Table of the Content

Index

Unit 1 ⇝ Fiber Optics .......................................................................................... 4

1) Introduction of Fiber Optics ............................................................................................... 4
2) Construction of Fiber Optics............................................................................................... 5

3) Principle of Fiber Optic Communication ............................................................................. 6

4) Elementary Fiber Optic Communication System ................................................................ 9
5) The Ray Theory ................................................................................................................ 11
6) Types of Fiber Optics ........................................................................................................ 15

7) Classification Based on Propagation Mode and Refractive Index ...................................... 17

8) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optics ................................................................ 22

9) Applications of Fiber Optics ............................................................................................. 24
10) Examples ......................................................................................................................... 25
11) Exercise............................................................................................................................ 29

Unit-2 ⇝ Semiconductor devices ...................................................................... 30

12) Introduction to semiconductor ........................................................................................ 30
13) Carrier transport .............................................................................................................. 34

14) P–N Junction Diode .......................................................................................................... 36

15) Light-emitting diode (LED) ............................................................................................... 41
16) Photo-diode ..................................................................................................................... 43
17) Transistor ......................................................................................................................... 45

18) Working of a Transistor .................................................................................................... 46

19) Common base (CB) Connection ........................................................................................ 50

20) CB Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 52

21) Common emitter (CE) Connection.................................................................................... 54

22) CE Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 58

23) Common collector (CC) Connection ................................................................................. 61

24) CC Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 63

25) Transistor as an Amplifier ................................................................................................ 66

26) Examples ......................................................................................................................... 68

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Unit-3 ⇝ Integrated Circuits ............................................................................. 72

27) Introduction to integrated circuits.................................................................................... 72
28) IC classification ................................................................................................................. 74
29) IC packings ....................................................................................................................... 78
30) Scale of integration .......................................................................................................... 79

31) Advantages & Disadvantages of ICs .................................................................................. 80

32) Operational amplifier (Op-amp) ....................................................................................... 81

33) Slew rate .......................................................................................................................... 83

34) Frequency response ......................................................................................................... 84

35) Inverting amplifier ............................................................................................................ 85

36) Non-inverting amplifier .................................................................................................... 87

37) Voltage follower ............................................................................................................... 89
38) IC-741 .............................................................................................................................. 90
39) IC-555 .............................................................................................................................. 91

40) Examples .......................................................................................................................... 92

41) Exercise ............................................................................................................................ 97

Unit 4 ⇝ Communication System ..................................................................... 99

42) Introduction to Communication System ........................................................................... 99
43) Basic Terminology in Communication System ................................................................ 100

44) Modulation .................................................................................................................... 102

45) Types of Modulation ...................................................................................................... 104
46) Amplitude Modulation ................................................................................................... 105

47) Modulation Factor ......................................................................................................... 106

48) Analysis of Amplitude Modulated Wave ......................................................................... 109

49) Limitations of Amplitude Modulation ............................................................................. 111

50) Frequency Modulation ................................................................................................... 112
51) Theory of Frequency Modulation (FM) ........................................................................... 114
52) Comparison of FM and AM............................................................................................. 117

53) Demodulation ................................................................................................................ 118

54) A.M. Radio Receivers ..................................................................................................... 120

55) FM Receiver ................................................................................................................... 121

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56) Difference Between FM and AM Receivers .................................................................... 123

57) Examples ....................................................................................................................... 124

58) Exercise.......................................................................................................................... 127

Unit 5 ⇝ Transducers ...................................................................................... 128

59) Introduction to transducers ........................................................................................... 128

60) Classification of transducers .......................................................................................... 129

61) Resistive transducers ..................................................................................................... 131

62) Thermistor ..................................................................................................................... 133

63) Thermocouple ............................................................................................................... 136

64) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) ........................................................................ 138

65) Inductive transducers .................................................................................................... 143

66) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) ............................................................. 146
67) Capacitive Transducer .................................................................................................... 148
68) Piezo-electric Transducer ............................................................................................... 150
69) Opto-electrical transducers ............................................................................................ 152

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Unit 1 ⇝ Fiber Optics

Introduction of Fiber Optics

 Fiber optics are used for communication, or the transfer of data from one location to
other location.

