name the four polarisation mechanisms.

(A.U. May 2016)

(i) Electronic polarisation

(ii) Ionic polarisation

(iii) Orientational polarisation

(iv) Space - charge polarisation.

Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.89

4. What is electronic polarisation? (A.U. May 2016)

The induced dipole moment produced in an atom by the

application electric field is known as electronic polarization. It
is due to shifting of negatively changed electron and positively
charged nucleus charges of atom in the material by the applied
electric field.

5. What is ionic polarisation? (A.U. May 2014)

Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations

(negative ions) and anions (positive ions) in opposite direction
due to the application of an electrical field. This occurs in an
ionic solid.

6. What is orientational polarisation? (A.U. May 2012)

When an electrical field is applied on the dielectric medium

with polar molecules, the dipoles align themselves in the field
direction and thereby increases electric dipole moment.
Such a type of contribution to polarisation due to the
orientation of permanent dipoles by the applied field is called
orientational polarisation.

7. What is space - charge polarisation? (A.U. May 2013)

In some materials containing two or more phases, the

application of an electrical field causes the accumulation of charges
at the interfaces between the phases or at the electrodes.
As result of this, polarisation is produced. This type of
polarisation is known as space charge polarisation.

8. What is meant by local field in a dielectric?

(A.U. Jan 2012)

When a dielectric is kept in an external electric field (E),

two fields are exerted due to (i) external field and (ii) dipole
moment created
3.90 Physics for Electronics Engineering

These long range coulomb forces which are created due to

the dipoles are called local field in dielectric

P
It is given by Eint  E 
3 o

where P  polarisation

o  permitivity in free space.

9. Define dielectric loss and loss tangent.

(A.U. Jan 2012, June 2013)

When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage,

the electrical energy is absorbed by the material and is
dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of energy is called
dielectric loss.

In a perfect insulator, polarisation is complete during each

cycle and there is no consumption of energy and the charging
current leads the applied voltage by 90.

But for commercial dielectric, this phase angle is less than

90 by an angle  and is called dielectric loss angle. Tan  is
taken as measure of dielectric loss and is known as loss tangent.

10. Define dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength.

(A.U. Jan 2013)

Whenever the electrical field strength applied to a dielectric

exceeds a critical value, very large current flows through it. The
dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes conducting.
This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown.

The electrical field strength at which dielectric breakdown

occurs is known as dielectric strength.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.91

11. Mention the various breakdown mechanisms.

(A.U. Dec. 2012)

(i) Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown

(ii) Thermal breakdown
(iii) Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown
(iv) Discharge breakdown
(v) Defect breakdown
12. What is intrinsic breakdown?

For a dielectric, the charge displacement increases with

increasing electrical field strength. Beyond a critical value of
electrical field strength, there is an electrical breakdown due to
physical deterioration in the dielectric material.

13. What is thermal breakdown?

When an electrical field is applied to a dielectric material,

some amount of heat is produced. This heat must be dissipated
from the material.

Due to excess of heat, the temperature inside the dielectric

increases and may produce local melting in the dielectric
material.

This type of breakdown is known as thermal breakdown.

14. What is chemical and electrochemical breakdown?

Electrochemical breakdown is similar to thermal

breakdown. When the temperature of a dielectric material
increases, mobility of ions increases and hence the
electrochemical reaction may take place.

This leads to leakage current and energy loss in the

material and finally dielectric breakdown occurs.
3.92 Physics for Electronics Engineering

15. What is discharge breakdown?

Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains

occluded gas bubbles. When this type of dielectric is subjected
to electrical field, the gases present in the material will easily
ionise and thus produce large ionisation current.

The gaseous ions bombard the solid dielectric. This causes

electrical deterioration and leads to dielectric breakdown.

16. What is defect breakdown?

The surface of the dielectric material may have defects such

as cracks, porosity and blow holes. Impurities like dust or
moisture may collect at these discontinuities (defects). This will
lead to a breakdown in a dielectric material.

17. Mention any two active and passive dielectrics with

their applications (or) Compare active and passive
dielectrics.
(A.U. April 2013)

S.No. Active dielectrics Passive dielectrics

1. Dielectrics which can Dielectrics which restricts the

easily adapt itself to flow of electrical energy in it
store the electrical are called passive dielectrics
energy in it is called
active dielectrics.

2. Examples: Piezo Examples: glass, mica, plastic

electrics, Ferro electrics,
Pyro electrics

3. It is used in the It is used in the production of

production of sheets, pipes etc.
ultrasonics.
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.93

18. How does the dielectric polarization in polar and

non-polar substances vary with temperature (or)
What are the differences between polar and non-polar
molecules.
(A.U May 2008)

S.No. Polar molecule Non-polar molecules

1. These molecules have These molecules do not
permanent dipole moments have permanent dipole
even in the absence of an moments.
applied field.
2. The polarization of polar The polarization of this
molecules is highly kind of molecules is
temperature dependent. independent of
temperature.
3. These molecules do not These molecules have
have symmetrical structure symmetrical structure and
and they do not have centre they have centre of
of symmetry. symmetry.
4. For this kind of molecules, For these molecules, there
there is absorption or is no absorption or emission
emission, in the infrared in the range of infrared.
range
5. Examples: CHCl3, H2O, Examples: CCl4, CO2, H2
HCl

19. What are requirements of good insulating materials?

(A.U. May 2012)

The good insulating materials should have

 high electrical resistivity to reduce leakage current

 high dielectrical strength to withstand higher voltage

 smaller dielectric loss

 sufficient mechanical strength

3.94 Physics for Electronics Engineering

ADDITIONAL Q&A

1. What are the dielectrics?

Dielectrics are insulating materials, in which all the

electrons are bound to their parent molecules and there are no
free charges. Even with normal voltage or thermal energy,
electrons are not released.

2. What are the types of dielectrics?

Types of Dielectrics
Based on the applications, there are two types of dielectric
materials.

(i) Active dielectrics (Ferroelectrics, piezoelectrics and

pyroelectrics).
(ii) Passive dielectrics (electrical insulating materials)
3. What are active dielectrics?

Active dielectrics are the materials which are used in

generate, amplify, modulate and convert the electrical signals.
They are used to store electrical energy.

4. What are passive dielectrics?

The function of the insulating material is to obstruct the

flow of electric current.

5. What is high-k dielectric?

The term high-k dielectric refers to a material with a

high dielectric constant k High-k dielectrics are used in
semiconductor manufacturing processes where they are usually
used to replace a silicon dioxide gate dielectric or another
dielectric layer of a device.

6. What are the application of high-k dielectric.

They have a wide range of the following applications

Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.95

 Storage capacitor dielectrics

 High aspect ratio diffusion barriers for Cu interconnects

 Adhesion layers

 Highly conformal coatings for micro fluidic and MEMS

application

 Coating of nano-porous structures.

 Fuel cells, e.g. singe metal coating for catalyst layers

 Bio-MEMS

 Electroluminescence

QUESTIONS

Part - B ‘16’ Marks Questions

1. (i) Describe the different types of polarization.

(ii) Obtain an expression for electronic and ionic

polarization in dielectrics. (AU May 2009)
2. Discuss the different types of polarization mechanism and
polarizability involved in dielectric materials. (AU Dec 2009)

3. Starting with the internal field expression, Derive Clausis

- Mosotti equation. (AU Nov/Dec 2013)

4. (i) What is meant by internal field?

(ii) Obtain expression for internal field using Lorentz

method. (AU Nov/Dec 2012)
3.96 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(iii) The dielectric constant of water is 80. Is water a good

dielectric? Is it useful for energy storage in capacitors?
Justify your answer. (AU April/May 2011)
5. (i) Deduce Clausius-Mosotti equation and explain its use
in predicting the dielectric constant of solids.
(ii) Discus the different types of polarization mechanism
and polarizability involved in a dielectric material.
(AU July 2009)
6. Starting with the internal field in a dielectric, obtain
Clausius-Mossotti equation. (AU May 2009)

7. (i) Give a detailed discussion on the various types of

dielectric breakdown in dielectric materials.
(ii) What are the remedies to avoid breakdown mechanism?
(AU July 2009)
8. Define thermal breakdown of dielectrics and explain its
characteristics.

9. Define and explain the different polarization mechanisms in

dielectrics, with necessary polarizability expressions.
(AU Nov/Dec 2011)

10. Define ‘internal field’. Obtain the expression for internal

field using Lorentz method and hence deduce the
Clausius-Mosotti equation. (AU May/June 2012)

11. Explain electronic polarization in atoms and obtain an

expression for electronic polarisability in terms of the
radious of atoms. (AU Nov/Dec 2012)

12. (i) Explain the term internal field in solids. Derive an

expression or the Lorentz field for elemental dielectrics.
(ii) Obtain Clausuis-Mossotti equation for elemental solid
dielectrics. (AU Oct 2009)
13. Define dielectric breakdown. Explain five types of dielectric
breakdown occur in dielectric materials. (AU May/June 2013)

14. Define electric and ionic polarization and explain them with
a neat diagram. (AU May/June 2013)
Dielectric Properties of Materials 3.97

15. Define the following:

(i) Dielectric constant r

(ii) Polarizability 

(iii) Polarization P
(iv) Electric flux density D
(v) Electric susceptibility 
Give also the necessary equation relating the above
quantities. (AU May/June 2012)

Additional Questions
1. What is high k-dielectric? Explain its principle.

2. Briefly explain the applications of dielectrics.

ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS

2
1. A parallel plate capacitor of area 650 mm and a plate
 10
separation of 4 mm has a charge of 2  10 C on it. What
is the resultant voltage across the capacitor when a material
of dielectric constant 3.5 is introduced between the plates.
[Ans: 39.73 V]

2. The atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and

3
2.08 gm  cm respectively. The electronic polarisability of the
 40 2
atom is 3.28  10 Fm . If sulphur solid has cubical
symmetry, what will be its relative dielectric constant.
[Ans: r  2.45 ]

3. The number of atoms in volume of one cubic metre of

26
hydrogen gas is 9.8  10 . The radius of the hydrogen atom
is 0.53 Å. Calculate the polarisability and relative
permittivity. [Ans: r  1.0018 , e  1.655  10  41 Fm 2 ]
Optical Properties of Materials 4.1

4. Optical Properties of Materials

Classification of optical materials - carrier generation

and recombination processes - Absorption, emission and
scattering of light in metals, insulators and Semiconductors
(concepts only) - photo current in a P-N diode - solar
cell - photo detectors - LED - Organic LED - Laser diodes
- excitons - quantum confined Stark effect - quantum dot
laser.

Introduction
The optical characteristics of materials are determined by
the type of interaction between the electromagnetic radiation and
the electrons of the atoms in the material.

We see many of the common optical characteristics of

materials such as their colour, brightness, transparency,
reflectivity etc.

Besides, these common properties, there are many more

special optical properties of materials which make them useful
in a wide range of optical devices.

Some of the commonly used optical materials and devices

are window glasses, lenses, mirrors, antireflection coatings etc.

Some of the most recently developed high-technology optical

devices are lasers, optical fibers, photodiodes, optical memories
(CD-ROM), electro-optic modulators.

Definition
The materials which are sensitive to light are known
as Optical materials. These optical materials exhibit a variety
of optical properties.
4.2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS

Generally, optical materials are classified into three types

based on the nature of propagation of light namely,

(i) Transparent

(ii) Translucent

(iii) Opaque

(i) Transparent

Transparent materials are the materials which transmit the

light with little absorption and reflection. These materials are
transparent in nature and hence, one can clearly view the object
through the material.

Electrical insulated materials are transparent. Similarly,

few semiconducting materials are also transparent.

(ii) Translucent
The incident light gets scattered within the materials and
hence, the diffused light is transmitted with the other side of
the materials.

One cannot clearly view the object while viewing through

the materials. These materials are known as translucent
material.

(iii) Opaque
The material which absorbs the visible light is termed as
opaque. When an electromagnetic radiation in the entire visible
spectrum is incident on this material, either it gets reflected or
absorbed.

Thus, the materials are opaque. Few semiconducting

materials also exhibit this opaque nature.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.3

Interaction of light with solids

When a light beam (electromagnetic radiation) incidents on
a solid, the light radiation undergoes three processes (Fig. 4.1).
They are

(i) Scattered by the sample at various angles

(ii) Absorbed by the sample
(iii) Transmitted through the sample

Fig. 4.1 Various interactions between light radiation with solids

Light scattered in the opposite direction of the incident beam

leads to reflection. Light scattered in the same direction as the
incident beam and recombining with it gives rise to refraction.
Scattered incoherent radiation on the other hand leads to other
forms of scattering such as Rayleigh scattering.

For a total incident flux of photons Io, energy conservation

requires that

Io  IT  IR  IA ...(1)

where IT – transmitted light intensity

IR – reflected light intensity
IA – absorbed light intensity
4.4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

2
Let Io be the energy flux per unit area J/m s. Dividing
both sides of the eqn (1) by Io we have

Io IT IR IA ...(2)
  
Io Io Io Io

1  T  R  A ...(3)

where T – fraction of light transmitted

R – fraction of light reflected
A – fraction of light absorbed

4.2 SCATTERING OF LIGHT

It is a process by which the intensity of the wave

attenuates as it travels through a medium.

Light scattering is a common phenomena occurring in

nature.

Let us understand three types of scattering of light.

(i) Rayleigh scattering

(ii) Raman scattering

(iii) Compton scattering

Rayleigh scattering:
In elastic scattering of light, the wavelength of the
scattered light is the same as that of the incident light. This
is known as Rayleigh scattering. (Fig. 4.1)

Rayleigh studied this type of light scattering in air. He

observed that the molecules of air are responsible for this
scattering.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.5

In this scattering, the light behaves like a wave. The

molecules behave like dipoles by which the electromagnetic
waves get scattered.
The intensity of the scattered light is inversely proportional
 1 
to the fourth power of the wavelength   4 . Therefore, the
  
light of shorter wavelengths are scattered more than the longer
wavelength.

Note: The sunlight appears yellow because the blue part of

the spectrum is scattered out. The sky appears blue because
in all directions the blue light is scattered as it suffered
multiple scattering.
During the sunset, the sun appears red as the sunlight travels
a larger distance and even larger part of its blue region is lost
by scattering.

