TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
THAPATHALI CAMPUS
Basic Electronics Engineering
BEX,BCT,BEL,BIE,BCE,BME,BAME
Chapter 2: Diodes
Er. Umesh Kanta Ghimire
Department of Electronics & Computer Engineering
IOE ,Thapathali Campus
ukg@tcioe.edu.np
+977-9843082840
30 August, 2020
Introduction to Semiconductor
• Semiconductor devices are the fundamental building blocks from which all types of
useful electronic products are manufactured
• EX. Amplifiers, power supplies, high frequency communication equipment etc.
• Most semiconductor materials used in electronics industry have negative
temperature coefficients.
• Semiconductors conduct electricity better than insulators and worse than conductors
• EX. Silicon & Germanium are most used semiconductors
• The main characteristics of semiconductors are
a) Higher resistance than Metals & lower resistance than insulators
b) Negative temperature coefficient i.e. Resistance decreases with temperature rise
Types of semiconductor
There are two types of semiconductor
a) Intrinsic semiconductor
b) Extrinsic semiconductor

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 2

Intrinsic semiconductor
• A semiconductor in its pure form is known as Intrinsic semiconductor
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole-electron
pairs are created
• When electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the
current conduction takes place by two ways
a) By free electrons
b) By Holes

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 3

Intrinsic semiconductor….
• The free electrons are produced
due to the breaking up of some
covalent bonds by Thermal
energy, At the same time, holes
are created in the covalent bonds.
• Under the influence of electric
field, the conduction is due to both
free electrons & holes.
In Intrinsic semiconductor, No. of
electrons = No. of holes
Total current inside semiconductor =
Current due to a free electrons +
currents due to holes.
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 4
Extrinsic semiconductor

• Some impurities atoms are added to pure semi-conductor materials to

improve conductivity
• The process of adding impurities to the pure semiconductor is called
Doping , and the resulting material is called as extrinsic semiconductor
• Depending upon the type of impurity added, there are two types of
extrinsic semiconductor
a) N-type Semiconductor
b) P-type semiconductor

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 5

N-type semiconductor
• When the Pentavalent atoms such• However due to Thermal
as phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), dissociation of bonds, the
Antimony (Sb) are used as the minority carriers i.e. Holes may
dopant in doping process, the also present.
resulting material is N- type
semiconductor
• Due to presence of five electrons
in outer orbit (Among which four
form covalent bonds with silicon
or Germanium and one is free for
Conduction); The majority carrier
of this material is Electrons
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 6
P-type semiconductor
• When Trivalent atoms such Aluminum (Al), Boron (B), Gallium (Ga),
Indium (In) are used as dopant in doping process, the P-type
Semiconductors formed
• Due to presence of only three electrons in outer orbit it needs one more
electron for bonding with silicon or Germanium atom
• So there appears the positively charged vacant called Holes
• The Holes thus are the majority charge carriers in this material
• However due to thermal dissociation of covalent bonds the minority
carriers are (i.e. Electrons) also present

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 7

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 8

Conduction from Electron & Holes
• An Intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at
room temperature has sufficient
heat (thermal) energy for some
valence electrons to jump the
forbidden gap (energy gap) from
valence band in to the conduction
band, becoming free electrons
• Free electrons are also called
Conduction eletron

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 9

Conduction Electron & Holes….
• When an electron jumps to the
conduction band, a vacant left in the
valence band.
• This Vacancy is called Hole
• For every electron raised on conduction
band by external energy, there is one
hole left in the valence band, creating
Electron-hole pair
• Recombination occurs when
conduction band electron looses
energy & falls back into a hole in the
valence band

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 10

Electron & Hole current
• When a voltage is applied across• However these valence electron can
intrinsic semiconductor; the thermally move into a nearby hole with little
generated free electrons in the change in its energy level, thus leaving
conduction band moves freely in the another hole where it came from
crystal structure, are now easily• We can see that holes moved from one
attracted towards the positive end place to another in valence band of
• This movement of free electrons is called crystal structure; This is Hole current
Electron current
• In the valence band holes are created
due to the free electrons
• Some electrons remains in the valence
band and are not free to move
randomly like free electrons
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 11
Diffusion & Drift
• There are two mechanisms by which holes & electrons move through
silicon crystal called Diffusion and Drift
• Diffusion is associated with random motion due to thermal agitation.
Electron diffuses from Higher concentration to lower concentration. The
diffusion process results to a net flow of charge or Diffusion current
• Carrier drift is occurred when an electric field is applied across the
silicon atom. The electrons and holes acquire the velocity due to the
electric field called Drift velocity
• The positively charged holes drift in the direction of field (E), and
acquire a drift velocity. Whereas the electrons drift in the direction
opposite to direction of field (E), Thus the charges drift from one side
to another causing the current flow called Drift Current

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 12

PN-junction and junction Diode
• When P-type and N-type extrinsic materials are placed in contact with
each other then the majority charge carriers (i.e. Holes from P-type &
electrons from N-type) diffuses to opposite sides
• i.e. Holes from P-type diffuses to N-type and Electrons from N-type
diffuses to P-type, forming the junction called PN-junction
• The device thus made is called PN-junction diode or simply Junction
Diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 13

PN-junction and junction Diode….
• Initially, both semiconductors (P & N-type) are neutral
• At the instant when the two materials are joined then diffusion of
electrons from N to P & holes from P to N occurs, and the process of
recombination occurs
• The N-type materials acquires an excess of positive charge near the
junction and the P-type material acquires an excess of negative
charge
• i.e. The holes leaves the negative ion & electron leaves the positive
ion at their respective sides near to the junction
• The ions so formed are immobile and stay near the function.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 14

PN-junction and junction Diode….
• The negative ions stay in P-type materials and positive ions stay in N-
type materials forming a layer called Depletion layer
• This layer is devoid of free electrons & mobile holes
• This small region acts as insulator and tends to stop further diffusion
process
• The +ve ions & -ve ions are accumulated at two sides and separated
by EB distance, So electric field is set up in this region
• The Barrier field thus set up a potential difference across a depletion
layer called Barrier potential
• For silicon(Si) this voltage is 0.7V whereas for Germanium(Ge) is 0.3V

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 15

Biasing of PN-junction diode
Biasing is the process of connecting the diode terminal with the source
terminals. It can be done by two ways: Forward & Reversed biasing
Forward biasing
• If the +VE terminal of battery is connected to P-type & -VE terminal
of battery is connected to N-type material, the connection is called
forward biasing.
• The diode (PN-junction diode) conducts in forward biased condition