 In 1870, John Tyndall first demonstrated the transmission of light in a cylindrical glass
by total internal reflection.

 In the communication process, the information is sent from one place to other place
through carrier waves.

 Light transmits information in the form of high-frequency waves that is why it can be
considered as carrier waves.

 The key limitations in communication are transmission reliability, data rate,

distortions, and distance between communication stations.

 To meet the demands of telecommunication companies worldwide, fiber optics are

used in a leading transmission system (Optical communication system).

 Optical communication system uses hair-thin glass fibers to guide light signals over
long distance with minimum loss.

 As data is transferred from one location to other location using optical signal, fiber
optics are frequently used.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Construction of Fiber Optics

 Fiber optics is made of glass or plastic and works at optical frequencies (400 THz to
700 THz).

 Fiber optics has three main parts: (1) Core, (2) Cladding, (3) Jacket

(1) Core:

 It is the innermost region of the fiber and is made of glass or plastic.

 The refractive index of core (n1 ) medium is always higher than cladding.

 The diameter of the core is of the order of 8.5 μm to 62.5 μm.

 The core is the actual working structure of the fiber.

(2) Cladding:

 It is the region just above the core of the fiber optics.

 The refractive index of cladding (n2 ) is less than the core refractive index (n1 ).

 The diameter of the cladding is of the order of 125 μm.

 The boundary between the core and cladding is very sharp and shows sudden
or slow changes based on the material.

(3) Jacket:

 The outermost region of the fiber optics is called the protective buffer coating
or jacket.

 It is made up of plastic or a polymer and other materials (transparent).

 This coating provides physical and environmental protection to the fiber.

 The coating can vary in size from 250 μm to 900 μm.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Principle of Fiber Optic Communication

 We will discuss the principle of fiber optics communication in three parts:

 Refractive index

 Snell’s law

 Total internal reflection (TIR)

Refractive index
 The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum (c) and the velocity of light in a medium (v)
is known as Refractive index.

 It is denoted as n or η (eta) or μ (mue).

c
∴ η or μ =
v
 The refractive index of any transparent material decides how much light can flow
through it.

 The refractive index controls refraction and reflection of light, here refractive index
directs light’s path inside a fiber optic material.

 The value of refractive index will be a positive real number equal to or greater than 1.

 Refractive index of few medium:

 Refractive index of air = 1

 Refractive index of water = 1.33

 Refractive index of glass = 1.5

 In vacuum and in air, the velocity of light is same. It is 3 × 108 m/s.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Snell’s law
 When the light ray is incident on boundary between two medium, refraction occurs as
shown in Fig (a).

 A small amount of light is reflected back into the incident medium.

 This is known as partial internal reflection.

 On the other side of boundary incident medium has refractive index n2 which is less
than n1 (n1 > n2 ).

 This behavior of light can be expressed by Snell’s law as:

∴ n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 … … … (1)

 As we increase the incident angle θ1 at the boundary, the angle of refraction θ2 also
increases.

 When θ2 becomes 90°, the refracted ray passes parallel to the boundary (Fig. b).

 This is the limitation for the refraction and that incident angle is known as critical angle
(θC).

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

 If we again increase angle of incidence, it will completely reflect back (Fig. c).

 This phenomenon is known as Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

 The TIR is used to guide the light to travel through a fiber optics.

Total Internal Reflection

 The total internal reflection (TIR) is the phenomenon where the incident light is totally
reflected back into the medium. (As shown in the figure).

 In TIR, the light can be completely reflected from an interface (the boundary between
two mediums) without any coating.

 On the other hand, the TIR in the core (e.g. transmitting medium) results in
electromagnetic field disturbance in the cladding (second medium).

 This causes leakage in light, which is known as frustrated total internal reflection.