Raman scattering
When the wavelength of the scattered light is different from that
of incident light, then it is called Raman effect. This is inelastic
scattering of light. The intensity of the scattered light by Raman
scattering is about 0.001% of the Rayleigh scattering. (Fig. 4.1)

Compton scattering
A smaller wavelength of ultraviolet and X-ray scattering
occurs by the electrons. This results in scattered radiation
having smaller frequency (longer wavelength) than the incident
wave. Such scattering is called Compton scattering.

4.3 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF LIGHT

IN METALS
Metals are opaque because the incident light radiation
(visible range) excites electrons into unoccupied energy states
above the Fermi energy as shown in fig. 4.2 (a).
As a result, the incident radiation is absorbed. Total
light absorption is within a very thin outer layer, usually less
than 0.1 m.
4.6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Thus, only metallic films thinner than 0.1 m are capable

of transmitting visible light.

All frequencies of visible light are absorbed by metals. This

is due to the continuously available empty electron states which
permit electron transitions as in fig. 4.2 (a).

Fig. 4.2 (a) Photon absorption in which an electron is excited

into a higher energy unoccupied state
(b) Photon emission by the direct transition of an
electron from a higher to a lower energy state

In fact, metals are opaque to all electromagnetic radiation

on the lower end of the frequency spectrum from radio waves,
through infrared, visible and about to the middle of the
ultraviolet radiation.
Metals are transparent to high-frequency (shorter
wavelength) X-rays and  - rays.
Most of the absorbed radiation is re-emitted from the
surface in the form of visible light of the same wavelength which
appears as reflected light.
An electron transition accompanying emission is shown in
fig. 4.2(b). The reflectivity of most metals is between 0.90 and
0.95. Some small fraction of the energy from electron decay
processes is dissipated as heat.
The colour of a metal is determined by the wavelength
distribution of the reflected radiation.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.7

Some metals when exposed to white light show a bright

‘silvery’ appearance. It indicates that the metal is highly
reflective and strongly reflects all parts of the visible spectrum.

Note: The frequency and wavelength of the reflected beam is

approximately the same as that of the incident beam.
Aluminium and silver are two metals which exhibit this
reflective behaviour.
In the case of copper and gold, there is a greater absorption
of the shorter wavelengths of blue and green and a greater
reflection of longer wavelengths of yellow, orange and red.
Thus, smooth surfaces of these metals show the reflected
colours and hence copper and gold appear red-orange and yellow
respectively.

4.4 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF LIGHT IN

INSULATORS

Absorption of a light photon may occur in an insulator. It

results in excitation of an electron from valence band to
conduction band after crossing the energy gap Eg as shown in
fig. 4.3 (a).

Fig. 4.3 (a) Electron excitation due to absorption of photon of

energy  E in insulators
(b) Electron deexcitation resulting in the emission of
photon in insulators
4.8 Physics for Electronics Engineering

A free electron in the conduction band and a hole in the

valence band are created.

The excitation of an electron due to absorption of light can

take place only if the light photon energy  E  h is greater
than that of band gap Eg.

i.e.,  E  h
...(1)

where h – Planck’s constant

 – frequency of the light photon.

Hence, light photon absorption can take place only if

h  Eg
...(2)

hc . . c
 Eg ...(3)  . 
  

where c – velocity of light.

 – wavelength of the light photon.

The minimum wavelength min for visible light is about

8  34
0.4 m and since c  3  10 m / s and 6.62  10 Js the
maximum band gap energy Eg (max) for which absorption of
visible light is possible ie.,

hc
Eg max 
min

 34 8
6.62  10  3  10
 6
0.4  10
Optical Properties of Materials 4.9

 19
 4.96  10 J
 19
 . 1 eV  1.6  10 19 J
4.96  10 . .
  19
1.6  10

 Eg max  3.1 eV ...(4)

Thus no visible light is absorbed by materials having band

gap energies greater than about 3.1 eV. These materials appear
transparent and colourless if they are high purity state.

4.5 ABSORPTION AND EMISSION OF LIGHT IN

SEMICONDUCTORS
In semiconductors, light photons is absorbed in several
ways. In intrinsic (pure) semiconductors such as Si, Ge and
GaAs, light photons is absorbed to create electron-hole pairs.
This absorption causes electrons to jump across the energy
band gap from the valence band to the conduction band as
shown in fig. 4.4(a).

Fig. 4.4 Absorption of photons in semiconductors

This transition occurs ie., the excitation of electrons due

to absorption can take place if the photon energy is greater than
that of the band gap Eg, that is if

h  Eg ...(1)

where h – Planck’s constant

 – Frequency of the light photon.
4.10 Physics for Electronics Engineering

In terms of wavelength 

hc . . c
 Eg  . 
  
...(2)
The maximum wavelength for visible light max is about
0.7 m. Therefore, the minimum band gap energy Eg min for
which there is absorption of visible light is given by

hc
Eg min  ...(3)
max

Substituting the corresponding values, we have

 34 8
6.62  10  3  10 
Eg min  6
0.7  10

 19
 2.84  10 J

 19
2.84  10
 . 1 eV  1.6  10 19 J
. .
  19
1.6  10

Eg min  1.8 eV
...(4)

The result indicates that all visible light is absorbed by

those semiconductors having band gap energies less than about
1.8 eV. Thus, these semiconductors are opaque.

In extrinsic (impure) semiconductors, the presence of

acceptor and donor impurities creates new energy levels namely
acceptor level Ea (p-type semiconductor) and donor level
Ed (n-type semiconductor) as shown in fig. 4.4 (b) and (c).
These impurity levels lie within the band gap of the material.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.11

Light radiation of specific wavelength may be absorbed as

a result of electron transitions from or to these impurity levels
within the band gap.

4.6 CARRIER GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION

PROCESSES
The carrier generation is the process whereby
electrons and holes are created. The recombination is the
process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.
Carrier Generation
Basically, there are three types of carrier generations. They are
(i) Photogeneration
(ii) Phonon generation
(iii) Impact ionization

(i) Photogeneration
In photogeneration, light of frequency  falls on a
semiconductor. Let h be the energy of light photon greater than
the bandgap of the semiconductor.

By absorption of light photon, one electron jumps from

valence band to conduction band generating an electron-hole pair.

Figure 4.5 shows the absorption of light of energy

h   Eg.

Fig. 4..5
4.12 Physics for Electronics Engineering

For different wavelengths of light with different energies

h2, h3 it can take an electron in higher conduction band states.

(ii) Phonon Generation

Phonon generation occurs when a semiconductor is under

thermal excitation. With increase of temperature of the
semiconductor, lattice vibrations increase which give rise to more
phonons.

Due to more lattice vibrations, covalent bonds in the

semiconductor break down and electron-hole pairs are generated.
(Fig. 4.6)

Fig. 4.6 (a) Phonon generation

(b) Lattice vibration generating phonon

(iii) Impact Ionization

In this process, one energetic charge carrier will create

another charge carrier. When a semiconductor is under an
electric field, electrons gain energy from the applied electric field
and hit other Si-atoms.

In this process, a bond breaks out generating more carriers.

For a very high electric field, it results in a avalanche
breakdown. (Fig. 4.7)
Optical Properties of Materials 4.13

Fig. 4.7 Impact ionization

Recombination

In recombination, a pair of electron and hole gets

recombined. When a free electron in the conduction band falls
to valence band and recombines with a hole, it becomes a bound
electron in valence band.

Free electron in bound electron in

 hole 
conduction band valence band
Recombination

Recombination occurs in three ways:

(a) Radiative Recombination

(b) Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination

(c) Auger Recombination

(a) Radiative Recombination

It occurs for direct band semiconductors (like GaAs). In this
process, electrons from conduction band minimum falls to valence
band maximum without changing the momentum. In this
process, one photon of energy h   Eg is emitted.

Electrons which are excited to higher energy states in

conduction band will come to the conduction band minimum by
releasing energy as heat.

Then, from conduction band minimum it falls to valence

band maximum emitting light of energy h  Eg. It is also called
direct recombination. (Fig. 4.8)
4.14 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 4.8 Radiative recombination

Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination
In this recombination process, electrons from conduction
band minimum come to a defect level intermediate between
Ec and Ev by radiating energy as photons or phonons. Then,
electron turns from that intermediate level to the valence band.

This type of recombination is basically seen in impure

semiconductor which has defects levels. Generally, the defect
level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap. (Fig. 4.9)

Fig. 4.9 SRH recombination process

Auger Recombination
In Auger recombination, three carriers are involved. In this
process, an electron and a hole recombine and the energy is
given to the third free electron in the conduction band.

Then, the third excited electron comes back to the conduction

band edge by emitting energy as heat. Generally, an Auger
recombination occurs for heavily doped material. (Fig. 4.10)
Optical Properties of Materials 4.15

Fig. 4.10 Auger - Recombination process

4.7 EXCITONS

The combination of an electron in an excited state

(below conduction band) and the associated hole in
valence band (electron - hole pair) is known as an
exciton.

Explanation
When the photons of energy less than the band gap Eg
is absorbed by a crystal, the electrons from the filled valance
band will not go to the empty conduction band exactly.
But, instead they will go to a level below the conduction
band called excited state or excited level.

It is noted that the electron in the excited state does not

become free even after leaving valence band. That is, it is still
bound to some extent by the coulomb force of attraction.

[  o]  o

[Bound electron  hole ]  exciton.

In general, exciton as a whole is neutral and hence, the

contribution to the electrical conductivity in a material is zero.
But, it will transfer its energy from one ion to the next ion.

The bound state has energy less than that of separated

electron - hole pair. Therefore, the exciton energy levels lie in
4.16 Physics for Electronics Engineering

the forbidden gap just below the conduction band. These exciton
energy levels are called exciton bands.

The transitions leading to the formation of excitons below

the conduction bands are shown in fig 4.11.

Fig. 4.11 Exciton energy levels

The energy required to form an exciton is less than the

band gap energy and it is given by

h  Eg  Eex

where Eex is the exciton binding energy. Its value is in the range
of 1 meV to 1 eV and hence, the exciton levels fall very slightly
below the edge of the conduction band as shown in fig. 4.11.

Excitons are formed in all types of crystals. They are

unstable due to the recombination of electron and hole.

Types of excitons
Excitons are classified into two types.
(i) Frenkel excitons - Strongly (tightly) bound excitons
(ii) Mott and Wannier excitons - Weakly bound excitons

(i) Frenkel exciton

This model is due to Frenkel. The electron and holes are
bound together within a short distance which is less than
the lattice constant. (ie., electron-hole interparticle distance is
small in comparison with lattice constant (i.e., r  a)
Optical Properties of Materials 4.17

This means that excitation in this type of exciton is

localized on or near a single atom in the sense that the hole
is present on the same atom as of electron. (Fig 4.12).

Fig. 4.12 Frenkel exciton

Thus a Frenkel exciton may be thought as an excited state

of a single atom. But, the excitons may jump from one atom to
another as the atoms are coupled.
Therefore, these excitons are also known as strongly
bound excitons or tightly bound excitons.

Example
This type of excitons present in alkali halide crystals like
NaBr and KBr.

(ii) Mott and Wannier excition

This model of excitons is due to Mott and Wannier. The
electrons and holes are bound at larger distance which
is higher than lattice constant. The electron - hole
interparticle distance is large as compared with a lattice
constant i.e., r  a (Fig. 4.13. These excitons are also known
as weakly bound excitons.

Fig. 4.13 Mott and Wannier excitons

4.18 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Example
This type of excition found in Cuprous oxide Cu2O.

Importance of excitons
 The excitons play an important role in the luminescence
of solids.

 Excitons are unstable and they will separate at high

temperature.

 The excitons can move through the semiconductor and

transport energy.

 The excitons does not transport any charge as it is

electrically neutral.

4.8 PHOTO CURRENT IN A P-N DIODE

Photo Diode

Definition
It is a reverse biased P  N junction diode which
responds to light absorption.

Principle
When light is incident on the depletion region of the
reverse-biased pn junction, the concentration of minority carriers
increases. Therefore, reverse saturation current increases.

Construction
A photo diode consists of a P  N junction which is placed
in a transparent plastic capsule fig. 4.14 (a). Light is allowed
to fall on the surface of the junction. The symbol of the photo
diode is shown in fig. 4.14 (b).
Optical Properties of Materials 4.19

Fig. 4.14 (a) Photo diode with reverse bias (b) Photodiode symbol

Working

When the photo diode is kept under dark condition and a

voltage is applied, then a constant current independent of
reverse bias voltage is obtained.

This reverse saturation current is due to thermally

generated minority charge carriers. It is called dark current.
It is proportional to the concentrations of minority carriers and
it is denoted by Id.

When the light falls on the diode surface, additional

electron-hole pairs are generated. These injected minority
carriers diffuse to junction and contribute to the additional
current.

Thus under reverse bias conditions, total reverse current

is given by

I  Is  I d

where Is is the short circuit current and it is proportional to

the intensity of light.

The volt-ampere characteristic curve of the photo diode is

shown in fig. 4.15. From the curve, it is noted that

(i) The current increases with increase in the level of

illumination for a given reverse voltage.
4.20 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(ii) Only for the dark current at zero voltage the current
is zero.

Fig. 1.15 V-I characteristic of the photodiode

Applications

The photo diode finds wide application in

 Light detection system.

 Reading of sound track in film.

 Light operated switches.

 High-speed reading of computer punched cards and tapes.

 It can be used as variable resistance device controlled

by light intensity.

 It can be used to switch on the current at a very fast

rate (in nano second).

4.9 SOLAR CELL

It is a P  N junction diode which converts solar

energy (light energy) into electrical energy.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.21

Common materials for solar cells include silicon (Si),

Galliumaresnide (GaAs), Indium Arsenide (InAs) and Cadmium
Arsenide (CdAs). The most common is silicon.

For silicon, the band gap (the energy necessary to transfer

an electron from upper valance level to conduction band) is
1.12 eV.

Construction
It consists of P  N junction diode made of Silicon
(fig. 4.16 (a)). The P  N diode is packed in a can with glass
window on top such that light may fall upon P and N type
materials. The symbol of the solar cell is shown in fig. 4.16 (b).
The inward arrow indicates the incoming light.