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 16

Biasing of PN-junction diode….
Reversed biasing
• If the -VE terminal of battery is connected to P-type and +VE terminal
of battery is connected to N-type then the connection is called Reverse
biasing
• The PN-junction diode do not conduct in Reverse biased condition

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 17

Semiconductor diode
• A semiconductor diode is fundamental electronic device which is basic
concept for all the electronic device
• The Symbol of the PN-junction diode is given below

• Here the arrow indicates the major direction of flow of Current & the dash
denotes the potential barrier
• The semiconductor diode is of two types
a) Ideal semiconductor diode
b) Practical semiconductor diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 18

Ideal Semiconductor diode
• An ideal semiconductor diode conducts current only when it is forward
biased
• When it is forward biased it has zero resistance and has infinite
resistance in reverse biased condition

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 19

Practical semiconductor diode
• The practical diode also conducts when it is forward biased and
practically does not conducts (or conducts a very small reverse current)
when it is reversed biased
• The reverse biased condition is analyzed from two characteristics
a) Forward characteristics
b) Reverse characteristics
Forward Characteristics
• When PN-junction diode is forward biased then a very little current
(almost zero) called forward current flows until the forward voltage
exceeds the junction barrier potential (0.3V for Ge & 0.7V for Si)
• The Characteristics follow an exponential law

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 20

Forward Characteristics….
• As the forward Voltage is beyond a certain valve, extremely
increased, the barrier potential is large current will flow & PN-
progressively reduced to zero, junction may get destroyed due to
allowing more & more majority overheating
charge carriers to flow across the
junction
• Beyond the knee voltage, the
barrier is completely eliminated &
the forward current increases
almost linearly with increase in
forward voltage
• If the forward voltage is increased

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 21

Reverse characteristics
• When a reverse bias is applied then the potential barrier is increased,
therefore the junction resistance becomes a very high & there is no
possibility of majority carriers flow
• The minority carriers generated on each side can cross the junction.
This results in a very small current called Reverse current
• Only a very small reverse voltage is necessary to direct all available
minority carrier across the junction
• When all minority carriers are flowing across, further increase in bias
voltage will not increase the current.
• This current is called Reverse saturation current

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 22

Reverse characteristics….
• Hence the I-V characteristics for
a practical diode is,

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 23

Terminal characteristics of Junction diode
To study the characteristics of diode we have a current- voltage equation governing
the diode operation. The current-Voltage equation of a diode is also known as
Shockley diode Equation.
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS [𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 - 1] ; for forward biasing
Where, Is = Reverse saturation current or scale current
KT
VT = Thermal voltage and VT = q
and it's value is approximately 25.2 mv (≈ 25mv) at normal room temperature
K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K
T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin
q = Charge (1.6 × 10-19 C)
n = Constant (1 or 2) depending upon the material & physical structure of the
diode. (Standard diodes made with IC technology has n ≈ 1)
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 24
Terminal characteristics of Junction diode
For reverse biasing, the source is reversed. The I-V relation is same but
exponential term is negligibly small.
So we get,
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS [𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 - 1]
𝑉𝐷
Since 𝑒 ≪1
𝑛𝑉𝑇

so ID = IS [-1] = -IS
∴ ID= -IS
It shows that the reverse direction current is constant and equal to IS ;
Reverse saturation current .
The negative sign shows that the diode conducts IS in reversed biased
conduction

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 25

 ID2 ID2
Prove that, VD2-VD1 = ∆VD =nVTln I =2.3nVTlog I
D1 D1
For appropriate current ID in the forward direction ,
specially for ID >>IS
The diode equation be
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS [𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 - 1]
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS [𝑒 ]
𝑛𝑉𝑇

Let ID1 is the current flowing through the diode when voltage across its terminal
is VD1 and ID2 is the current flowing through the diode when voltage across its
terminal is VD2
𝑉𝐷1
ID1 = IS [𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 ]…………………… (i)
𝑉𝐷2
ID2 = IS [𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 ]…………………… (ii)

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 26

Dividing (ii) by (i),
VD2
ID2 enVT
= VD1
ID1 enV
T

ID2 V V
[ D2 − D1 ]
= e nVT nVT
ID1
Taking natural log on both sides,
ID2 VD2 VD1
ln ( ) = [ − ]
ID1 nVT nVT
ID2
VD2 - VD1 = nVTln ( )
ID1
In terms of log,
ID2 I
∴ ∆VD = VD2 - VD1 = nVTln =2.3nVTlog ID2
ID1 D1

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 27

A diode for which n = 1, conducts a 1mA at 0.7V. For what
current the voltage drop across the diode will be equal to 0.9 V

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 28

A diode for which n = 1, conducts a 1mA at 0.7V. For what
current the voltage drop across the diode will be equal to 0.9 V
We have n=1, We have VT = 25mV= 25×10-3 V
Here, 0.2 = 2.3 × 25×10-3log ID2
ID1= 1 mA 3.47 = log ID2
VD1= 0.7 V Taking antilog,
VD2= 0.9 V ID2 = 103.47
ID2= ? ID2=3008 mA=3008 ×10-3 A
We know, ∴ ID2 = 3 Amp
I I
∆VD = VD2 - VD1 = nVTln D2 =2.3nVTlog ID2
ID1 D1
I I
0.9-0.7 = 2.3VTlog D2 = 2.3VTlog D2
ID1 1

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 29

Modeling of semiconductor diode
• The representation of any device with equivalent electric elements such as
Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Voltage /Current sources etc. is called
Modeling
• And the circuit representation of any device with equivalent electric elements
without the loss of its exact functional behavior is called Model of the device
• Basically there are three types of modeling
1. Large signal model [DC-model/Analysis]
a) Exponential model
b) Piece - wise linear model
c) Constant voltage drop model
d) Ideal diode model
2. Small-signal model [Ac-model/Analysis]
3. Complete analysis of diode circuit [ Both DC & Ac-analysis ]

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 30

1.Large signal Model [DC- model]
1. Exponential Model
• It is physically based and accurate model of diode useful when accurate
analysis is needed.
𝑉𝐷
• We have, ID = IS 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇
ID 𝑉𝐷

