Module 1: Basics of Semiconductors

Introduction to Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between conductors (like metals) and insulators (like glass). Their
conductivity is temperature-dependent and can be enhanced through doping.

Types of Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

o Pure semiconductors without any impurity.

o Conductivity arises from thermally generated electron-hole pairs.

o Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge).

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors:

o Doped semiconductors to enhance conductivity.

o n-type: Adding donor impurities (e.g., phosphorus) introduces free electrons.

o p-type: Adding acceptor impurities (e.g., boron) creates holes as charge carriers.

Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductors

• Thermal Generation: At room temperature, some covalent bonds break, generating electron-hole pairs.

• Carrier Concentration Formula: ni=NcNve−Eg2kTn_i = \sqrt{N_c N_v} e^{\frac{-E_g}{2kT}}

o nin_i: Intrinsic carrier concentration.

o Nc,NvN_c, N_v: Effective density of states in conduction and valence bands.

o EgE_g: Band gap energy.

o kk: Boltzmann constant.

o TT: Absolute temperature (Kelvin).

Fermi Level in Semiconductors

• The Fermi level (EFE_F) is the energy level where the probability of finding an electron is 50%.

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

o Fermi level lies midway between conduction and valence bands.

o Formula: EF=Ec+Ev2E_F = \frac{E_c + E_v}{2}

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors:

o n-type: Fermi level shifts towards the conduction band.

o p-type: Fermi level shifts towards the valence band.

Conductivity

Conductivity (σ\sigma) of a semiconductor depends on carrier concentration and mobility.

σ=q(nμn+pμp)\sigma = q(n\mu_n + p\mu_p)

• qq: Electron charge.

• μn,μp\mu_n, \mu_p: Mobilities of electrons and holes.

Hall Effect

• When a current-carrying conductor/semiconductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage (Hall voltage)
develops perpendicular to both current and field directions.

• Formula: VH=IBqndV_H = \frac{IB}{qnd}

o II: Current.

o BB: Magnetic field strength.

o qq: Charge of carriers.

o nn: Carrier concentration.

o dd: Thickness of the material.

• Applications:

o Measuring magnetic fields.

o Determining carrier type and concentration.

Module 2: Junction Diode

• When a p-type and n-type material are joined, electrons and holes near the junction diffuse, forming a depletion
region devoid of free carriers.

• Barrier Potential: Prevents further diffusion of carriers.

Diode Equation

I=Is(eqVkT−1)I = I_s \left( e^{\frac{qV}{kT}} - 1 \right)

• II: Total current through the diode.

• IsI_s: Reverse saturation current.

• VV: Voltage across the diode.

• TT: Temperature in Kelvin.

Biasing of p-n Junction Diode

1. Forward Bias:

o Reduces barrier potential.

o Allows current flow.

2. Reverse Bias:

o Increases barrier potential.

o Blocks current flow (except for leakage current).

• Working Principle: Emits light when electrons recombine with holes in forward bias.

• Material: Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP).

• Applications: Displays, indicators, and lighting.

Module 3: Important Diodes

• Converts light energy into electrical current.

• Operation: Works in reverse bias; photocurrent is proportional to light intensity.

• Applications: Light sensing, cameras, and optical communication.

Solar Cell

• Principle: Converts sunlight into electrical energy via the photovoltaic effect.

• Efficiency Factors: Band gap, material properties.

• Applications: Solar panels and power generation.

Zener Diode

• Operates in reverse breakdown to maintain a constant voltage.

• Applications: Voltage regulation in power supplies.

Varactor Diode

• Acts as a variable capacitor.

• Applications: Tuning in radios, TV receivers.

Module 4: Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

• Three regions:

o Emitter: Emits majority carriers.

o Base: Thin and lightly doped.

o Collector: Collects majority carriers.

Modes of Operation

1. Cut-off: Both junctions reverse-biased (BJT OFF).

2. Active: Emitter-base forward-biased, base-collector reverse-biased (used for amplification).

Amplification

• Collector current (IcI_c) is controlled by base current (IbI_b).

Ic=βIbI_c = \beta I_b

• β\beta: Current gain.

Module 5: Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

1. JFET: Junction Field Effect Transistor.

2. MOSFET: Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET.

MOSFET Modes

1. Enhancement Mode: Requires a gate voltage to create a conducting channel.

2. Depletion Mode: Conducts even without gate voltage.

Applications of MOSFETs

• Used in digital circuits, amplifiers, and power electronics.

Module 6: Nanotechnology
Introduction

• Nanotechnology: Science of manipulating materials at the atomic or molecular scale (1-100 nm).

Properties of Nanomaterials

1. Optical: Quantum confinement leads to enhanced absorption and emission.

2. Electrical: Higher conductivity due to reduced electron scattering.

3. Mechanical: Improved strength and flexibility.

Applications

1. Lithography: Creating nanoscale patterns for electronics.

2. Single Electron Transfer (SET): Used in quantum devices.

3. Spin Valves: Used in magnetic data storage.