Fig. 4.16 Solar cell

The thickness of the P-region is kept very small. Therefore,

electrons generated in P region can diffuse to the junction before
recombination takes place.

The thickness of N-region is also kept small to allow holes

generated near the surface to diffuse to the junction before they
recombine.
A nickel ring is provided around the P-layer which acts
as the positive output terminal. A metal contact at the bottom
serves as the negative output terminal.
4.22 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Working

When light radiation from sun falls on the P  N junction

diode, the photon energy is sufficient to break the covalent-bond
and produce electron-hole pair. Thus, electron-hole pairs are
generated in both P and N sides of the junction.

These electrons and holes reach the depletion region by

diffusion (fig.4.17 (a)) and they are separated by the strong
barrier electrical field existing there.

The minority carrier electrons in the P-side cross the barrier

potential to reach N-side and the holes in N-side move to the
P-side (fig. 4.17 (b)). Their flow constitutes the minority current
which is directly proportional to the illumination of light and the
surface area being exposed to light.

Fig. 4.17 Energy band diagram

The electrons and holes are accumulated on the two sides

of the junction. This leads to an open circuit voltage Voc which
is a function of illumination.
The open-circuit voltage produced for a silicon solar cell is
typically 0.6 volt and the short-circuit current is about
2
40 mA/cm in bright noon day sun light.

V - I Characteristics

The V  I characteristics of the solar cell, corresponding to

different levels of illumination is shown in fig. 4.18. The
maximum power output is obtained when the solar cell is opened
at the knee of the curve.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.23

Fig. 4.18 VI charactristics of the solar cell

Advantage

1. The solar cell operates with fair efficiency.

2. It has unlimited life.

3. It can be mass produced.

4. It has a high power capacity per weight.

5. Its size is small and compact.

Disadvantages
Solar energy is not available round the clock. It cannot be
obtained during night time.

Uses
 Solar cells are used in satellites and space vehicles to
supply power to electronic and other equipments and to
charge storage batteries.

 They are used to give power to the calculators and

watches.

 They are used to provide commercial electricity.

4.24 Physics for Electronics Engineering

4.10 PHOTO DETECTORS

There are several semiconductor devices that can be
used to detect the presence of photons. These devices are
known as photodetectors. They convert optical signals
into electrical signals.

Types of photo-detectors
There are three types of photo-detectors
(i) Photo emissive (ii) Photo conductive
(iii) Photo voltaic

Photoconductor
The simplest solid - state photo detector is a piece of photo-
conducting semiconductor. It is also called a photoresistive device.
It is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain
semiconductors when they are exposed to light radiation (both
infrared and visible). Such materials have a high dark resistance
and low resistance on irradiation.

Construction
The four materials generally used in photoconductive
devices are: Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), Cadmium Selenide
(CdSe), Lead Sulphide (PbS) and Thallium Sulphide (TlS).
The constuction of photoconductive device and its circuit
symbol are shown in fig. 4.19

Fig. 4.19 (a) Photoconductive cell (b) circuit symbol

Optical Properties of Materials 4.25

Thin film of cadmium sulphide is deposited on an insulating

substrate. The metal electrodes deposited as comb-like pattern as
shown in fig. 4.19(a) to increase the sensitivity of the device.

When the device under the bias is illuminated with light,

the electron-hole pairs are generated. These electons and holes
move in opposite directions (fig. 4.20). This results in a
photocurrent.

Fig. 4.20 Photoconductor in a circuit

The illumination characteristics of the photo-conductive cell is

shown in fig. 4.21.

Fig. 4.21
4.26 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Applications:
 Light meters

 Light controlled On-Off switch

 Automatic street lighting control

 Camera exposure setting

 Counting

 Relay control

 Aircraft and missle tracking system

 Burglar alarm

 Voltage regulator

Advantages:

 High sensitivity

 Low cost

 Long life

 High dissipation

 High voltage (100 – 300 V)

 High dark to light resistance.

Disadvantages:

 Cutrent change with intensity of light with a time lag

(high response time)

 Relatively narrow spectral response.

Photo-Voltaic Devices
Semiconductor junction photo diodes are called photo-voltaic
devices.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.27

Types of photo-voltaic devices

There are three forms of these devices.

1. PN junction photo detector
2. PIN photo diode
3. Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)

1. PN junction photo detector

(Refer section 4.8)

4.11 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

It is a p-n junction diode which emits light when it

is forward biased.

Principle
The injection of electrons into the p - region from n- region
makes a direct transition from the conduction band to valence
band. Then, the electrons recombine with holes and emits
photons of energy Eg.

The forbidden gap energy is given by

Eg  h  ... (1)

where h – Planck’s constant

 – Frequency of the emitted radiation.

c ... (2)
But  


where c – velocity of the light

 – wave length of the light.

hc ... (3)
 Eg 

4.28 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Hence, the wavelength of the emitted photon is given by

the relation

hc ... (4)

Eg

The wave length of the light emitted purely depends on

the band gap energy.

Note: Band gap energy Eg (generally in eV) should be

 19
converted into joule unit. [1 eV  1.6  10 J]

Construction:
Fig. 4.22 shows cross sectional view of a LED.

Fig: 4.22. Cross sectional view of LED

A n  type layer is grown on a substrate and a p  type

layer is deposited on it by diffusion. Since carrier recombination
takes place in the p  layer, it is deposited upper most.

For maximum light emission, a metal film anode is

deposited at the outer edges of the p  type layer. The bottom
of the substrate is coated with a metal (gold) film. It reflects
most of the light to the surface of the device and also provides
cathode connection. Fig. 4.23 shows circuit and symbol of LED
Optical Properties of Materials 4.29

Fig. 4.23. Circuit and symbol of LED

Working:
When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, the barrier
width is reduced, raising the potential energy on the n side
and lowering that of the pside.

The free electrons and holes have sufficient energy to move

into the junction region. If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines
with each other resulting in the release of a light photon.

Thus, light radiation from LED is caused by the

recombination of holes and electrons that are injected into the
junction by a forward bias voltage. (Fig. 4.24)

Fig: 4.24 Energy band for LED

Advantages of LEDs
 LEDs are smaller in size. A number of LEDs can be stacked
together in a small space to form numerical display.

 LED’s can be turned ON and OFF in less than 1 nano

9
second 10 second). So, they are known as fast
devices.
4.30 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 Variety of LEDs are available which emit light in

different colours like red, green, yellow etc.

 Light modulation can be achieved with pulse supply.

 It has long life time.
 It has low drive voltage and low noise.
 It is easily interfaced to digital logic circuits.

 It can be operated over a wide range of temperatures.

Disadvantages of LEDs
 They require high power.

 Their preparation cost is high when compared to LCD.

Applications and uses of LEDs

 Because of their miniature size, they are widely used in
numeric and alphanumeric display devices. (Fig. 4.25)

Fig. 4.25

 They are used as indicator lamps.

 They are used as light sources in fiber-optic

communication system.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.31

 Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarms.

 They are used in image sensing circuits used for picture

phone.

 They are used as a pilot light.

 Infra red LEDs are widely used with photo diodes or

photo transistors to enable short range wire-less
communication.

4.12 LASER DOIDES

Definition
It is a specially fabricated p - n junction diode. This
diode emits laser light when it is forward - biased.

Principle
When the p-n junction diode is forward-biased (fig. 4.26
(a)), the electrons from n-region and holes from p-region cross
the junction and recombine with each other.

During the recombination process, the light radiation

(photons) is released from a direct band gap semiconductors like
GaAs. This light radiation is known as recombination
radiation (fig. 4.26 (b)).

(a) (b)
Fig. 4.26 Semiconductor diode laser principle
4.32 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other

electrons and holes to recombine. As a result, stimulated
emission takes place and laser light is produced.

Construction
The construction of laser diode is shown in fig 4.27.
 The active medium is a p - n junction diode made from
a single crystal of gallium arsenide. This crystal is cut
in the form of a platelet having a thickness of 0.5 mm.
This platelet consists of two regions n type and ptype.

 The metal electrodes are connected to both upper

(p-region) and lower (n-region) surfaces of the
semiconductor diode. The forward bias voltage is applied
through metal electrodes.

Fig. 4.27 Semiconductor diode laser

 Now the photon emission is stimulated in a very thin

layer of pn junction.

 The end faces of the pn junction are well polished and

parallel to each other. They act as an optical resonator
through which the emitted light comes out.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.33

Working
 The energy level diagram of diode laser is shown in
fig 4.28.

 When the pn junction is forward-biased, the electrons

and holes are injected into junction region.

 The region around junction contains a large number of

electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valance
band.

 Now the electrons and holes recombine with each other.

During recombination, light photons are produced.

P N
Fig. 4.28 Energy level diagram of a Laser diode

 When the forward - biased voltage is increased, more

light photons are emitted. These photons trigger a chain
of stimulated recombinations resulting in the emission
of more light photons in phase.

These photons moving at the plane of the junction travel

back and forth by reflection between two polished surfaces of
the junction. Thus, the light photons grow in strength

After gaining enough strength, laser beam of wavelength

8400 Å is emitted from the junction.

The wavelength of laser light is given by

hc
Eg  h 

4.34 Physics for Electronics Engineering

hc . . c
   .   
Eg  

where Eg  band gap energy in joule

Characteristics

 Type : Solid state semiconductor laser.

 Active medium : A pn junction diode made from a

single crystal of gallium arsenide.

 Pumping method : Direct conversion method.

 Power output : a few mW.

 Nature of output : Continuous wave or pulsed output.

 Wavelength of output : 8300 Å to 8500 Å.

Advantages

 This laser is very small in size and compact.

 It has high efficiency.

 The laser output can be easily increased by increasing

the junction current.

 It is operated with less power than ruby and CO2 lasers.

 It requires very little additional equipment.

 It emits a continuous wave output or pulsed output.

Disadvantages

 Laser output beam has large divergence.

 The purity and monochromacity are poor.

 It has poor coherence and stability.

Optical Properties of Materials 4.35

Applications of Laser Diode

 Used in fibre optic communication.

 Used in various measuring devices such as range finders,

bar-code readers.

 Used in printing industry both as light sources for

scanning images and for resolution printing plate
manufacturing.

 Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players,

CD - ROM and DVD technology. Violet lasers are used
in HD - DVD and Blue-ray technology.

 High power laser diodes are used in industrial

applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam
welding and for pumping other lasers.

 Used in laser medicine especially, dentistry.

4.13 ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (OLED)

Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are solid state

devices made up of thin films of organic molecules that
produce light with the application of electricity.

Like a LED, a OLED is a solid state semiconductor device

made up of 100 to 500 nm thick.

The organic light emitting diode (OLED) is also

called light emitting polymer (LEP) or Organic Electro
Luminescence (OEL) and it consists of a film of organic
compounds.

The layer usually combines a polymer substance that

allows suitable organic compound to be deposited. They can emit
light of different colours.

The OLED consists of an emissive layer, a conductive layer,

a substrate anode and cathode terminals. (Fig. 4.30)
4.36 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 4.30 Structure of OLED

The layers are made of special organic polymer molecules that

conduct electricity. Their conductivity range is between insulators
and conductors and so they are called organic semiconductors.

Working
An organic film is contacted by a metal electrodes on both
sides. When a voltage is applied, positive charges (holes) are injected
into the organic material (conducting layer) from one contact.

The negative charges (electrons) are injected from the other

side into emissive layer.

When two different charge carriers meet, they recombine

each other produce energy in the form of light photon.

Types of OLEDs

There are five types of OLEDs. They are

(i) PLED
(ii) POLED
(iii) TOLED
(iv) SOLED
(v) IOLED
Optical Properties of Materials 4.37

(i) PLED
Polymer Light-Emitting Diodes (PLED) involve an
electroluminescent conductive polymer that emits light when it
is subjected to an electric current.

(ii) POLED
Patternable Organic Light-Emitting Device (POLED) uses
a light or heat activated electroactive layer.

(iii) TOLED
Transparent Organic Light-Emitting Device (TOLED) uses
a transparent contact to create displays.

(iv) SOLED
Stacked OLED (SOLED) uses a novel pixel architecture
that is based on stacking the red, green, and blue subpixels on
top of one another.

(v) IOLED
Inverted OLED (IOLED) uses a bottom cathode that can
be connected to the drain end of n-channel TFT.

Advantages
 Robust Design - OLED’s are tough enough to use in
portable devices such as cellular phones, digital video
cameras, DVD players, car audio equipment etc.,
 Viewing Angles - Can be viewed up to 160 degrees.
 High Resolution - High information applications
including videos and graphics (Active matrix)
 Electronic Paper - OLEDs are paper-thin.
 Production Advantages - Upto 20% to 50% cheaper
than LCD processes.
 Video Capabilities - They hold the ability to handle
streamlined video, which could revolutionize the display
and cellular phone market.
4.38 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 Power Usage - Takes less power.

Drawbacks
 The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited
lifetime of the organic materials.

 The intrusion of water into displays can damage or

destroy the organic materials.

 Color - The reliability of the OLED is still not upto the

mark. After a month of use, the screen becomes
non-uniform.

Applications
 OLED technology is used in commercial applications such
as small screens for mobile phones and portable digital audio
players (MP3 players), car radios, digital cameras and
high-resolution micro displays for head-mounted displays.

 They can be used in television screens, computer

displays, advertising, information and indication.

 OLEDs can also be used in light sources for general space

illumination and large-area light-emitting elements.

Stark effect
The change in atomic energy upon the application of an
electric field is called the Stark effect. The electric field affects
the higher order, or outer orbits of electrons and splitting of
energy states occurs. This reduces the bandgap.