IS = 𝑒 𝑇
𝑛𝑉

Taking natural log on both sides,

I I
VD = nVT ln ID = 2.3 nVT l𝑜𝑔 ID
𝑆 𝑆

Analysis of diode circuit

Finding Q-point
Analysis is done to find diode current and voltage i.e. ID and VD
a) Using exponential diode model
b) Graphical analysis of diode circuit

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 31

a) Exponential Diode Model Analysis
We have from Exponential model,
VD
ID = IS e ……………..(I)
nVT

Applying KVL,
VDD = IDR + VD
VDD- VD = IDR
VDD
VDD −VD
∴ ID = R …………..(II)
From above 2 equations:
Value known = VDD, n, R and IS
Value unknown = ID and VD
These 2 quantities (i.e. ID and VD) can be calculated using above 2 equations
and hence we find out Q-point

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 32

b) Graphical Analysis of Diode Circuit
• Lets analyze the circuit in this
figure using the exponential ID
diode model.
• A straight line is constructed for a
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇

given diode by connecting two

points which represents the
maximum possible current that
could flow in the diode circuit
and maximum Voltage that will
be dropped across the diode VD
and this line is called LOAD- LINE

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 33

Graphical Analysis….
We know, VDD = IDR + VD
VDD−VD
ID =
R
1 V
ID = −( )VD+ ( DD)……….. (i)
R R
Comparing this with equation of st. line Y= mX+C
Y-coordinate = ID VDD
X- coordinate = VD
1
Hence slope of straight line (m) = −(R )
V
Maximum current across diode flows when VD = 0, ∴ ID= DD
R
Maximum voltage drop across diode When ID = 0, ∴ VD= VDD
VDD
The points (0, R ) and (VDD ,0) are the coordinates of Load line
The load line intersects the diode curve at point Q which represents the operating point of
the circuit. The Q- point is also called DC- operating point or DC-biasing point or a
Quiescent point or simply Q-point or just Operating point

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 34

Graphical Analysis….
We know the Shockley Diode equation,
𝑉𝐷
ID = IS 𝑒 ……………..(ii)
𝑛𝑉𝑇

Differentiating equation (ii) with respect to VD

𝑉𝐷
𝑑ID 𝑑[ 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 ]
= IS×
𝑑vD 𝑑vD
𝑑ID 𝑉𝐷
1
= IS× (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 )×
𝑑vD 𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑑ID 𝑉𝐷
1
= [IS(𝑒 )] ×
𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑑vD 𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑑ID ID
∴ =
𝑑vD 𝑛𝑉𝑇

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 35

Graphical Analysis….
Dynamic Resistance:
𝑑ID id ID
= =
𝑑vD आ𝑑 𝑛𝑉𝑇
id ID
( )=
आ𝑑 𝑛𝑉𝑇
आ𝑑 𝑛𝑉𝑇
( )=
id ID
आ𝑑 𝑛𝑉𝑇
∴ Dynamic Resistance (rd) = ( ) =
id ID
This is the expression for dynamic resistance or also called Ac-resistance
Static Resistance/DC Resistance
𝑉𝐷
∴(RD) = ; from Ohm’s Law
ID
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 36
2. Piecewise Linear Model
• The P–N junctions are unilateral in nature, i.e., they conduct current in only
one direction. Thus, we can consider an ideal diode as a short circuit when
forward-biased and as an open circuit when reverse-biased
• Forward biased diodes exhibit an offset voltage (V) that can be
approximated by the simple equivalent circuit with a battery in series with
an ideal diode.
• The series battery in the model keeps the ideal diode turned off for applied
voltage less than V; the actual diode characteristic is improved by adding a
series resistance (r) to the equivalent circuit. The equivalent diode model, is
called the piecewise linear equivalent
• This model uses the straight line to approximate the fast rising part of
exponential curve.
• This model is also known as battery-plus-resistance model

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 37

A K
VD
Ideal diode
A K

Fig: 1st approximation Fig: 2nd approximation

𝟏
Slope =
𝒓𝒅

 iD = 0, आD≤ VDO VDO rd D

आD− VDO A K
 iD = [ r ] , आD≥ VDO VDO
d
Fig: 3rd approximation

Fig: Piecewise linear model

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 38
3. Constant voltage drop model
• This is the simple model of the diode forward
Characteristics • Which is not too different from the values
• This uses the vertical straight line to approximate obtained before with more elaborate models
the fast rising part of the exponential curve
• This model simply says that a forward conducting
diode exhibits a constant voltage drop VD
• This model is used in the initial phases of analysis
& Design. The value of VD is usually taken to be
0.7 volt.
VDD −VD
In this model, ID =
R
For VDD= 5V and R=1KΩ
We get,
5− 0.7
ID = VDDR−VD = = 4.3mA
1K

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 39

4. Ideal diode model
• In applications that involve voltages much greater than the diode
voltage drop (0.6-0.8V), we may neglect diode voltage drop
altogether, while calculating the diode current. The result is Ideal diode
model
• This types of modeling is greatly used in determining which diodes are
ON and which are OFF in a multi-diode circuit (logic circuit)
• Utilization of the ideal diode model leads to,
VD = 0V
VDD = 5V
R = 1KΩ , then
VDD−VD 5− 0
ID = = = 5mA
R 1K

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 40

2. Small signal Model [Ac-modeling]
Practical and approximate model  In small signal operation around the DC bias
There are more applications in which diode is point(Q-point), the diode is best modeled by
biased to operate at a point on the forward I- a resistance equal to the inverse of the slope
V characteristics & a small Ac is superimposed of the tangent to the exponential I-V curve at
on the DC quantities bias point
For this situation we have to determine the DC We have the equations
operating point (VD & ID ) of the diode using i = आd ; small signals superimposed on V &I
d D D
one of the models rd
आ𝑑 𝑛𝑉𝑇
Mostly constant voltage drop model is used And dynamic resistance (rd) =( id ) = ID
iD i
+ D
Q- Point
ID Slope =
𝟏
𝒓𝒅
आD rd

_ आD
0 VD
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 41
Analysis of Ac signal
• To determine the dynamic resistance rd
• Consider the above circuit that sets the DC
biasing point and these ac signals
superimposed to the bias point (Q-point).The
respective characteristics of diode is as
shown
iD(t) = ID + id