 This normally occurs between any two closely placed mediums.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Elementary Fiber Optic Communication System

 Fiber optic communication systems are usually made of glass, plastic, or fused quartz
fibers.

 This fiber optic system guides light as a message carrier from a source to an end.

 A large bandwidth is required for such technology using carrier waves.

 The maximum amount of data transmitted over an internet connection in a given

amount of time.

 The frequency of light waves is about 300 THz.

 While in satellites, microwave signals operate at a frequency of 6 GHz.

 Hence, fiber optics can transmit information many more times than microwaves.

 In addition, fibers have extremely low transmission loss of about 0.2 dB/km.

 While a coaxial cable for T.V. distribution has a loss of 20 dB/km.

 The below figure shows the block diagram for fiber optics communication.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

 The signals are analog or digital type.

 The amplifier is used to generate even small incoming light signals.

 The light source converts electrical signals into light signals.

 These light signals have an amplitude that is directly proportional to the amplitude of
electrical signals.

 For digital signals, ‘1’ is used for maximum intensity of light, and ‘0’ is used for no light.

 LED (Light Emitting Diodes) or Laser diodes are used as a light source.

 LED is used for short-distance communication, while for long-distance communication,

Laser diodes are used.

 The light source and the optical fibre are connected using a proper coupler, so that the
entire light generated by the source enters the optical fibre.

 The coupler at the other end collects the light from the fiber optics and delivers to the
photodetector (Avalanche Photo Diodes).

 These electrical signals are amplified to get the information in its original form.

 Fiber optics has a variety of applications such as in the telecommunication industry,

medical science, illumination technology, instrumentation, etc.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

The Ray Theory

 Propagation of light through the core of a fiber optics depends on the materials that
made up of the core, cladding and the difference in their refractive indices.

Acceptance Angle
 In the below Fig., a ray is incident on the face of a fiber optics at an angle ϕ1.

 The ray will be reflected inside the core and refracted into the cladding.

 The refraction inside the cladding is considered loss of energy in the fibre.

 However, when the angle is changed to ϕ2 , the ray passes at the boundary between
core and cladding inside the fibre.

 The ray of light will be completely internally reflected for any angle less then critical
angle ϕC .

 Hence, the angle ϕC known as the maximum acceptance angle (ϕmax ).

 Here, ϕC is the maximum limiting angle, which allows light to travel through the fibre
by total internal reflection (TIR).

 Consider the ray incident at an angle ϕ as shown in figure.

 According to Snell’s law, at the air-core boundary

n0 sin ϕ = n1 sin ϕr … … … (1)
 Where n0 and n1 are the refractive indices of air and core respectively.
n1
∴ sin ϕ = sin ϕr
n0
From ΔOAB, ϕr = (90 − ϕ′ )
n1
∴ sin ϕ = sin(90 − ϕ′ )
n0

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

n1
∴ sin ϕ = cos ϕ′ … … … (2)
n0
n1
When, ϕ′ = ϕc ⇒ sin ϕmax = cos ϕc … … … (3)
n0
 By applying Snell's law at core–cladding interface, we get

n1 sinϕc = n2 sin90o
n2
∴ sinϕc = (∵ sin90o = 1)
n1

∴ cos ϕc = √ 1 − sin2 ϕc

n2 2
= √ (1 − ( ) )
n1

n12 − n22
= √
n12

√ n12 − n22
∴ cos ϕc = … … … (4)
n1
 Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (3), we get

n1 √ n12 − n22
∴ sin ϕmax =
n0 n1

∴ sin ϕmax = √ n12 − n22 (For n0 = 1) … … … (5)

 This maximum angle of incidence is known as the acceptance angle and is given by

∴ ϕmax = sin−1 √n12 − n22 (For n0 = 1) … … … (6)

Numerical Aperture
 It is well known that an optical fibre allows light to propagate through it.

 The optical fibre should allow maximum light travelling through it for effective
transmission.