Quantum well
When two semiconductors of different bandgap energies and
of thickness comparable to the electron mean free path alternate
to form a synthetically modulated structure as shown in Fig. 4.30(a),
then such a structure is called quantum well structure.
Lz and LB are the well and barrier widths of the structure
with dimension of the order of electron mean free path of the
electron.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.39

It is nano structure in which thin layer of small band gap

material (GaAs) is kept in between thick layers of large band
gap material (AlGaAs) (Fig. 4.30(b))

Fig. 4.30 Semiconductor heterostructure composed of AlGaAs

(large bandgap material) and GaAs (small bandgap
material)

4.14 QUANTUM - CONFINED STARK EFFECT (QCSE)

In quantum well structure, with the application of an

electric field, the electron and hole wavefunctions are separated
and pushed towards opposite sides of the well. The reduced
overlap results in corresponding reduction in absorption.
This results in a shift of the absorption spectrum to longer
wave-length (red shift). This shift is known as the quantum
confined Stark effect.
In the absence of an external electric field, electrons and
holes within the quantum well occupy a discrete energy states.
Only the discrete set of frequencies of light may be absorbed
or emitted by the quantum well.
When an external electric field is applied, the electron
states shift to lower energies, while the hole states shift to
higher energies. This reduces the light absorption or emission
frequencies (Fig. 4.31).

Besides, the external electric field shifts electrons and holes

to opposite sides of the quantum well. This decreases the
overlaping of wave function as shown in fig. 4.31. This in turn
reduces the recombination efficiency of the system.
4.40 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The spatial separation between the electrons and holes is

limited by the presence of the potential barriers around the
quantum well.

Fig. 4.31 Quantum Confined Stark Effect

Uses

 It is used mainly for high-speed, low power dissipation

optical modulators such as in telecommunications.

 It is also used in large arrays of low power devices.

Quantum Dots (QD)

Rapid progress in the fabrication of semiconductor

structures has resulted into the reduction of three dimensional
systems to two-dimensional, one-dimensional, and finally to zero
dimensional systems.

Quantum dots represent the ultimate reduction in the

dimensionality of semiconductor devices. These are three
dimensional semiconductors structures only nanometers in size
confining electrons and holes.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.41

QDs operate at the level of a single electron which is

certainly the ultimate limit for an electronic device and they
are used as the gain material in lasers.

Definition
Quantum dots are tiny particles or nanocrystals of
a semiconducting material with diameters in the range
of 2 - 10 nanometers (10 - 50 atoms).

Size effects Band gap of quantum dot

Quantum dots exhibit unique electronic properties,
intermediate between those of bulk semiconductors and discrete
molecules.
For example, fluorescence, where the nanocrystals produce
varying colors depends on the size of the particles.
Generally, as the size of the crystal decreases, the
difference in energy gap between the valence band and the
conduction band increases.

4.32 Band gap of Quantum dot

4.42 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Thus, more energy is needed to excite the dot. At the same

time, more energy is released when the crystal returns to its
ground state, This results in a color shift from red to blue in
the emitted light.

Therefore, quantum dots can emit any color of light from

the same material simply by changing the dot size.

The splitting of energy levels in quantum dot and increase

of band gap with decreasing dot size is shown in figure 4.32.

Applications of Quantum dots

 QDs are used in quantum dot lasers, QD memory
devices, QD photo-detectors and quantum cryptography.

 The emission wavelength of a quantum dot is a function

of its size. Obviously, by making QDs different sizes, we
can create light of different colours.

 They have potential uses in LED displays, amplifiers,

biological sensors, tumor targeting and diagnostics,
molecular electronics, and catalysis.

4.15 QUANTUM DOT LASERS

They are the new generation semiconductor lasers.
They consist of several million nano-sized crystals called
quantum dots in the active region and they act as light
emitters.
Quantum dot laser consists of an active layer (QD)
embedded in a waveguide, surrounded by layers of lower
refractive index material. This arrangement ensures light
confinement.

The active layer consists of quantum wells or quantum dots

where the band gap is lower than that of the waveguide
material.

The wavelength of the emitted light is determined by the

energy levels of the quantum dot.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.43

Therefore, the emission wavelength can be tuned by

changing the average size of the dots.

The band-gap of the quantum dot material is lower than

the band gap of the surrounding medium. It ensures charge
carrier confinement.

The structure of a quantum dot laser based on InAs dots

in the InGaAs quantum well layer is shown in fig. 4.34(a).

Fig. 4.33 Heterostructure of a QDL

The structure is grown on an n - type GaAs substrate,

which also serves as the lower contact to the device. The active
layer is formed using InGaAs with the inclusion of InAs dots.

The active layer in placed in between the two cladding

layers of n-AlGaAs (lower) and p-AlGaAs (upper).
4.44 Physics for Electronics Engineering

This arrangement forms a p-i-n structure for carrier

injection and optical pumping of the dots.

After growing these three layers successively on the GaAs

substrate, a doped p-GaAs contact layer is grown. Then, on the
top of the p-GaAs layer, the metal contact is deposited, serving
as the outer contact to the device.

The waveguide formed between the cladding layers pass

the emitted laser light to the exit faces. The lasing faces of the
waveguide are polished to form laser cavity.

The cross-section of the active layer, consists of several

layers (5-15) of stacked InAs QDs in a well of a InGaAs
nanostructure (shown in the zoom-in view). The band diagram
active region is shown in fig. 4.34 (b)

When a forward bias is applied, the quantum dot laser

emits laser light.

Advantages
The QDLs have several advantages over the conventional
semiconductor lasers as follows.

 High gain as well as high differential gain due to high

density of states in the discrete levels.

 Low threshold current density Jth and large output power

at much lower power consumption.

 Higher modulation frequency for high speed operation

with reduced wavelength shift.

 High temperature stability.

 Tunable wavelength of emission and absorption by

variation of the size of the quantum dot.
Optical Properties of Materials 4.45

Disadvantages
 Fabrication process is complicated leading to
non-homogenous in size and shape of the QDs.

 High material gain but low optical confinement factor

leads to low modal gain.

 There is a carrier leakage out of the QD due to finite

barrier height.

 Strained wells might lead to shift in wavelength.

4.46 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

1. What are optical materials?

The materials which are sensitive to light are known as

Optical materials. These optical materials exhibit a variety of
optical properties.

2. What are the type of optical materials?

Generally, optical materials are classified into three types

based on the nature of propagation of light namely,

(i) Transparent

(ii) Translucent

(iii) Opaque

3. Define scattering of light.

It is a process by which the intensity of the wave

attenuates as it travels through a medium.

4. Define carrier generation and recombination.

The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and

holes are created. The recombination is the process whereby
electrons and holes are annihilated.

5. What are types of carrier generations?

(i) Photogeneration

(ii) Phonon generation

(iii) Impact ionization

6. What are types of recombination process?

(a) Radiative Recombination

Optical Properties of Materials 4.47

(b) Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination

(c) Auger Recombination

7. What is exciton?

The combination of an electron in an excited state (below

conduction band) and the associated hole in valence band
(electron - hole pair) is known as an exciton.

8. What are types of excitons?

Types of excitons
(i) Frenkel excitons - Strongly (tightly) bound excitons
(ii) Mott and Wannier excitons - Weakly bound excitons

9. Give the importance of excitons.

 The excitons play an important role in the luminescence

of solids.

 Excitons are unstable and they will separate at high

temperature.

 The excitons can move through the semiconductor and

transport energy.

 The excitons does not transport any charge as it is

electrically neutral.

10. What is photo diode?

It is a reverse biased P  N junction diode which responds

to light absorption.

11. What is the basic principle of photo diode?

When light is incident on the depletion region of the

reverse-biased pn junction, the concentration of minority carriers
increases. Therefore, reverse saturation current increases.
4.48 Physics for Electronics Engineering

12. What is solar cell?

It is a P  N junction diode which converts solar energy

(light energy) into electrical energy.

13. What is a photo detector?

It is a semiconductor device which is used to detect the

presence of photons. This device is known as photodetector. It
converts optical signals into electrical signals.

14. What are the types of photo detector?

There are three types of Photo-detectors

(i) Photo emissive;

(ii) Photo conductive

(iii) Photo voltaic

15. What is a photo conductor?

The simplest solid - state photo detector is a piece of photo-

conducting semiconductor. It is also called a photoresistive device.

It is based on the decrease in the resistance of certain

semiconductors when they are exposed to light radiation (both
infrared and visible). Such materials have a high dark resistance
and low resistance on irradiation.

16. What is a photo-voltaic device?

Semiconductor junction photo diodes are called photo-voltaic

devices.

17. What are types of photo-voltaic devices?

There are three the of photo-voltaic devices.

1. PN junction photo detector

Optical Properties of Materials 4.49

2. PIN photo diode

3. Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)

18. What is LED?

It is a p-n junction diode which emits light when it is

forward biased.

19. What is the basic principle behold LED?

The injection of electrons into the p - region from n- region

makes a direct transition from the conduction band to valence
band. Then, the electrons recombine with holes and emits
photons of energy Eg.

The forbidden gap energy is given by

Eg  h ... (1)

20. What are the advantages of LEDs?

 LEDs are smaller in size. A number of LEDs can be stacked

together in a small space to form numerical display.

 LED’s can be turned ON and OFF in less than 1 nano

9
second 10 second). So, they are known as fast devices.

 Variety of LEDs are available which emit light in

different colours like red, green, yellow etc.

 Light modulation can be achieved with pulse supply.

 It has long life time.

 It has low drive voltage and low noise.

 It is easily interfaced to digital logic circuits.

 It can be operated over a wide range of temperatures.

4.50 Physics for Electronics Engineering

21. What are the disadvantages of LEDs?

 They require high power.

 Their preparation cost is high when compared to LCD.

22. What are the applications uses of LEDs?

 Because of their miniature size, they are widely used in

numeric and alphanumeric display devices.

 They are used as indicator lamps.

 They are used as light sources in fiber-optic

communication system.

 Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarms.

 They are used in image sensing circuits used for picture

phone.

23. What is a laser diode?

It is a specially fabricated p - n junction diode. This diode

emits laser light when it is forward - biased.

24. What are the advantages of Laser diodes?

 This laser is very small in size and compact.

 It has high efficiency.

 The laser output can be easily increased by increasing

the junction current.

 It is operated with less power than ruby and CO2 lasers.

 It requires very little additional equipment.

 It emits a continuous wave output or pulsed output.

25. What are the applications of Laser diodes?

 Used in fibre optic communication.

Optical Properties of Materials 4.51

 Used in various measuring devices such as range finders,

bar-code readers.

 Used in printing industry both as light sources for

scanning images and for resolution printing plate
manufacturing.

 Infrared and red laser diodes are common in CD players,

CD - ROM and DVD technology. Violet lasers are used
in HD - DVD and Blue-ray technology.

 High power laser diodes are used in industrial

applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam
welding and for pumping other lasers.

 Used in laser medicine especially, dentistry.

26. What is an organic light emitting diodes?

Organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) are solid state

devices made up of thin films of organic molecules that produce
light with the application of electricity.

27. What are advantages of OLED?

 OLED’s are tough enough to use in portable devices such

as cellular phones, digital video cameras, DVD players,
car audio equipment etc.,

 Can be viewed up to 160 degrees.

 High information applications including videos and

graphics (Active matrix)

 OLEDs are paper-thin.

 Upto 20% to 50% cheaper than LCD processes.

 They hold the ability to handle streamlined video, which

could revolutionize the display and cellular phone
market.

 Takes less power.

4.52 Physics for Electronics Engineering

28. What are drawbacks of OLED?

 The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited

lifetime of the organic materials.

 The intrusion of water into displays can damage or

destroy the organic materials.

 Color - The reliability of the OLED is still not upto the

mark. After a month of use, the screen becomes
non-uniform.

29. What are the applications of OLED?

 OLED technology is used in commercial applications such

as small screens for mobile phones and portable digital
audio players (MP3 players), car radios, digital cameras
and high-resolution micro displays for head-mounted
displays.

 They can be used in television screens, computer

displays, advertising, information and indication.

 OLEDs can also be used in light sources for general space

illumination and large-area light-emitting elements.

30. State Quantum confined state effect.

In quantum well structure, with the application of an

electric field, the electron and hole wavefunctions are separated
and pushed towards opposite sides of the well. The reduced
overlap results in corresponding reduction in absorption.

This results in a shift of the absorption spectrum to longer

wave-length (red shift). This shift is known as the quantum
confined Stark effect.

31. What is a quantum dot?

Quantum dots are tiny particles or nanocrystals of a

semiconducting material with diameters in the range of 2 - 10
nanometers (10 - 50 atoms).
Optical Properties of Materials 4.53

32. What are quantum dot lasers?

They are the new generation semiconductor lasers. They

consist of several million nano-sized crystals called quantum dots
in the active region and they act as light emitters.

33. What are the advantages of quantum dot laser?

 High gain as well as high differential gain due to high

density of states in the discrete levels.

 Low threshold current density Jth and large output power

at much lower power consumption.

 Higher modulation frequency for high speed operation

with reduced wavelength shift.

 High temperature stability.

34. What are the drawbacks of QD lasers?

 Fabrication process is complicated leading to

non-homogenous in size and shape of the QDs.

 High material gain but low optical confinement factor

leads to low modal gain.

 There is a carrier leakage out of the QD due to finite

barrier height.

 Strained wells might lead to shift in wavelength.

4.54 Physics for Electronics Engineering

PART - B (16 Marks Questions)

1. Explain scattering of light in solids

2. Describe absorption and emission of light in metal, insulator
and semiconductor.
3. Explain carrier generation and recombination in
semiconductor.
4. Describe excitons with example.
5. Describe the construction and working of photodiode.
6. Explain the construction and working of a solar cell.
7. Describe the construction and working of photodetector.
8. Explain the construction and working of a LED with energy
bond diagram.
9. Describe the construction and working of laser diodes. What
are the advantages of these diodes?
10. What is OLED? Explain the basic concept of OLED, types,
advantages, disadvantages and application.
11. Explain quantum-confined stark effect.
12. Explain quantum dot lasers what are their advantages and
applications.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.1

5. Nanoelectronic Devices

Introduction – electron density in bulk material – Size

dependence of Fermi energy – quantum confinement –
quantum structures – Density of states in quantum well,
quantum wire and quantum dot structures – Zener-Bloch
oscillations – resonant tunneling – quantum interference
effects – mesoscopic structures: conductance fluctuations
and coherent transport – Coulomb blockade effects –
Single electron phenomena and Single electron
Transistor – magnetic semiconductors – spintronics –
Carbon nanotubes: Properties and applications.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

 1 
A nanometre (nm) is one billionth  9  of a metre. For
 10 
comparison, thickness of a single human hair is about 80,000
nm 80 m, a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm
7 m wide and a water molecule is almost 0.3 nm across.