आD(t) = VD + आd

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 42

 आd आd 2
आd 𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 = 1+ + + ………..
The DC current of 𝑉the diode equation is given by, 𝑛𝑉𝑇 2!
𝐷
ID = IS 𝑒 𝑇 …………...………….....(i) Since आd(t) has sufficiently small
आD amplitude (small
𝑛𝑉

In superimposed form, signal approximation) ,then ( )<<1; so neglecting

𝑛𝑉𝑇
आD higher power term
iD = IS 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 ……………............….....(ii) आ
iD = ID[1+ d ]
Since the signal आd(t) is applies, the total instaneous 𝑛𝑉𝑇
आ
voltage आD(t) is , iD = ID + ID. d
𝑛𝑉𝑇
आD(t) = VD + आd………………….(iii)
From equation (iv) substituting value,
Correspondingly, the Total instaneous current is given
by iD(t) = ID + id
iD(t) = ID + id……..………………(iv) आ
ID + ID. d = ID + id
𝑛𝑉𝑇
From equation (ii) & (iii) आ
आD
iD = IS 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 id= ID. d
𝑛𝑉𝑇
VD + आd आd 𝑛𝑉𝑇
iD = IS 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 =
id ID
𝑉𝐷 आd आ 𝑛𝑉
iD = IS . 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇. 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 ∴ (rd) =( 𝑑) = 𝑇
आd id ID
iD = ID. 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 This is called Dynamic resistance or Ac resistance or
incremental resistance or diode small resistance
Expanding exponential term,

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 43

3. Complete analysis of diode circuit
R Comparing DC to DC and ac to ac
quantities,
VDD=ID.[R+rd]+VDO
आD=VD + आd VDD−VDO
∴ ID= [R+r ]
d
this is DC analysis. Similarly,
आS=id.[R+rd]
We have, आ𝑑
आS= ( ).[R+rd]
VDD+आS= iDR+VDO+iDrd rd
r𝑑
= iD[R+rd]+VDO ∴ आ𝑑=[R+r ].आS
d
= [ID+id][R+rd]+VDO this is ac analysis
= ID[R+rd]+id[R+rd]+VDO

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 44

Complete analysis of diode circuit….
• Hence complete analysis involves both DC and ac.
• The equivalent circuit for both DC and ac is given by,
R R

ID

Fig: Equivalent DC model Fig: Equivalent ac model

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 45

For every decade change in current, what will
be the change in voltage across the diode ?
VD
We know diode equation ID = IS e nVT …………………...…..(i) Subtracting equation (ii) from (iii)
VD1 I I
Therefore ID1=IS enV VD2- VD1 = nVT ln D2 − nVT ln D1
T IS IS
ID1 V ID2 ID1
=e
D1
∆V = nVT ln[ ÷ ]
IS
nV T IS IS
ID2 IS
Taking natural log, ∆V = nVT ln[ × ]
IS ID1
VD1 ID1 I
= ln ∴ Change in voltage, ∆V = nVT ln[ D2]
nVT IS ID1
I I
∴ VD1= nVT ln D1…………….…….(ii) From question, D2 = 10
V
IS ID1
D2
Similarly, ID2=IS enV T
And at room temperature
ID2 V D2 VT = 25mV=25× 10−3 V
= enV
IS T

∆V = n × 25 × 10−3 ln[10]
Taking natural log,
VD2 ID2 ∴∆V = n ×5.76× 10−2
= ln At n = 1, ∆V = 0.057 V
nVT IS
I
∴ VD2= nVT ln D2……………...…..(iii) At n = 2, ∆V = 0.115 V
IS

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 46

Zener diode
• Zener diode is a special type of excessive current but this is not the case
semiconductor diode which works in for Zener diode
breakdown region • A Zener diode is like an ordinary diode
• When forward biased, it works as except that it is properly doped so as to
simple diode have a sharp breakdown voltage
• But Zener diode is only used in reverse• A Zener diode has sharp breakdown
biased condition voltage called ‘Zener voltage’ VZ
• The Zener diode is backbone of voltage
regulators
• A Zener diode operate in reverse
breakdown region
• An ordinary diode operated in this
region will usually be destroyed due to

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 47

Ideal zener diode model
• Before the breakdown voltage, • Therefore an ideal zener diode
current is zero can be modeled by a voltage
• i.e. IZ = 0 for VZ < VZK source whose value is equal to
the zener breakdown voltage
IZ ≠ 0 for VZ ≥ VZK VZK
-𝐕𝐙𝐊
-𝐕𝐙𝐃

𝐕𝐙𝐊

-𝐈𝐙𝐃
Fig: Ideal zener diode Fig: DC-model for an ideal zener diode
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 48
 Practical zener diode
• Forward characteristics is similar to normal
diode
• In reverse biased condition, the voltage across
the device remains constant as the reverse
current varies a large range
• Like a fixed voltage source, this ability to
maintain a constant voltage across its terminal VZK
is independent of current and hence makes
the device useful as a voltage regulator IZ min
• The fixed breakdown voltage is called zener
voltage VZ
IZmin = IZK
= minimum reverse current to sustain breakdown IZ max
IZmax
= maximum zener current, limited by the maximum
power dissipation
VZK = zener breakdown voltage
VZ = fixed zener voltage
From figure, Zener resistance changes as the reverse
current changes
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 49
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
= IS • The reverse current IZ through the zener
diode must always be large enough to
keep the device in its breakdown region
• R S (source resistance) is chosen in such a
= VS way that it provides sufficient zener
current IZ for reverse biased condition
and also doesn’t exceed the maximum
power dissipation limit of the diode
• Note:
• Zener diode operates in breakdown i. Zener current changes in direct
region and holds the load voltage proportion to input voltage change
constant ii. When load current increases, zener
• Even if the source voltage changes or the current decreases and vice-versa
load resistance varies, the load voltage• The zener diode adjusts its current and
will remain fixed and equal to the zener hence maintain constant voltage VZ
voltage VZ

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 50

From figure, value Vsmin then IL reaches to its largest value,
Applying KCL, ILmax . Thus,
VSmin −VZ
IS =IZ+IL -----------------------------------------(i) RS=
IZmin +ILmax
Also, Now actual power dissipation in zener diode can
VS −VZ be calculated. The maximum power dissipated by
IS = ---------------------------------------(ii)
RS resistor is
Power dissipated in zener diode (VSmax −VZ )2
PRS(max)= RS
PZ = VZ . IZ--------------------------------------(iii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
Because the zener voltage is constant ,maximum
power will be dissipated by zener diode when IZ is
V −V
IS = IZ+IL = S Z maximum.
RS
VS −VZ This happens when IL is minimum and Vs is
RS= ---------------------------------------(iv) maximum.
IZ +IL

Let IZmin denotes the minimum zener current So, IZmax = ISmax − ILmin
necessary to ensure that diode is in breakdown (VSmax −VZ )
region. As mentioned above R S must be small ∴IZmax = − ILmin
RS
enough to ensure that IZmin flows under worst
condition. When VS falls to the smallest possible And PZ max = VZ . IZmax

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 51

Breakdown of PN-junction diode
a) Zener breakdown
• In a heavily doped PN junction diode, zener effect occurs due to spontaneous
generation of hole electron pairs with in the depletion region by the effect of intense
electric field (potential gradient)across it, a phenomenon known as ionization due to
electric field
• It is a negative temperature coefficient(NTC) type
• Less energy is required to breakdown the bonds when temperature is increased
b) Avalanche breakdown
• In a lightly doped PN junction diode, the high speed drifting electrons due to a large
reverse bias voltage collide with valence electrons of atoms fixed in the crystal lattice
of depletion region
• As a result some valence electrons are liberated out of a covalent bonds, thus creating
further hole electron pairs; a phenomenon known as ionization due to collision of high
speed moving electrons with positive temperature coefficient (PTC) types
• Larger voltage is required to ionize the diode when temperature is increased

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 52

Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown
• Highly doped PN junction diode • Lightly doped PN junction diode
• The covalent bond breaks spontaneously due to • As a result of collision of electrons and holes with
high electric field the valence electrons
• Low reverse potential is required for breakdown • Higher reverse potential is required
• Here minority carriers collide with semi conductor
• Here electric field is very strong to rupture the atoms in the depletion region, which breaks the
covalent bonds thereby generating electron-hole covalent bonds and electron-hole pairs are
pairs. So even a small increase in reverse voltage generated. Newly generated charge carriers are
is capable of producing large number of current accelerated by the electric field which results in
carriers. i.e. why the junction has a very low more collision and generates avalanche of charge
resistance. This leads to Zener breakdown. Carriers. This results in avalanche breakdown.

Fig: breakdown of PN junction

diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 53

Determine the range of load resistance (R L )and maximum current across
load(ILmax ) of the following circuit

Solution
Given here: R S = 1 KΩ
Source resistance R S = 1 KΩ = 1000 Ω IS
Source input voltage VS = Vi = 20 V IZmax = 10mA
Vi = 20 V VZ = 8.2 V
Output constant zener voltage VZ = Vo = 8.2 V
IZmax = 10mA = 10 × 10−3 A
We know source current
V −V
IS = S Z
RS
20−8.2
=
1000
=0.0118
=11.8 mA

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 54

We know source current Let us consider that maximum current flow
through load ILmax when there is no any
IS = IZ +IL current across diode
If IZmax flow though diode, then minimum i.e. IZmin = IZK = 0
current ILmin flow through the load.
Implies us
IS = IZmax +ILmin
IS = IZmin +ILmax
11.8 = 10+ILmin
IS = ILmax
∴ ILmin = 1.8mA
∴ILmax = IS = 11.8mA
There is a maximum load resistance for a
minimum load current, So There is a minimum load resistance for a
maximum load current, So
VZ = ILmin . R Lmax
VZ 8.2 VZ = ILmax . R Lmin
R Lmax = = = 4555.56Ω VZ 8.2
ILmin 1.8×10−3 R Lmin = = =694.91Ω
ILmax 11.8×10−3
∴ R Lmax = 4555.556Ω = 4.56KΩ
∴ R Lmin = 694.91Ω

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 55

Determine the range of input voltage (Vi ) that will maintain the zener diode
Solution
R S = 220 Ω
Given here:
Source resistance R S = 220 Ω IZmax =32mA
Load resistance R L = 1.2 KΩ = 1.2 × 103 = 1200Ω Vi 1.2KΩ
VZ =10V
Output constant zener voltage VZ = Vo = 10 V
IZmax = 32mA = 32 × 10−3 A
Range of source input voltage VS = Vi =?
We know, There will be maximum flow of current
through diode when source supply maximum input
voltage
V −V
ISmax = Smax Z --------------------------------------(i)
RS
And also
ISmax= IZmax +ILmin -----------------------------------(ii)

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 56

And voltage across load is always We know from voltage divider rule,
constant Voltage across load is equal to constant
VZ =ILmin × R L zener voltage and is given by,
V 10 RL
ILmin = RZ = 1200 = 8.33mA VLoad =VZ = [R +R ]. VS
L S L
1200
So, from equation (ii) 10= [ ]. VS
220+1200
ISmax = IZmax +ILmin 14200
VS = =11.833 V
= 32+8.33 1200
Which is the minimum source voltage
=40.33 mA
∴VSmin =11.833 V
=40.33× 10−3A
Again from equation (i)
VSmax −VZ
ISmax = R S
220 × 40.33 × 10−3 =VSmax -10
VSmax =8.8733+10=18.8733V
∴VSmax =18.8733 V

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 57

Suppose VS =24V, VZ =6.2V, Pmax =400mW and IZK =1mA. Design a regular circuit.
Solution The circuit from the above information becomes,
Given here:
Source input voltage VS = Vi =24 V
Maximum power dissipation across diode 𝐑𝐒 𝐈𝐒 𝐈𝐋
PZmax = 400mW = 0.4 W
Output constant zener voltage VZ = Vo = 6.2 V 𝐈𝐙
IZmin = IZK = 1mA = 10 A −3
𝐕𝐢 =24 V 𝐑𝐋
Source resistance R S = ?
𝐕𝐙 =6.2 V
Load resistance R L = ?
We have,
PZmax = VZ . IZmax
0.4 = 6.2× IZmax
IZmax = 0.064516 A
∴ IZmax = 64.516 mA

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 58

Now let us assume that minimum current So load resistance R L for maximum
across load is zero. i.e. ILmin = 0 load current is given by
Therefore VZ 6.2 𝑉
RL = =
IS = IZmax +ILmin I𝐿 63.516 𝑚𝐴