Scientists and engineers are nowadays interested in

nanoscale which is from 1 nm to 100 nm. At nanoscale, the
properties of materials are very different from those at larger
scale. Therefore, the nano-world is in between quantum world
and macro world.

Nanoscience is concerned with the study of

phenomena and manipulation of materials at nanometere
scales.

Nanotechnology is the design, characterization,

production and application of structures, devices and
systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometre
scale.
5.2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Nanotechnology means putting to use the unique physical

properties of atoms, molecules and other things measuring
roughly 1 to 100 nanometers.

The word “nano” comes from nanos, a Greek word meaning

dwarf.

Presently, we are using many devices made of nanoelectronic

devices. The microelectronics industry was born out of the invention
of the bi-polar transistor in 1947 and by the invention of the
integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.

Gordon Moore (co-founder of INTEL Corporation) observed

that the number of transistors per square inch on IC chip
roughly doubled by every 18 to 24 months. This general rule
of thumb is now called as “Moore’s law”.

By 1960, the minimum feature size of a transistor was

approximately 100 m. At present, manufacturing technology is
at transistor size of 22 nm.

Because of the diminishing feature size of transistors and

other components, we can say that the electronics industry is
already “doing” nanotechnology.

Nanomaterials

Definition
Nanophase materials are newly developed materials
9
with grain size at the nanometre range 10 m, i.e., in
the order of 1 - 100 nm. The particle size in a nano
material is 1 nm. They are simply called nanomaterials.

Different forms of Nanomaterials

Nano-structured material
The structures whose characteristic variations in design
length is at the nanoscale.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.3

Nano particles
9
The particle size is in the order of 10 m.

Nano dots
Nanoparticles which consist of homogeneous material,
especially those that are almost spherical or cubical in shape.

Nanorods
Nanostructures which are shaped like long sticks or rods
with diameter in nanoscale and a length very much longer.

Nanotubes
The carbon nanotubes are the wires of pure carbon like
rolled sheets of graphite or like soda straws.

Nanowires
Nanowires are nanorods which especially conduct electricity.

Fullerenes
A form of carbon having a large molecule consisting of an
empty cage of 60 or more carbon atoms.

Nanocomposites
Composite structures whose characteristic dimensions are
found at nanoscale.

Cluster
A collection of units (atoms or reactive molecules) upto
about 50 units.

Colloids
A stable liquid phase containing particles in the 1-1000
nm range.

Nano electronics
Nanoelectronics refers to the use of nanotechnology
in electronic components, especially transistors.
5.4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

It often refers to transistor devices that are so small that

inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical properties
need to be studied extensively.

Besides, being small and allowing more transistors to be

packed into a single chip, the uniform and symmetrical structure
of nanotubes allows a higher electron mobility, a symmetrical
electron/hole characteristic.

Need for Nanotechnology in Electronics

Today microelectronics are used and they solve our most
of the problems.

The two exceptional disadvantages of micro electronics are:

 Physical size
 Increasing cost of fabrication of integrated circuits.
To overcome these disadvantages, nanotechnology is used.

Advantages of Using Nanotechnology in Electronics

 Increasing the density of memory chips
 Decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.
 Nanolithography is used for fabrication of chips.
 Reducing the size of transistors used in integrated
circuits.
 Improving display screens on electronics devices.
 Reducing power consumption.

5.2 ELECTRON DENSITY IN BULK MATERIAL

Definition
Electron density is the number of electrons per unit
volume in a material. It is determined by using density
of states.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.5

Density of states
In solid, the total number of electron energy states N with
energies upto E is determined based on quantum mechanics
using the following equation

32  a 
3
 8 
N    2mE  3 ...(1)
 3  h 

3
Here, the volume of the material is represented as a (a
being the characteristic dimension of the solid),

E - Maximum energy level

m - mass of an electron
h - Planck’s constant.
Number of energy states per unit volume

32
N  8  2mE
n  3
   3
...(2)
a  3  h

Density of states function, D E is obtained after taking

 dn 
the derivative of this expression with respect to energy  .
 dE 

This function gives the number of available electron energy

states per unit volume per unit energy.

dn
D E 
dE

d  8 2mE
32 
  3 
dE 3
 h 

32 32
8 2m d E
 3
3 h dE
5.6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

32 32
8 2 m  3 32  1 
 3 2 E 
3 h  

1 1/2 32
8 2  2 m  3 12 
 3
 E 
3 h 2 

32
8 
2 m ...(3)
D E  3
E

h

In a conductor at 0 K, the electron distribution goes from

zero energy upto Fermi energy EF.

So, the number of free electrons per unit volume, or

electron density, in a bulk conductor at 0 K

 3  2
8  2m EF  ...(4)
ne   
3  h
3

 

The minute size of the nanomaterials gives unique

electronic properties. One of the major ways in which
small-volume materials differ from bulk solids is the number of
available energy states.

5.3 SIZE DEPENDENCE OF FERMI ENERGY

Fermi Energy
It is defined as the highest energy level occupied by
the electron at 0K in metal.

In terms of distribution of energy, solids have wide energy

bands whereas atoms have thin, discrete energy states.

Now rearranging eqn (4) for the Fermi energy of a

conductor, we have
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.7

23
h  3n e 
2
...(5)
EF   
2m  8 

Here, ne is the only variable and all the other terms are
constants. Thus, Fermi energy of the conductor just depends on
the number of free electrons per unit volume ie., electron density
ne.

As the electron density is a property of the material, Fermi

energy does not vary with the material’s size. EF is the same
for a particle of a solid as it is for a solid itself.

This is the case applicable for conductors, insulators and

semiconductors. The average spacing between energy states is
inversely proportional to the volume of the solid

1 ...(6)
E 3
a

5.4 QUANTUM CONFINEMENT

Definition
It is a process of reduction of the size of the solid
such that the energy levels inside become discrete.

In this case, small “droplets” of isolated electrons are

created. Thus, the energy of a small volume of such materials
are quantized just like in an atom. This type of artificial or
fake atoms have tunable electrical properties.

It is to be noted that only a small percentage of electrons

that are free to move during confinement and majority of
electrons still tightly bound within inner orbitals.

Usually in order to reduce the dimensions of a given

volume, either bottom-up approach or top-down approach is
followed.
5.8 Physics for Electronics Engineering

In bottom-up approach, low-volume structures are built

atom by atom. In the top-down approach, material is removed
from one or more of three dimensions (length, width, height) of
a larger solid.

In both cases, a structure small enough for quantum

behavior to manifest can be produced.

5.5 QUANTUM STRUCTURES

Definition
When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast
one of its dimension, in the order of few nanometres, then
the structure is known as quantum structure.

Explanation
The volume of a box can be reduced by shortening its
length, width or, and height. The same is true for the region
occupied by the electrons in a solid.

There are three dimensions to confine the bulk material.

The quantum confinement needs confining at least one of these
dimensions to less than 100 nanometers or even just a few
nanometers.

The more the dimensions are confined, the more the

density of states function looks like that of an atom. This
progressive discretization gives new ways to understand real
atoms, behavior of electrons and developing quantum confined
electronic devices.
When the electrons are confined inside a region of minimal
width, ie., confinement in one dimension “quantum-well” is
created as shown in fig. 5.1(b). The quantum wells is made from
alternating layers of different semiconductors or by deposition of
very thin metal films.
By further reducing the depth of the electron’s domain,
“quantum-wire” is created (fig. 5.1 (c)). Example: nanotube.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.9

Finally, when all three dimensions are minimized,

“quantum-dot” is created (fig. 5.1 (d)). The quantum dot is a
particle located inside a larger structure or on its surface. It can
be used as a space, where electrons can be trapped using electric
fields.
As quantum wells and quantum wires each have at least
one dimension in which the electrons are free to move, these
structures to exhibit “partial confinement”. However, quantum
dots exhibit “total confinement”.

5.6 DENSITY OF STATES IN QUANTUM WELL,

QUANTUM WIRE AND QUANTUM DOT STRUCTURE

The density of state of a bulk material is given by

 3/2 12
2 m
8 E  E c 
D E  3
h

where, Ec – bottom of conduction bond energy

 – effective mass of electron
m

The density of state curve is parabolic as shown in

fig. 5.1(a).

In quantum well structure, the electrons can move freely

in two direction (2D) and confined in only one direction. The
density of state of the quantum well structure


4m E0  Ei, i  1, 2, 3
D E  2
h

The density of state function is constant and it gives step

like function with energy as shown in fig. 5.1 (b).

The quantum wire structure provides only one non

confinement direction, ie., the carrier can move freely along one
5.10 Physics for Electronics Engineering

direction (1D). The remaining two direction are confined for

charge carrier.

The density of states of quantum wire is proportional to

1
. The density of state for this structure is given as
E


  12
2 m E  Ei
2 i  1, 2, 3
D E 
h

The density o f states func tio n w ith energy is as sho w n

in fig. 5.1(c ).

The density of states of a quantum dot in which all the direction

are confined and no direction (0D) in which electron movement is
free. The density of state for this structure is given by

D E   E  Ei , i  1, 2, 3

Fo r quantum do t (0D) o r nano partic le, the permitted

energy values are no t c o ntinuo us but fo rm disc rete bunc hes o f
varying densities. Thus, density o f energy levels appear as
disc rete line as in fig. 5.1(d).

Fig. 5.1 Structure and Density of states for bulk,

quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.11

Table 5.1 gives different quantum structures and their

corresponding density of state functions.

Table 5.1
Density of states as a function of dimensionality
of the structure

Type of structures &

No. of non confinement Density of state function
Dimensions
 3/2 1/2
8 
2 m E  Ec
Bulk (3D) D E  3
h

4 m
Quantum well (2D) D E  2
; E  Ei, i  1, 2, 3
h
  1/2
2
2 m E  Ei
Quantum w ire (1D) D E  , i  1, 2, 3
h

Quantum dot (0D) D E   E  Ei, i  1, 2, 3

5.7 ZENER - BLOCH OSCILLATIONS

Definition
It denotes the oscillation of a particle (e.g. an
electron) confined in a periodic potential when a constant
force is acting on it.

This was first pointed out by Bloch and Zener while

studying the electrical properties of crystals. In particular, they
predicted that the motion of electrons in a perfect crystal under
the action of a constant electrical field is oscillatory instead
of uniform.

While in natural crystals this phenomenon is extremely hard

to observe due to the scattering of electrons by lattice defects.
5.12 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Zener-Bloch oscillation is observed in semiconductor

superlattices (multiple quantum well structure) and in different
physical systems such as cold atoms in an optical potential and
ultrasmall Josephson junctions.

Derivation
Zener Bloch oscillation of the particle is derived by
considering the one-dimensional equation of motion for an
electron in constant electric field E

dp ...(1)
F    eE
dt

where p - momentum of electron

h
From de-Broglie’s concept, momentum p 


h – Planck’s constant
 – de-Broglie wavelength
h 2
or p 
2 

 k
h ...(2)

2  h
Here, k  is a wave vector and h 
 2
Substituting (2) in (1)
d 
h k   eE
dt

 dk   eE
h
dt

dk eE ...(3)
  
dt h
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.13

The solution of the equation (3) with function of time is

eE
k t  k 0   t
h

The velo c ity v o f the elec tro n is given by

1 d
v k  
h dk

w here  k denotes the energy band.

Suppose that the energy band has the (tight-binding) form

 k  A cos ak

w here a - lattic e parameter

A - c o nstant.

Then, v k is given by

1 d Aa
v k      sin ak
h dk h

The electron position x is given by

t

x t   v k t dt
0
t t
Aa Aa  eE 
x t     sin ak dt 
h    sin a  k 0   t  dt
h h 
0 0 

A aeE 
x t  x 0  cos   t 
eE  h 

This shows that the electron oscillates in real space. The

angular frequency of the oscillation is given by

aeE
wB  
h
5.14 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Discovery and Experimental Realizations

Bloch oscillations were predicted by Nobel laureate Leo
Easaki in 1970. However, they were not experimentally observed
for a long time, because in natural solid-state bodies, not large
enough to allow for full oscillations of the charge carriers within
the diffraction and tunneling times, due to relatively small
lattice periods.

The development in semiconductor technology has recently

led to the fabrication of structures with super lattice periods that
are now sufficiently large, based on artificial semiconductors.

The oscillation period in those structures is smaller than

the diffraction time of the electrons, hence more oscillations can
be observed in a time window below the diffraction time.

For the first time, the experimental observation of Bloch

oscillations in such super lattices at very low temperatures was
shown by Jochen Feldmann and Karl Leo in 1992.

5.8 RESONANT TUNNELING

An interesting phenomena occurs when two barriers of

width a separated by a potential well of small distance L as
shown in fig. 5.2. This leads to the concept of resonant tunneling.

Fig. 5.2 Double barrier structure

(E1, E2, E3 etc quantised energy level)
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.15

The barriers are sufficiently thin to allow tunneling and

the well region between the two barriers is also sufficiently
narrow to form discrete (quasi-bound) energy levels, as shown
in fig. 5.2.

The analysis of the double barrier structure is essentially

the same as considered for single barrier tunneling.

The transmission coefficient of the double symmetric

barrier becomes unity (ie., T  1), when the energy of the
incoming electron wave E coincides with the energy of one of
the discrete states formed by the well.

2 2
n h
ie., E  En  2
8 me L

where n  1, 2, 3 

Thus, transmission probability of the double

symmetric barrier is maximum and hence, the tunneling
current reaches peak value when energy of electron wave
is equal to quantised energy state of the well.

This phenomenon is known as resonance tunneling.

The double barrier tunnel junction has important
applications to a device known as a resonant tunneling diode.
The working of these diodes can be understood considering the
influence of bias on the energy band diagrams for the double
barrier system.

When the incident electron energy E is very different from

the energy of a discrete state En, transmission is low. As E
tends to En, transmission will increase, becoming a maximum
when E  En.