IS = IZmax ∴R L = 97.613 Ω
∴IS = 64.516 mA This is the value of minimum load
resistance R Lmin for maximum load
Now we have, current ILmax
VS −VZ
RS = I So the complete regular circuit
𝑆
24−6.2 becomes,
R S = 64.516
∴R S = 275.9 Ω 𝐑 𝐒 =276 Ω 𝐈𝐒 ILmax = 63.516 mA
Again
𝐈𝐙𝐊
IS = IZmin +ILmax 𝐕𝐢 =24 V 97.613 Ω
64.516 = 1+ILmax 𝐕𝐙 =6.2 V
∴ILmax = 63.516 mA

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 59

Assignment 2: Problem related to diodes

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 60

Types of diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 61

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• An LED is a light emitting diode.
• The LED emits light when it is forward biased and it emits no light when it is reverse
biased.
• The intensity of light is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the
device.
• Light emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by
using elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 62

Advantages of LED
• The Light emitting diode (LED) is a solid - state light source.
• LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many applications because they have
following advantages:
 Low power consumption
 Longer life (more than 20 years)
 Fast ON-OFF switching

Application of LEDs:
• The LED is a low-power device.
• The power rating of a LED is of the order of milliwatts.
• This means that, it is useful as an indicator but not good for illumination.
• Probably the two most common applications for visible LEDs are:
 As a power indicator
 Seven – segment display

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 63

Photodiode
• A photodiode is a reverse-biased silicon or
germanium PN junction in which reverse current
increases when the junction is exposed to light.
• The reverse current in a photodiode is directly
proportional to the intensity of light falling on
its PN junction. This means that greater the
intensity of light falling on the PN junction of
photodiode, the greater will be the reverse
current.
• A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in
that when its PN junction is exposed to light, the
reverse current increases with the increase in
light intensity and vice-versa.
• The schematic symbol of a photodiode is as
shown in figure

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 64

Characteristics of Photodiode
There are two important characteristics of
photodiode
Reverse current-Illumination curve
Following figure shows the graph between
reverse current (IR ) and illumination (E) of
a photodiode
IR = mE Where,
m = Slope of the straight line
The quantity ‘m’ is called the sensitivity of
the photodiode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 65

Reverse voltage-Reverse current curve
• The graph between reverse current (IR ) and reverse voltage (VR ) for various
illumination levels.
• It is clear that for a given reverse biased voltage VR , the reverse current IR
increases as the illumination (E) on the PN-junction of photodiode is increased.
• Dark current is that current that will exist with no applied voltage
Applications of photodiodes:
• There are a large number of
applications of photodiodes.
However, we shall give two
application of photodiodes by way
of illustration.
a) Alarm circuit using photo diode
b) Counter circuit using photo diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 66

Varactors diode:
• Reverse biased PN-junction acts like a capacitor.
• This is due to the storage of charge positive and
negative charge separated by certain distance.
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
• As the reverse voltage increased d increases and
as a result of which the capacitance decreases.
• This property is indeed suitable for many
application like automatic tuning of radio
receivers.
• These diodes are constructed making capacitance
the storing function of voltage.
• In a words, A junction diode which acts as a
variable capacitor under charging reverse bias is
known as a Varactor diode or sometimes Varicap
diode

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 67

Uses of Varactor diodes:
a) FM Modulators
b) Parametric Amplifiers
c) Voltage tuning of LC resonant circuit
d) Self balancing bridge circuit
Applications of varactors diode:
a) Automatic frequency controlling
device (e.g. automatic radio tuning)
b) FM modulator
c) Adjustable band pass filter

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 68

Tunnel diode
• A Tunnel diode is a PN-junction that exhibits negative resistance between two
values of forward voltage
• i.e. between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage
• With the impurity concentration about 1 part in 108 , the width of the depletion
layer with the potential barrier at the junction restrains the flow of carriers from the
side of majority charge carriers to that of minority charge carriers.
• But when the impurity concentration is increased the device characteristics are
completely changed due to tunneling. These diodes are known as Tunnel diode or
Esaki diodes
The Tunneling phenomenon
• Classically a particle must have an energy equal to the height of a potential
energy barrier if it is to move from one side of barrier to the another side.
• But if the width of the barrier is very small there is a large probability that a
particle may penetrate through the barrier.
• This phenomenon is known as tunneling.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 69

 Volt -Ampere (V-I Characteristics)
• The Tunnel diode is an excellent • For currents whose values are between
conductor in reverse direction. IV and IP the characteristics curve is
triple valued, because each value of
• For small voltage (about 50mV) the current can be obtained at three
resistance is small and the current different voltage levels.
goes on increasing when voltage is • In this region, tunnel diode produces
increased till it reaches the peak power instead of absorbing it
current (IP )
• On further increase of the forward
voltage the current begins to
decrease and the diode shows
negative resistance till the valley
current(IV )
• After that point, the diode acts as a
normal diode.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 70

Advantages of the Tunnel diodes
low cost
low noise
Simplicity
High speed
Environmental immunity
But it has low output voltage swing.
Uses of Tunnel diodes
Tunnel diodes are used in
Oscillator for microwave
High speed switching
Tunnel diodes are not affected by
magnetic field, high temperatures and
Radioactivity; that’s why these can be
used in modern military equipments

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 71

Rectifier circuit
• Rectification is the process of conversion of bipolar or sinusoidal signals
to the Unipolar signal.
• The circuit thus used is called Rectifier circuit.
• The Rectifier circuit is of two types.
1. Half wave Rectifier
2. Full wave Rectifier
a) Center tapped full wave rectifier
b) Full wave Bridge Rectifier
• Rectifier is a device used for converting alternating current (AC) in to
pulsating DC

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 72

Half wave Rectifier
• In Half wave Rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during positive half
cycles of inputs.
• The negative half cycles of AC supply are suppressed i.e. during negative half
cycles, no current is conducted and hence, no voltage appears across the load.
• Therefore current always flows in one direction (i.e. DC) through the load through
after every half cycle.
D
+

+ 𝐑𝐋
𝐕𝐢𝐧
_ Output waveform
Input AC supply voltage
_

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 73

Working:
• During the positive half cycle of
input AC voltage, the Vin is positive
and thus diode D is forward biased.
• The current is conducted through
diode D and hence through R L .
• The output is taken from load
resistance R L .
• During the negative half cycle of
the input, voltage Vin is negative
and hence diode D is reverse
biased.
• No output is taken from R L since no
current flows through Diode and
hence through load Resistor R L
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 74
i. Output frequency of half wave rectifier
The output frequency is equal to the
input frequency
i.e. fout = fin
The figure aside shows a rectifier output
voltage and hence current becomes,
I = Imax sin ωt for 0 < ωt < π
I = 0 for [π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π]
Note:
During 0 < t < π of Vin ; Diode D is ON
During π < t < 2π of Vin ; Diode D is
OFF

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 75

ii. DC output current and voltage
DC current (Idc ) Similarly
1 2π DC voltage (Vdc )
Idc = I. d(ωt)
2π 0 Vdc = Idc . R L
1 π 2π Imax
= 2π 0 Imax sin ωt . d ωt + π
0. d ωt = π RL
1 π I .RL
= 2π
I
0 max
sin ωt . d ωt = [ maxπ ]
1 Vmax
= 2π
Imax . −cos ωt π0 = π
1
= − 2π [Imax . (cos π − cos 0)] = 0.318 Vmax
1
= − 2π [Imax . −1 − 1 ]
1
= − 2π Imax . −2
1
= I
π max
= 0.318 Imax
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 76
iii. RMS value of current and voltage
The RMS value of current is given by, I2max 1 1
2π
= 2π 2 π − 0 + 2 . 2 sin2 ωt π0
1
Irms 2 = I2 . d(ωt) =
I2max π
[ + sin 2π − sin 0 ]
2π 0 2π 2
1 π 2π I2max π
= 2π I max sin ωt 2. d ωt + π 0 2 . d ωt = 2π [ 2 + 0]
0
1 π I2max
= I sin ωt 2 . d ωt = 4
2π 0 max
I
1 π 2 ∴Irms = max
= 2π 0
Imax . sin 2ωt. d ωt 2
RMS value of voltage is given by,
1 2 π
= . Imax sin 2ωt. d ωt Vrms = Irms × R L
2π 0
I
1 2 π 1−cos2. ωt Vrms = ( max ) × RL
= .I . d ωt 2
Imax × R L
2π max 0 2
Vrms = ( )
I2max π 1 π − cos2. ωt 2
= 2π
[ 0 2
d ωt + 0 2
d ωt ] V
∴ Vrms = max2

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 77

iv. Peak factor(K p ) vi. Rectification Efficiency(η)
Peak Value DC power delivered to load
Kp = Rms Value = × 100%
AC input power
Pdc
(Vmax ) (Imax ) = × 100%
= Vmax or Imax Pac
( 2 ) ( 2 ) Now
= 2 2
2 Imax
Pdc = Idc × R L = ( ) × RL
v. Form factor(K f ) π 2
Rms Value Imax
Kf = 2
Pac = Iac × R L = ( ) × RL
Average Value 2
2
(Imax ) ×RL
(Vmax ) ( Imax
) ∴η= I π
2 × 100%
= Vmax or Imax
2 2
( 2 ) ×RL
max
( π ) ( π ) 4
π = π2 × 100%
=2
= 1.57 = 40.528%

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 78

vii. Ripple factor
The output voltage or current of the Imax π 2
γ= ( × ) −1
rectifier contains ac as well as dc- 2 Imax
component π 2
The undesirable ac component is called γ = ( ) −1
Ripple and ripple factor is ratio of ac 2
component to dc component γ = 1.46
Iac ∴ γ = 1.21
γ=
Idc
We have, viii. Advantages of half wave rectifier
2 2 2
Irms = Iac + Idc Simple circuit and low cost
2
Dividing both sides by Idc Disadvantages of half wave rectifier
Irms 2 Iac 2
( I ) = (I ) +1 Ripple factor is high
dc dc
I
( Irms)2 −1 = γ2 Rectification efficiency is low
dc
Irms 2
Transformer core resulting in magnetizing
γ = ( I ) −1 current and hysteresis losses
dc

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 79

Full Wave Rectifier
1. Center Tapped Rectifier
• In center tapped rectifier, the ac input is applied
through a transformer.
• The Anodes of two diodes D1 and D2 (having similar
characteristics) are connected to the opposite ends of
center tapped secondary winding.
• Two cathode ends are connected to each other and are
also connected through the load resistance R L back to
the center of transformer
• The circuit waveform of center tapped rectifier is as
shown

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 80

Working:
• When the top of the transformer • Thus the direction of flow of current
(secondary winding) is positive, say during through the load resistor remains same
1st half cycle of supply, the anode of during both halves of input supply
diode D1 is positive with respect to voltage.
cathode and anode of D2 is negative with
respect to cathode. Thus only diode D1
Conducts (being forward biased) and
current flows through Diode D1 & hence
through load resistor R L
• During second half cycle of input voltage,
the polarity is reversed, making the
bottom of the transformer (secondary
winding) positive with respect to center
tapped and thus diode D2 is forward
biased and diode D1 is reverse biased.
Consequently during this half cycle of the
input, only diode D2 conducts & current
flows through D2 and then load resistor R L

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 81

2. Bridge rectifier circuit:
• When the upper end of transformer’s secondary
winding is positive (say during 1st half cycles of
input supply), Diodes D2 and D3 are forward
biased and current flows through arm AC, enters
the load at positive terminal and leaves the
load negative terminal, returns back following 𝐈𝐋
through arm DB. At the same time, Diode D1 and
D4 are reverse biased & current doesn't flow
through them.
𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
• In second half, the lower end of AC supply
becomes positive so diodes D1 and D4 becomes 𝐑𝐋
forward biased & current flows through arm DC
enters the load & leaves load flowing back
through arm BA. The flow of current through
load R L remain same through the both half
cycles of input supply voltages

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 82

Merit of using Bridge rectifier than Center Tapped
Both full wave Rectifier circuit (i.e. center tapped & bridge) are same except for,
1) In bridge circuit, Two diodes conducts during each half cycle and forward Resistance becomes double
2) In bridge rectifier,Vsmax is maximum voltage across Transformer secondary winding whereas in center
tapped Vsmax represents maximum voltage across each half of secondary winding
3) A bridge rectifier does not require a bulky center tapped transformer, nowadays the center tapped
transformers are costlier than diodes and a step-down transformer hence reduced size and cost.
4) The PIV (peak inverse voltage) ratings of the diodes in bridge rectifier is half than that of needed in a
center tapped full wave rectifiers. The diode used in bridge rectifier has capable of bearing high
peak inverse voltage. Whereas in center tapped rectifiers, the peak inverse voltage coming across
each diode is double the maximum voltage across the half of the secondary winding.
PIV of bridge = Vsmax
PIV of center tapped = 2 × Vsmax
So highly suitable for high voltage circuit
5) The transformer utilization factor (TUF) also more in bridge rectifier as compared to the center tapped
full wave rectifier, Which makes it more advantageous.
6) For a given output power, power transformer of smaller size can be used because current flow in both
windings for entire cycle.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 83

i. Output frequency of full wave rectifier
The output frequency is equal to the double
of input frequency
i.e. fout = 2 × fin
The instaneous value of apply voltage be,
VS = VSmax sin ωt
Then for diodes,
In first half cycle
I1 = Imax sin ωt and I2 = 0
In second half cycle
I2 = Imax sin ωt and I1 = 0
Total current flowing through load R L is,
I = I1 + I2
∴ I = Imax sin ωt [for whole cycle]