For example, assume that incident electrons have energy

E, and that, all the energy states En lie above E, as shown in
fig. 5.2.
5.16 Physics for Electronics Engineering

As E increases, tunneling will increase, reaching a peak

when E  E1. After that point, a further increase in E will
result in a decreasing current, as shown in fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 Current - Energy characteristic for a resonant

tunneling junction

This decrease of current with an increase of bias is called

negative resistance. Further, peaks and valleys will occur as
E approaches, and then moves across, other discrete energy states.
A typical resonant tunneling diode structure is made by
using n-type GaAs for the regions to the left and right of both
barriers (regions 1 and 5) in Fig. 5.4 intrinsic GaAs for the well
region (region 3) and AlGaAs or AlAs for the barrier material
(regions 2 and 4 in fig. 5.4).
Tunneling is controlled by applying a bias voltage across
the device.

Fig. 5.4 Structure of Resonant Tunnel Diode (RTD)

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.17

5.9 SINGLE ELECTRON PHENOMENA

In electronics, transistor is the most important device.
Transistors are what computers use to compute-tiny switches
turning ON and OFF making logic decisions.
Today, microchips have over a billion transistors, each one
turning ON and OFF a billion times every second.
These chips require manufacturing processes with roughly sub
100-nanometer resolution. Every year, this technology resolution
drops enabling even smaller transistors. Thus, more transistors are
squeezed into the same amount of semiconductor space.
Interestingly, when each transistor is reducing to a few
atoms, or a single molecule, quantum effects will play a
significant role.
In 1970, to switch ON a silicon transistor required about
10 million electrons. Present day, transistors require closer to
10,000 electrons. Rather than moving many electrons through
transistors, it may very well be practical and necessary to move
electrons one at a time.

5.10 COULOMB – BLOCKADE EFFECTS

As the size of the quantum dot decreases, the charging

energy Wc of a single excess charge on the dot increases.

If the quantum-dot size is sufficiently small and the

charging energy Wc is much greater than thermal energy k T,
no electron tunnels to and from the quantum dot.
Thus, the electron number in the dot takes a fixed value,
say zero, when both the electrodes are grounded.

Definition

The charging effect which blocks the injection or

rejection of a single charge into or from a quantum dot
is called Coulomb blockade effect.
5.18 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Condition for coulomb blockade

If two or more charges near one another, they exert

coulomb forces upon each other. If two charges are the same
kind, the force is repulsive. Therefore, the condition for observing
coulomb blockade effects is expressed as

2
e ...(1)
WC  kT
2C

where C – capacitance of the quantum dot

T – temperature of the system.
WC – charging energy and this is the energy needed
to add one negatively charged electron to the dot.

From the above equation (1), we can notice that WC is

inversely proportional to the quantum dot’s capacitance.

Thus, a larger capacitor can quite accommodate another

electron without too much energy required. In the contrary, with
 19
extremely small capacitors, C ~  10 F like quantum dots,
the charging energy is substantial and it can be large enough
to “block” tunneling electrons as shown in fig. 5.5.

Fig. 5.5 Energy gap in Coulomb blockade

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.19

By refering fig. 5.6, it should be noted that by applying a

positive bias to the gate electrode, an electron can be attracted
to the quantum dot. The increase of the gate voltage attracts
an electron more strongly to the quantum dot.

Fig.5.6 Electron number versus gate voltage

characteristics of single-electron box.

When the gate bias exceeds a certain value an electron

enters quantum dot and the number of electron in the dot
becomes one.

Further, increase of the gate voltage makes it possible to

make the electron number two and so on as in fig. 5.6. Thus,
in the single-electron box, the electron number of the quantum
dot is controlled, one by one, by utilizing the gate electrode.

Single Electron Tunneling

Tunneling is the way the electrons cross both the
physical barriers and the energy barriers separating a
quantum dot from the bulk material that surrounds it.

If any number of electron on one side of the barrier could

just tunnel across it, there would not be any isolation.
5.20 Physics for Electronics Engineering

So it is necessary to control the addition and removal of

electrons in a quantum dot.

When the size gets reduced, the capacitance also reduced

to small value.

At small sizes, the energy required to store an additional

2
Q
electron on it, W  , may become larger than the thermal
2C
energy k T.

Fig. 5.7 Schematic representation of an electron

unneling through a barrier

As a consequence, the quantization of charge can dominate

and tunneling of single electrons across leaky capacitors carries
the current. This is called single electron tunneling.

It is used to design new types of devices, for example

single-electron transistor using quantum dots.

So single-electron devices are devices that can

control the motion of even a single electron and consist
of quantum dots which have tunnel junctions.

5.11 SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR (SET)

Although a single-electron box can control the number of

electrons in the quantum dot, it does not have the properties
of a switching device.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.21

Single switching devices are essential elements in Ultra

large scale integrated circuits (ULSIs). The single-electron
switching devices are required to utilize single electron devices
in logic circuits.

Definition
SET is three-terminal switching devices which can
transfer electrons from source to drain one by one.

That is the purpose of the SET is to individually control

the tunneling of electrons into and out of the quantum dot.

Construction & working

The structure of SET is shown in fig.5.7. It has the similar
structure of a conventional Field Effect Transistor (FET).

It has tunneling junctions in place of pn-junctions and

quantum dot in place of the channel region of the FET.

To control tunneling, a voltage bias to the gate electrode

is applied. A separate voltage bias is applied between source
and drain electrodes for the current direction.

For current to flow, gate bias voltage must be large enough

to overcome the Coulomb blockade energy.

The energy E needed to move a charge Q, across a potential

difference V is given by

E  VQ.

Presently, the charge of an electron Q  e. So, the voltage

that will move an electron onto or off the quantum dot is given by

E Wc
 V 
e e

Since E  Wc,

where, Wc  charging energy

5.22 Physics for Electronics Engineering

e
2 . . e2 
 . Wc  
2C e  2C 
V  ...(1)
e 2C

With this voltage applied to the quantum dot, an electron

can tunnel through Coulomb blockade of the quantum dot. The
gate voltage as given in eqn.(1) can be used to tune the number
of electrons on the dot at a time.

Fig. 5.8. A single-electron transistor (SET)

(a) SET in “OFF” mode. (b) SET in “ON” mode.

At the lowest setting, electrons tunnel one at a time, from

source to drain through the dot. At the proper gate voltage,
e
V  the potential energy of the dot is low enough to allow
2C
an electron to tunnel through Coulomb blockade energy barrier
to the quantum dot.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.23

Once the quantum dot gets an electron, its potential energy

rises. Then the electron tunnels through the Coulomb blockade
on the other side to reach the lower potential energy at the
drain. Since, the dot is empty and potential lower again, the
process repeats.
Thus, when the gate voltage Vg is zero, no current flows.
The first gate voltage large enough to move an electron through
the Coulomb blockade is called VCoulomb.

For single-electron tunneling, Vg  VCoulomb.

e
If the gate voltage equals VCoulomb 
, then two
2C
electrons can be moved on the quantum dot at a time.
If the gate voltage equals
e e e
VCoulomb    VCoulomb  ,
2C 2C C

then three electrons can be moved on the quantum dot at a

time and so on.

Thus, number of electrons in the quantum dot is controlled

using the gate voltage.
These ON and OFF states can be utilized to make an
effective switch out of a SET.

The gate voltages for a SET are a few millivolts and

source-to-drain currents are in the pico ampere range.

Advantages
 The fast information transfer velocity between cells
(almost near optic velocity) is carried ont via electrostatic
interactions only.
 No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell
can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made them very suitable
for high density memory.
 This can be used for the next generation quantum
computer.
5.24 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Limitations
 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the
size of the quantum dot should be smaller than 10 nm.

 It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical

lithography and semiconductor process.

 The methods must be developed for connecting the

individual structures into logic circuits and these circuits
must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.

Applications

 The main fields of application of the single electron

transistor is used in sensor technology and digital
electronic circuits.

 A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or

NOR gates, is obtained based on SET operating at room
temperature.

 It is used for mass data storage.

 It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.

 SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly

in the range of very low temperatures.

 SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron

spectroscopy.

 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver

operating at frequencies between 10 and 300 MHz.

5.12 MESOSCOPIC STRUCTURE

Mesoscopic structure deals with materials of an

intermediate length. The scale of these materials can be
described as being between the size of a quantity of atoms (such
as a molecule) and of materials measuring micrometers.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.25

The lower limit can also be defined as being the size of

individual atoms. At the micrometer level are bulk materials. Both
mesoscopic and macroscopic objects contain a large number of atoms.
The average properties derived from its constituent
materials describe macroscopic objects. They usually obey the
laws of classical mechanics. The mesoscopic object, by contrast,
is affected by fluctuations around the average, and it is subject
to quantum mechanics.

Definition
The structures which have a size between the
macroscopic world and the microscopic or atomic one are
called mesoscopic structure. These structures have size usually
range from a few nanometres to about 100 nm.

The electrons in such mesoscopic systems show their

wavelike properties. Therefore, their behaviour is markedly
dependent on the geometry of the samples.

For the description of behaviour of electrons in solids it is

convenient to define a series of characteristic lengths. If the
dimensions (size) of the solid is of the order of, or smaller than these
characteristics lengths, the material might show new properties.

In fact, the physics needed to explain these new properties

is based on quantum mechanics. On the contrary, a mesoscopic
system approaches its macroscopic limit if its size is several time
its characteristics length.

Let us study some of the most commonly used characteristics

lengths in mesoscopic systems.

(i) de Broglie wavelength

It is well known from quantum mechanics that for an
electron of momentum p, there corresponds a wave of wavelength
given by the de-Broglie wavelength:

h h ...(1)
B  
p mv
5.26 Physics for Electronics Engineering

In eqn. (1) we substituted p by mv in a semiclassical

description, where m is the electron mass.
It is relatively easy to construct semiconductor
nanostructures with one or two of their dimensions of the order
of, or smaller than B.

(ii) Mean free path

As the electron moves inside a solid, it is usually scattered
by crystal imperfections like impurities, defects, lattice vibrations
(phonons), etc.
In most cases, these scattering events or “collisions” are
inelastic.
The distance travelled by the electron between two inelastic
collisions is usually called the mean free path le of the electron
in the solid. If v is the speed of the electron, then

l e  v e ...(2)

where e is known as the relaxation time.

(iii) Diffusion length

In a mesoscopic system of typical size L, the electrons can
move either in the ballistic regime or in the diffusive regime.
If the mean free path le is much larger than L, the particle
moves throughout the structure without scattering.
This is the so-called ballistic transport regime in which
the surfaces usually are the main scattering entities.
On the other hand, if le   L, transport can be explained
as a diffusion process. In this case, the system is characterized
by a diffusion coefficient D. In terms of D, the diffusion length
Le is defined by
1/2 ...(3)
Le  D e

where e is the relaxation time.

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.27

5.13 COHERENT TRANSPORT

In a mesoscopic structure of dimensions similar to the

electron de Broglie wavelength B, the behaviour of the electron
should be described quantum mechanically, i.e., by using
Schrodinger equation.
If the electron interacts inelastically with a defect, or any
impurity, the electrons change their energy and momentum and
the phase of their wave function.
The distance travelled by the electron without the
carrier wave changing its phase is defined as phase
coherence L.

Evidently, interference effects in the electron waves should

only be observed if the particles move over distances of the order
of, or smaller than, L.

In mesoscopic systems (ballistic regime) electrons are

practically unscatterred, L should be a length similar to the
inelastic scattering mean free path le. Coherent states can
evidently show interference effects.
On the contrary, once the coherent states loose their
coherence, by inelastic scattering, the corresponding waves
cannot be superposed and cannot show interference. The loss of
coherence is usually called dephasing. The coherence processes
are characteristic of mesoscopic systems.
The electrons can show interference effects over distances
smaller than L. If electrons with phase 1 interfere with
electrons of phase 2, the amplitude of the resultant wave varies
as cos 1  2 and the amplitudes can add up to each other,
or they can be subtracted depending on the phase difference.
Specifying to condensed matter systems, coherent effects
generate a broad variety of phenomena such as
superconductivity, weak localization corrections to transport,
persistent currents and other Aharonov-Bohm effects.
5.28 Physics for Electronics Engineering

One way to picture quantum wave coherence is to consider

an initially narrow wave-packet propagating through a complex
medium.

As time goes by, the complexity of the medium diffracts

the wave into an increasing number of partial waves. Coherent
effects emerge from interference between these partial waves.

5.14 CONDUCTANCE FLUCTUATIONS

Conductance (reciprocal of resistance) fluctuations in

quantum physics is a phenomenon exhibited in electrical
transport experiments in mesoscopic system.

The measured electrical conductance will vary from sample

to sample, mainly due to inhomogeneous scattering sites.

Fluctuations originate from coherence effects for electronic

wavefunctions and thus the phase-coherence length L needs to
be larger than the momentum relaxation length Lm.

For weakly localized samples fluctuation in conductance is

2
2e
equal to fundamental conductance Go  regardless of the
h
number of channels.

Factors influence Conductance fluctuation

At zero temperature without decoherence, the conductance
fluctuation is influenced by mainly two factors, the symmetry
and the shape of the sample.

Recently, a third key factor, anisotropy of Fermi surface,

is also found to fundamentally influence the amplitude of
conductance fluctuations.
In diffusive samples with many impurities, these changes
in interference cause random fluctuations of the electrical
conductance when an external parameter such as magnetic field
or gate voltage is varied.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.29

In the case when the phase coherence persists over the

entire volume of the structure, the fluctuations, sometimes
termed Universal Conductance Fluctuations (UCF).

For larger structures, the interference contributions from

different phase-coherent units of size L, are statistically
averaged.
As a result conductance fluctuations average out in
macroscopic samples. It can be only observed in mesoscopic
conductors having the size of a few L.

In semiconductors, L is typically of the order of 1 m at

liquid helium temperatures.

5.15 QUANTUM INTERFERENCE EFFECT

Quantum superposition
It is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. It
states that much like waves in classical physics, any two (or
more) quantum states can be added together (“superposed”) and
the result will be another valid quantum state. (Fig. 5.9)

Fig. 5.9 Quantum super position

5.30 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Magnetic fields can produce and control interference effects

between the electrons in solids. In order to observe interference
effects between different electron waves, their phase has to be
maintained.
The phase coherence length L is the distance travelled by
an electron without changing its phase. The phase of an electron
wave is generally destroyed when electrons interact inelastically
with defects in the lattice.
In general, ballistic electrons with a mean free path
le much larger than sample dimensions L, (i.e. le   L,)
travel through the lattice without scattering. Therefore
they show interference effects.
In 1959, Aaronov and Bohm proposed that an electron wave
in a solid has a phase factor which can be controlled by a
magnetic field. This phenomenon was proved by Webb in a
structure similar to that shown in figure 5.10.(a).

Fig. 5.10 (a) Schematics of an interferometric mesoscopic system

(b) conductance oscillations as a function of
magnetic field due to the Aharanov-Bohm effect.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.31

Consider a metallic ring of diameter 800 nm made of a

wire about 50 nm thick.

The electrons entering the ring at P have their wave

function amplitudes divided in two equal parts. Each one of the
two parts, travelling through a different arm of the ring.

When the waves reach the exit at Q, they can interfere.

Suppose that a magnetic flux  passes through a region inside
the ring, then the phase difference between the waves travelling
around upper and lower paths is  . It is given by

2 
   1  2  ...(1)
0

h
Where the quantity 0  is defined as the quantum of
e
flux.

The intensity of the interference of the waves, is

proportional to the probability amplitude given by

2 
P  1  2  cos 1  2  cos 2 ...(2)
0

and therefore interference effects should be observed when 

(magnetic flux) is varied.

According to the above result, it is observed a complete

oscillation when the magnetic flux through the structure is
changed by one magnetic quantum flux 0.

Since the flux area is fixed,  in eqn.(3), is proportional

to B. When B (flux density) is varied there will be oscillations
in observable quantities such as the conductance. Fig. 5.1 (b)
shows a pattern of conductance oscillations.
5.32 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Applications of Quantum Interference Effect

Quantum interference effect is being applied in a growing
number of applications, such as the

 Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID).

 quantum cryptography
 quantum computing and quantum interference transistor.

Quantum Interference Transistor (QUIT):

Electrons are made to propagate through two arms of the
quantum wire ring as shown in the Fig. 5.11.

Suppose an electron wave enters the ring from left to right.

The wave entering through “A” gets split up into two partial
waves. A constructive interference can be expected to occur at
“B” similar to the optical anlogue as they travel through the
same distance.

The constructive interference at the output of the device

reduces the resistance of the ring. Various methods of
introducing a phase difference of  between the two waves have
been suggested. This leads to destructive interference which in
turn will increase the resistance by reducing the current.

An external voltage can control the nature of interference

and the current. This device is expected to act as a high-speed
transistor.

Fig. 5.11 A simple quantum wire ring in which electrons the

interference of the electron waves at B controls the
conductance of the device
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.33

5.16 MAGNETIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Definition
The semiconducting materials which exhibit both
ferromagnetism (or a similar response) and useful
semiconductor properties are known as magnetic
semiconductors.
These materials can provide a new type of control of
conduction when implemented in devices. Conventional
electronics is based on control of charge carriers (n-or p-type).
Magnetic semiconductors can also allow control of quantum
spin state (up or down). This will provide spin polarization which
is an important property for spintronics applications (Ex: spin
transistors)

Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors (DMS):

Dilute magnetic semiconductors are based on
traditional semiconductors, but they are doped with
transition metals instead of, or in addition to,
electronically active elements.
They are of interest because of their unique spintronics
properties with possible technological applications. (Fig. 5.12)

Fig. 5.12 (a) a magnetic semiconductor (e.g. some spinels)

(b) a dilute magnetic semiconductor
(e.g. (GaMn) As, (InMn), P, ZnCoO etc)
(c) a non-magnetic semiconductor
(e.g. GaAs, InP, Cu2O, NiO etc)
5.34 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Examples for dilute magnetic semiconductor

Oxide semiconductors:
 Zinc oxide

 Manganese-doped zinc oxide

 n-type cobalt-doped zinc oxide

Magnesium oxide:
 p-type transparent MgO films with cation vacancies

Titanium dioxide:
 Cobalt-doped titanium dioxide

 Iron-doped titanium dioxide

 Chromium-doped titanium dioxide

 Copper-doped titanium dioxide

 Nickel-doped titanium dioxide

Tin dioxide
 Manganese-doped tin dioxide

 Iron-doped tin dioxide

 Strontium-doped tin dioxide SrSnO2

Nitride semiconductors
 Chromium doped aluminium nitride

Manganese semiconductors
 Manganese-doped indium arsenide and gallium arsenide

 Manganese-doped indium antimonide.

Applications
1. DMS are used to make quantum computing
architecture using spin polarized electron localized in
quantum dots as quantum bits.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.35

2. Doped wide band-gap metal oxides such as zinc oxide

(ZnO) and titanium oxide TiO2 are the best material
for industrial dilute magnetic semiconductors due to
their multifunctionality in magneto optic applications.
3. ZnO-based DMS with properties such as transparency
in visual region and piezoelectricity is used for the
fabrication of spin transistors and spin-polarized
Light-emitting diodes.
4. Copper doped TiO2 is used to exhibit favorable dilute
magnetism.

5.17 SPINTRONICS

Conventional electronic devices using semiconductors such

as silicon, rely on the transport of electrical charge carriers -
electrons.

The ‘spin’ of the electron can be used rather than its charge
to create a remarkable new generation of ‘spintronic’ devices.
These are smaller, more versatile and more robust than those
currently making up silicon chips and circuit elements.

All spintronic devices act according to the simple scheme.

1. Information is stored (written) into spins as a particular

spin orientation (up or down).
2. The spins, being associated to mobile electrons, carry
the information along a wire.
3. The information is read at a terminal.
Spin orientation of conduction electrons survives for a
relatively long time (nanoseconds, compared to tens of
femtoseconds during which electron momentum decays).

This makes spintronic devices particularly attractive for

memory storage and magnetic sensors applications, and
potentially for quantum computing.
5.36 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The electron spin will represent a bit (called qubit) of

information in quantum computing.

Magneto-electronics, Spin Electronics, and Spintronics are

different names used to refer the use of electrons spins in
information circuits.

Since the advent of spintronics our view of future electronic

devices and functionalities have significantly changed.

The two inherent properties of the electron ie., charge and

spin are nowadays considered on equal footing.

Spintronics links the conventional microelectronic

functionality of semiconductor building blocks to the nonvolatility
of magnetic building blocks.

Spin-FET

Spin polarized Field Effect Transistor (Spin FET) was

proposed by Datta-Das in 1990.

A possible implementation of spin based Field Effect

Transistor (SPIN Polarized Field Effect Transistor, SPIN-FET)
structure is shown in fig 5.13.

In these devices, a non magnetic layer is used for

transmitting and controlling the spin polarized electrons from
source to drain and it plays a crucial role.

For functioning of this device, first the spins have to be

injected from source into this non-magnetic layer and then
transmitted to the collector.

These non-magnetic layers are also called as semimetals,

because they have very large spin diffusion lengths.

The injected spins which are transmitted through this layer

start precessing as illustrated in fig 5.13. before they reach the
collector due to the spin-orbit coupling effect.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.37

Hence, the net spin polarization is reduced. In order to

solve this problem an electrical field is applied perpendicularly
to the plane of the film by depositing a gate electrode on the
top to reduce the spin-orbit coupling effect.

In fig. 5.13 Vg is the gate voltage. When Vg is zero the

injected spins which are transmitted through the 2DEG
(2-Dimensional Electron Gas) layer starts precessing before they
reach the collector, thereby reducing the net spin polarization.

Fig. 5.13

When Vg   0 the precession of the electrons is controlled

with electrical filed thereby allowing the spins to reach at the
collector with the same polarization.

By controlling the gate voltage and polarity, the current

in the collector can be modulated just like the MOSFET of the
conventional electronics.

Electronics Vs Spintronics
SNo Electronics Spintronics
1. Power failure problem No power failure problem
2. “Boot up” waiting problem No “Boot up” waiting
in Electronic Systems problem
5.38 Physics for Electronics Engineering

3. More Power Consumption Less Power Consumption

4. Less Compact More Compact
5. Normal Speed Faster Transfer
6. Cheaper Costlier

Carbon

In nanotechnology, researchers are looking out for certain

materials with desired properties through which the nanoscale
components and structures can be obtained.

Carbon is found to be one such material suitable for

nanotechnology based components due to its inherent desirable
properties.

Carbon is a unique atom among other elements because

of its ability to exist in a wide variety of structures and forms
as shown in the fig. 5.14.

Fig. 5.14 Different forms of carbon molecules

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.39

Pure carbon exists in four different crystalline forms

namely Diamond, Graphite, Fullerenes and Nanotubes.
Carbon atom is the basic building block of these crystalline
structure. Among these, Fullerenes and Nanotubes are found
to be useful in nanotechnology for various fabrication of
nanostructures.

5.18 CARBON NANOTUBES (CNT)

A group of nanostructures with large potential applications
are carbon nanotubes. The hexagonal lattice of carbon is
simply graphite. A single layer of graphite is called graphene.
(fig. 5.15)

Fig. 5.15 Graphene sheet

The carbon nanotube (CNT) consists of a graphene layer

which is rolled up into a cylindrical shape as shown in fig.5.15.

When the graphene layer is rolled, the structure is tube like

and it is a single molecule. Each single molecule nanotube is made
up of a hexagonal network of covalently bonded carbon atoms.

In some cases, the hexagons are arranged in a spiral form.

The layer appears like a rolled-up chicken wire (net having a
large hexagonal mesh) with carbon atoms at the apexes of the
hexagon as shown in fig.5.16.

The carbon nanotubes are hollow cylinders of extremely

thin diameter, 10,000 times smaller than a human hair.
5.40 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Fig. 5.16 SWCNT formed from graphene sheet

Structures of CNT
The CNTs have many structures on the basis of their
length, type of spiral and number of layers. Their electrical
properties depend on their structure and they act as both a
metal or a semiconductor.
There are a variety of structures of carbon nanotubes with
different properties.

Types CNT structures

Three types of nanotube structures are considered by rolling
a graphite sheet with different orientations about the axis.
They are
(i) Armchair structure
(ii) Zig-zag structure
(iii) Chiral structure

Armchair structure
When the axis of the tube parallel to CC bonds of the
carbon hexagons, the structure shown in fig. 5.17(a) is obtained.
It is referred as “armchair” structure.

Zig-zag and Chiral structure

The tubes sketched in figs. 5.17(b) and 5.17(c), referred as
zig-zag and chiral structure. They are formed by rolling
graphene sheet such that the axis of the tube is not parallel
to CC bonds.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.41

Zig-zag structure consists of tube axis perpendicular to

CC bonds.
In chiral structure, CC bond is inclined towards the axis
of the tube.
Generally, nanotubes are closed at both ends with half of
fullerene structure.

Fig. 5.17 Illustration structures of carbon nanotubes

(a) armchair structure ;
(b) zigzag structure
(c) chiral structure
5.42 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Classification of CNT
Based on the number of layers, the carbon nanotubes are
classified as

(i) Single-walled (SWNTs)

(ii) Multi-walled (MWNTs).
In multi-walled nanotubes, more than one CNTs are
coaxially arranged.

5.19 PROPERTIES OF CNTs

(a) Electrical Properties

(i) Carbon nanotubes are metallic or semiconducting
depending on the diameter and chirality (ie., how the
tubes are rolled).
(ii) The energy gap of semiconducting chiral carbon
nanotubes is inversely proportional to the diameter of
the tube as shown in fig 5.18.

Fig. 5.18 Plot of the magnitude of the energy band gap of a

semiconducting, chiral carbon nanotube versus the
reciprocal of the diameter of the tube 10 Å  1 nm.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.43

The energy bandgap decreases with increase of

diameter of the CNTs.
(iii) The energy gap also varies along the tube axis and
reaches a minimum value at the tube ends. This is
due to the presence of localized defects at the ends due
to the extra energy states.
(iv) In SWNTs, conduction occurs through discrete
electronic states that are coherent between the
electrical contacts (hundreds of nanometers).
This means that nanotubes can be treated as quantum
wires atleast at very low temperatures.

(b) Mechanical Properties

(i) The strength of the carbon-carbon bond is very high

therefore any structure based on aligned carbon-carbon
bonds will ultimately have high strength.
(ii) 12
Young’s modulus of CNT is about 1.8 TPa (10 Pa
about 10 times larger than that of steel).
Nanotubes have therefore high ultimate tensile-strength
(iii) One of the important properties of nanotubes is their
ability to withstand extreme strain.
(iv) The carbon nano tubes can recover from severe
structural distortions. This is due to the ability of
carbon atoms to rehybridize.

(c) Physical Properties

(i) Nanotubes have a high strength-to-weight ratio (density
3 3
of 1.8 g/cm for MWNTs and 0.8 g/cm for SWNTs). This
is indeed useful for lightweight applications. This value
is about 100 times that of steel and over twice that
of conventional carbon fibres.
(ii) The surface area of nanotubes is of the order of
2
10  20 m /g which is higher than that of graphite.
5.44 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(d) Chemical properties

Nanotubes are highly resistant to any chemical reaction.

It is difficult to oxidize them and the onset of oxidation in
nanotubes is 100C higher than that of carbon fibres.

As a result, temperature is not a limitation in practical

application of nanotubes.

(e) Thermal properties

Nanotubes have a high thermal conductivity and the value

increases with decrease in diameter.

5.20 APPLICATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBES

The unusual properties of carbon nano tubes have many

applications such as battery electrodes, electronic devices and
reinforcing fibers for stronger composites etc.,

Electrical and Electronics applications

(i) When a small electrical field is applied parallel to the
axis of a nanotube, the electrons are emitted at a very
high rate from the ends of the tube. This is called field
emission and it is used in development of flat panel
displays.
(ii) Vacuum tube lamps that are as bright as conventional
light bulbs with long life time and more efficient can
be produced using CNT.
(iii) Semiconducting carbon nanotubes connecting two gold
electrodes form field effect transistors (FET) device as
shown in fig. 5.19.
The switching time of these devices is very fast. They
4
exhibit clock speeds of a terahertz which is 10 times
faster than present processors. Further, small size
allows a large number of component in a chip.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.45

Fig. 5.19 A field-effect transistor made from

a carbon nanotube

(iv) Carbon nanotubes with diameters of 2 nm have

extremely low resistance and thus they can carry large
currents without getting heated. So, they can be used
as interconnects in chip.