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 84

ii. DC output current and voltage
For both cycle, current flowing through Similarly, DC output voltage can be
load resistor R L is same, Vdc = Idc . R L
1 π 2.Imax
Idc = 2 × I. d(ωt) = π RL
2π 0
2×Imax ×RL
1 π
= π 0 Imax sin ωt . d ωt = [ ]
π
2
=
1
Imax . −cos ωt π = (I × RL)
π 0 π max
2.Vmax
=−
Imax
[(cos π − cos 0)] =
π π
Imax = 0.6366 Vmax
= − [ −1 − 1 ]
π
Imax
= − −2
π
2.Imax
= π
= 0.6366 Imax
2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 85
iii. RMS value of current and voltage
The RMS value of current is given by, I2max π
π = [2 + sin 2π − sin 0 ]
1 π
Irms 2 = I2 . d(ωt) I2max π
π 0 = [2 + 0]
π
1 π 2 I2max
= Imax sin ωt . d ωt =
π 0 2
1 π 2 Imax
= I max . sin 2ωt. d ωt
∴Irms =
π 0 2
1 2 π
= π
. Imax 0
sin 2ωt. d ωt
RMS value of voltage is given by,
1 2 π 1−cos2. ωt Vrms = Irms × R L
= . I . d ωt
π max 0 2 I
I2max π 1 π − cos2. ωt Vrms = ( max ) × R L
2
= [ 0 2 d ωt + 0 d ωt ] Imax × R L
2π 2
2
Imax 1 1
Vrms = ( )
= π − 0 + . 2 sin2 ωt π
0
2
π 2 2 Vmax
∴ Vrms = 2

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 86

iv. Peak factor(K p ) vi. Rectification Efficiency(η)
Peak Value DC power delivered to load
K p = Rms Value = × 100%
AC input power
(Vmax ) (Imax ) Pdc
= or = × 100%
(Vmax
2
) (Imax
2
) Pac
Now
= 2 2
2 2Imax
v. Form factor(K f ) Pdc = Idc × RL = (
π 2
) × RL
Rms Value
Kf = 2
Imax
Average Value V Pac = Iac × R L = ( ) × RL
( 2 )
max
(Imax ) 2
2
= 2.Vmax or 2.Imax 2.Imax 2
( π ) ( π ) ( π ) ×RL
π
∴η= I 2 × 100%
=2 2 ( max
2
) ×RL
8
= 1.11 = 2 × 100%
π
‘A full wave rectifier is twice as effective = 81.057 %
as a half wave rectifier.’ Justify the
statement ∴ η𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 = 𝟐 × η𝐇𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 87

vii. Ripple factor
Irms 2 Iac 2
The output voltage or current of ( ) = ( ) +1
the rectifier contains ac as well as Idc Idc
Irms 2
dc-component ( ) −1 = γ2
Idc
The undesirable ac component is Irms 2
called Ripple and ripple factor is γ= ( ) −1
Idc
ratio of ac component to dc
component γ= (K f )2 −1
Iac
γ=
Idc
γ = (1.11)2 −1
We have, γ = 0.4834
2
Irms 2
= Iac 2
+ Idc ∴Ripple factor γ = 0.4834
2
Dividing both sides by Idc

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 88

viii. Advantages and disadvantages of full wave rectifier
Advantages of full wave rectifier
Efficiency is double than that of half wave rectifier
Ripple factor is low, so requires simple filter circuit
Higher output voltages, power and high transformer utilization factor
No problem due to DC-saturation of core, because DC currents in two
halves of secondary flow in opposite direction
Disadvantages
Full wave rectifier needs more circuit elements and is costlier

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 89

Comparison of all Rectifier
S. No. Particulars Half Wave Center Tapped Bridge
1 No. of diodes 1 2 4
2 Average DC current Imax 2. Imax 2. Imax
π π π
3 Average DC voltage Vmax 2. Vmax 2. Vmax
π π π
4 RMS Current Imax Imax Imax
2 2 2
5 Efficiency (η) 40.52 % 81.057 % 81.057 %
6 Ripple factor (γ) 1.21 0.482 0.482
7 Peak factor (K p ) 2 2 2
8 Form Factor (K f ) 1.57 1.11 1.11
9 Frequency (f) 50 HZ 100 HZ 100 HZ
10 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) VSmax 2. VSmax VSmax
11 Peak load current (Imax ) VSmax VSmax VSmax
R L + rf R L + rf R L + 2. rf
12 RMS voltage Vmax Vmax Vmax
2 2 2
13 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) 0.287 0.693 0.812

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 90

DC-power supply
• One of the most important applications of diodes is in the design of
rectification circuits. A diode rectifier forms an essential building
blocks of the DC power supplies. A block diagram of a power supply is
shown below

220 V
50

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 91

DC-power supply
• The arrangement of blocks convert the AC signal to the constant DC voltage,
which is required for the electronic devices. The first block in power supply is
the power transformer. It consists of two separate coils wound around an iron
core that magnetically couples the two windings. The power transformer also
isolates the electronic equipment and power line circuit.
• The diode rectifier is the second block that converts the sinusoidal signal in to
unipolar signal, which can have the pulsating waveform.
• The third block is the filter. Filter is needed to reduce the variations in the
magnitude of the rectifier output considerably. The output of the filter,
through much more constant than without the filter, still constrains a time-
dependent component, known as ripple. To reduce the ripple and stabilize the
magnitude of DC output voltage of the supply against variations caused by
changes in load current, a voltage regulator is employed.

2/6/2022 Prepared By: Umesh Kanta Ghimire IOE, Thapathali Campus 92