Computer applications
Carbon nanotubes can be used to make a computer
switching device as shown in fig. 5.20.

Fig. 5.20 Illustration of a computer

switching device made from carbon nanotubes.

Battery technology

(i) Carbon nanotubes have many applications in battery

technology. Lithium which is a charge carrier in some
batteries, can be stored inside nanotube.
(ii) Carbon nano tube can be used for storing the hydrogen
which is used in the development of fuel cells (fig.5.21).
5.46 Physics for Electronics Engineering

The cell consists of an electrolytic solution of KOH with

a negative electrode consisting of carbon nanotube
(CNT) paper

Fig 5.21 An electrochemical cell used to inject hydrogen

into carbon nanotubes.

Mechanical Applications
(i) Nanotubes can be used to increase the tensile strength
of steel.
(ii) A plastic composite of carbon nanotubes provides light
weight shielding material for electromagnetic radiation.

Chemical applications
(i) A field-effect transistor made of chiral semiconducting
carbon nanotubes is used as sensitive detector of
various gases (gas sensors).
Fig. 5.22 shows the voltage-current characteristics
before and after exposure to NO2.

(ii) Nanotubes act as catalysts for some chemical reactions.

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.47

5.22 V-I characteristics of carbon nanotube

FET before and after exposure to NO2 gas.
5.48 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

1. Define nano materials.

Nanophase materials are newly developed materials with

9
grain size at the nanometre range 10 m, i.e., in the o rder
o f 1 - 100 nm. The partic le size in a nano material is 1 nm.
2. Define density of states.

Elec tro n density is the number o f elec tro ns per unit vo lume
in a material. It is determined by using density o f states.
3. Define Fermi energy.

It is defined as the highest energy level o c c upied by the

elec tro n at 0K in metal.
4. What is a quantum confinement?

It is a pro c ess o f reduc tio n o f the size o f the so lid suc h

that the energy levels inside bec o me disc rete.
5. What is quantum structure?

When a bulk material is reduc ed in its size, atleast o ne

o f its dimensio n, in the o rder o f few nano metres, then the
struc ture is kno w n as quantum struc ture.
6. Define Zener-Bloch oscillation.

It deno tes the o sc illatio n o f a partic le (e.g. an elec tro n)

c o nfined in a perio dic po tential w hen a c o nstant fo rc e is ac ting
o n it.
7. What is resonant tunneling?

The transmissio n pro bability o f the do uble symmetric

barrier is maximum and henc e the tunneling c urrent reac hes
peak value w hen energy o f elec tro n w ave is equal to quantised
energy state o f the w ell.
This pheno meno n is kno w n as reso nanc e tunneling.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.49

8. What is single electron phenomena?

Present day, transistors require 10,000 electrons. Rather

than moving many electrons through transistors, it may very
well be practical and necessary to move electrons one at a time.
The phenomena in known as single electron phenomena.

9. Define Coulomb-Blockade effect.

The charging effect which blocks the injection or rejection

of a single charge into or from a quantum dot is called Coulomb
blockade effect.

10. What is the condition for Coulomb-Blockade effect?

If two or more charges near one another, they exert

coulomb forces upon each other. If two charges are the same
kind, the force is repulsive. Therefore, the condition for observing
coulomb blockade effects is expressed as

2
e ...(1)
WC  k T
2C

where C – capacitance of the quantum dot

T – temperature of the system.
WC – Charging energy and this is the energy needed to
add one negatively charged electron to the dot.

11. What is single electron tunneling?

The quantization of charge can dominate and tunneling of

single electrons across leaky capacitors carries the current. This
is called single electron tunneling.

12. What is a Single Electron Transistor?

SET is three-terminal switching devices which can transfer

electrons from source to drain one by one.
5.50 Physics for Electronics Engineering

13. What are the advantages of single electron transistor?

 The fast information transfer velocity between cells

(almost near optic velocity) is carried ont via electrostatic
interactions only.
 No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell
can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made them very suitable
for high density memory.
 This can be used for the next generation quantum
computer.

14. What are the limitations of single electron transistor?

 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the

size of the quantum dot should be smaller than 10 nm.

 It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical

lithography and semiconductor process.

 The methods must be developed for connecting the

individual structures into logic circuits and these circuits
must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.

15. What are the applications of single electron

Transistor?

 A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or

NOR gates, is obtained based on SET operating at room
temperature.
 It is used for mass data storage.
 It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.

 SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly

in the range of very low temperatures.
 SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron
spectroscopy.
 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver
operating at frequencies between 10 and 300 MHz.
Nanoelectronic Devices 5.51

16. What is mesoscopic structure?

The structures which have a size between the macroscopic

world and the microscopic or atomic one are called mesoscopic
structure.
17. What is conductance fluctuation?

Conductance (reciprocal of resistance) fluctuations in

quantum physics is a phenomenon exhibited in electrical
transport experiments in mesoscopic system.
18. What is quantum interference effect?

It states that much like waves in classical physics, any

two (or more) quantum states can be added together
(“superposed”) and the result will be another valid quantum
state.
19. What are the applications of quantum interference
effect?

Quantum interference effect is being applied in a growing

number of applications, such as the
 Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID).
 quantum cryptography
 quantum computing and quantum interference transistor.

20. What are magnetic semiconductors?

The semiconducting materials which exhibit both

ferromagnetism and useful semiconductor properties are known
as magnetic semiconductors.

21. Give the examples for dilute magnetic semiconductor.

Oxide semiconductors:
 Zinc oxide

 Manganese-doped zinc oxide

 n-type cobalt-doped zinc oxide

5.52 Physics for Electronics Engineering

Magnesium oxide:
 p-type transparent MgO films with cation vacancies

Titanium dioxide:
 Cobalt-doped titanium dioxide

 Iron-doped titanium dioxide

 Chromium-doped titanium dioxide

 Copper-doped titanium dioxide

 Nickel-doped titanium dioxide

22. What is spintronics?

The ‘spin’ of the electron can be used rather than its charge
to create a remarkable new generation of ‘spintronic’ devices.
These are smaller, more versatile and more robust than those
currently making up silicon chips and circuit elements.

23. What is a carbon nano tube?

The carbon nanotubes are the wires of pure carbon like

rolled sheets of graphite or like soda straws.

24. What are the types of carbon nano tube structure?

Three types of nanotube structures are considered by

rolling a graphite sheet with different orientations about the
axis.

They are

(i) Armchair structure

(ii) Zig-zag structure

(iii) Chiral structure

Nanoelectronic Devices 5.53

25. How carbon nanotubes are classified

Based on the number of layers, the carbon nanotubes are

classified as

(i) Single-walled (SWNTs)

(ii) Multi-walled (MWNTs).
In multi-walled nanotubes, more than one CNTs are
coaxially arranged.

26. Mention any two properties of carbon nano tubes.

 Carbon nanotubes are metallic or semiconducting

depending on the diameter and chirality (ie., how the tubes
are rolled).

 The energy gap also varies along the tube axis and
reaches a minimum value at the tube ends.

 The strength of the carbon-carbon bond is very high

therefore any structure based on aligned carbon-carbon
bonds will ultimately have high strength.

 One of the important properties of nanotubes is their

ability to withstand extreme strain.

 Nanotubes have a high strength-to-weight ratio.

 Nanotubes have a high thermal conductivity and the

value increases with decrease in diameter.

27. Write down any two applications of carbon nano tube.

 The unusual properties of carbon nano tubes have many

applications such as battery electrodes, electronic devices
and reinforcing fibers for stronger composites etc.,

 Carbon nanotubes can be used to make a computer

switching device.
5.54 Physics for Electronics Engineering

 Carbon nanotubes have many applications in battery

technology. Lithium which is a charge carrier in some
batteries, can be stored inside nanotube.

 Carbon nano tube can be used for storing the hydrogen

which is used in the development of fuel cells.

 Nanotubes can be used to increase the tensile strength of

steel.

 A plastic composite of carbon nanotubes provides light

weight shielding material for electromagnetic radiation.

 Nanotubes act as catalysts for some chemical reactions.

PART - B (16 Marks Questions)

1. Explain the electron density in bulk material and size

dependence of fermi energy.

2. Explain quantum confinement and quantum structures in

Nano material.

3. Discuss density of states in quantum well, quantum wire

and quantum dot structure.

4. Write note on Zener-Block oscillations resonant tunneling

quantum interference effect.

5. Write note on mesoscopic structure, conductance fluctuations

and coherent transport.

6. Explain coulomb blockade effect and single electron phenomena.

7. Describe construction and working of single electron transistor.

8. Write note on magnetic semiconductor.

9. Discuss on spintronics and also on spin based Field Effect

Transistor.

10. Describe the carbon nano tubes with properties and

applications.
Model Question Papers 1

B.E./B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION

PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(Common to BME, ME, CC, ECE, EEE, E & I & ICE)
(Regulations - 2017)
Subject Code: PH8253
Model Question Paper - I
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A – (10  2  20 marks)
1. Define Fermi distribution function.
2. What is periodic potential?
3. What is zener break down?
4. What are the differences between Schottky diode and ohmic
contacts?

5. What is saturation magnetization?

6. Define dielectric loss.
7. What is the basic principle behind LED?
8. What are the advantages of QD Lasers?
9. Define Zener-Bloch oscillation.
10. What is spintronics?
Part - B (5  16  80 marks)
11. (a) Starting with the classical free electron theory of metals
obtain an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity
and hence prove Wiedemann-Franz law. (16)
(Or)
(b) Obtain an expression for density of states. (16)

12. (a) Obtain an expression for intrinsic carrier concentration

in an intrinsic semiconductor.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the phenomenon of Hall effect.
2 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(ii) Derive an expression for Hall co-efficient for an

n-type semiconductor. Also state how Hall voltage
is related.

13. (a) Describe the ferromagnetic domain theory in detail.

(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the term internal field in solids. Derive
an expression or the Lorentz field for elemental
dielectrics.

(ii) Obtain Clausius-Mossotti equation for elemental

solid dielectrics.

14. (a) Explain in detail carrier generation and recombination

in semiconductor.

(Or)
(b) Explain the basic concept of OLED, types, advantages,
disadvantages and applications.

15. (a) (i) Explain the electron density in bulk material and
size dependence of Fermi energy.

(ii) Discuss density of states in quantum well,

quantum wire and quantum dot structure.

(Or)
(b) (i) Write note on magnetic semiconductor.

(ii) Describe the carbon nano tubes with their

properties and applications.
Model Question Papers 3

B.E./B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION

PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(Common to BME, ME, CC, ECE, EEE, E & I & ICE)
(Regulations - 2017)
Subject Code: PH8253
Model Question Paper - II
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A – (10  2  20 marks)
1. Define electrical conductivity. What is its unit.
2. What is effective mass of electrons?
3. Define diffusion current.
4. What are power transistors?
5. Differentiate soft and hard magnetic materials?
6. What are requirements of good insulating materials?
7. Define scattering of light.
8. What are the applications and uses of LEDs?
9. What is a single electron transistor?
10. Write down any two applications of carbon nano-tube.
Part - B (5  16  80 marks)
11. (a) (i) List the draw backs of classical free electron
theory.

(ii) Obtain an expression for the thermal conductivity

of metal and hence the Wiedemann Franz law.

(Or)
(b) Describe the formation energy bands in solids based on
band theory.
12. (a) (i) Derive an expression for concentration of holes
(absence of electrons) in intrinsic semiconductors.

(ii) Explain Hall devices

4 Physics for Electronics Engineering

(Or)
(b) (i) Write a note on ohmic contact.

(ii) Describe the construction and working of tunnel

diode.

13. (a) (i) Explain how magnetic materials are classified.

(ii) Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic

materials.

(Or)
(b) Explain types of dielectric breakdown occur in dielectric
materials.

14. (a) (i) Describe excitons with example.

(ii) Describe the construction and working of

photodiode.

(Or)
(b) (i) Explain quantum dot lasers. What are their
advantages and applications.

(ii) Explain quantum-confined stark effect.

15. (a) (i) Write note a Zener-Block oscillations, resonant

tunneling, quantum interference effect.

(ii) Explain coulomb blockade effect and single electron

phenomena.

(Or)
(b) (i) Write note on mesoscopic structure conductance
fluctuations and coherent transport.

(ii) Discuss spintronics and also on spin based Field

Effect Transistor.
Model Question Papers 5

B.E./B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION

PHYSICS FOR ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(Common to BME, ME, CC, ECE, EEE, E & I & ICE)
(Regulations - 2017)
Subject Code: PH8253
Model Question Paper - III
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A – (10  2  20 marks)
1. Mention the success of classical free electron theory.
2. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons with
3 2 1 1
mobility of 3.5  10 m v s in copper for an electric
field strength of 0.5 v/m.
3. Define Hall-effect and Hall-voltage.
4. What is avalanche breakdown?
5. What is curie constant?
6. What is high-k dielectric?
7. What are types of carrier generations?
8. State Quantum confined state effect.
9. Define Coulomb-Blockade effect.
10. Mention the properties of carbon nanotube.
Part - B (5  16  80 marks)
11. (a) (i) Mention any four postulates of the classical free
electron theory.

(ii) Obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity

on the basis of the classical free electron theory.

(Or)
(b) (i) Write Fermi-Dirac function and obtain an
expression for the density of states.

(ii) Explain the concept of hole.

6 Physics for Electronics Engineering

12. (a) Obtain an expression for the density of holes in the

valance band of p-type semiconductors and show that
it is proportional to the square root of the acceptor
concentration at low temperature.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain zener and avalanche breakdowns in P-N
junctions.

(ii) Explain principle and working of metal oxide

semiconductor capacitor.

13. (a) Discuss the origin of ferromagnetism and exchange

interaction.
(Or)
(b) (i) Describe the different types of polarization.

(ii) Obtain an expression for electronic and ionic

polarization in dielectrics.

14. (a) Describe absorption and emission of light in metal,

insulator and semiconductor.
(Or)
(b) Explain the construction and working of a LED with
energy band diagram.
15. (a) Explain quantum confinement and quantum structures
in nano-materials.
(Or)
(b) Describe construction and working of single electron
transistor.