 Numerical aperture of the fibre is a measure of its light gathering power.

NA = √n12 − n22 … … … (7)

 Also, it is defined as a quantity that is numerically equal to sine of the acceptance angle
(sinϕmax ),

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

∴ NA = √ n12 − n22

∴ NA = √ (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 ) … … … (9)

 The Index difference or the core-cladding index difference is written as:

n1 − n2
∆=
n1

∴ n1 ∆ = n1 − n2

 By substituting this in equation (9), we get

∴ NA = √(n1 + n2 ) n1 ∆

 If, we approximate n1 ~ n2 , then the above relation becomes n1 + n2 = 2n1

∴ NA = √ (2n1 )n1 ∆

∴ NA = √ 2 n1 2 ∆

∴ NA = n1 √2 ∆ … … … (10)

 The numerical aperture is a measurement of the amount of light a fiber can accept.

 Numerical aperture depends only on refractive indices of core and cladding material
not on fibre dimensions.

 Typical values of the NA for single mode fiber is of the order of 0.2 to 0.6.

Normalized Frequency
 Since the path taken by a light wave propagating in the core of a fiber optics depends
on the angle of incidence.

 There are many paths through the core. These are called modes.

 Therefore, a mode is a path that a light wave can follows as it travels through the core
of a fiber optics.

 The number of modes (N) for a step index fiber range from 𝟏 to more than 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 and
are given by

2π2 a2
∴N= (n12 − n22 ) … … … (11)
λ2
2π2 a2
∴N= [(n1 + n2 ) (n1 − n2 )]
λ2
2π2 a2 n1 − n2
∴N= 2
[(2n1 ) ( ) (n1 )]
λ n1

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

2πa 2 2 n1 − n2
∴N= ( ) n1 ∆ (∵ = ∆)
λ n1

 Where λ is the wavelength of light used and a is the radius of the fiber core

 The number of guided modes that can be propagated through the fiber may be related
to an important parameter V, known as normalized frequency or V-parameter,
according to the relation

V2
∴N=
2
 Where V is given by
2πa
∴V= √ n12 − n22
λ
or
2πa
∴V= n1 √ 2∆
λ
 The V-parameter is dimensionless quantity, that combines in a very useful manner to
give the information about three important design variables for the fiber.

 These parameters are:

(1) The core radius a,

(2) The index difference ∆,

(3) The operating wavelength λ.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Types of Fiber Optics

 The fiber optics can be classified into different types based on:

(1) Materials of which the fibers are made

(2) The mode of propagation

(3) The refractive index (index profile).

Material for Fiber Optics

 The materials commonly used to manufacture fiber optics are:

(1) High-content silica glass

(2) Multicomponent silica glass

(3) Plastic

 The material used to manufacture fiber optics must have the following properties.

(1) It must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibres from the material.

(2) The material must be transparent at a particular optical wavelength to guide the
light efficiently.

(3) The core and cladding must be made of physically compatible materials with
slightly different refractive indices.

 Materials satisfying these requirements are glasses and plastics.

 The majority of fibers are made of glass consisting of either silica or a silicate.

 To get desired difference of refractive indices of core and cladding, silica consisting of
SiO2 is doped with oxides like TiO2, Al2O3, GeO2 and P2O5 etc.

 In these multicomponent glass and plastic fibres, attenuation and dispersion are very
high.

 Therefore, they are not used for large-scale communication.

 A high content silica glass is more suitable for mass communication.

 There are three major types of fiber optics based on the material type of make.

 In all the three types, the core as well as the cladding can be made of either glass or
plastic.

(1) Plastic core with Plastic cladding.

(2) Glass core with Plastic cladding (Also called PCS fiber, plastic-clad-silica).

(3) Glass core with Glass cladding (Also called SCS fiber, silica-clad-silica).

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Plastic core and Plastic cladding

 In this type core and cladding are of same material (plastic). Hence, manufacturing
process is simple and therefore, this type of fibers is used most commonly, for short
distances.

 The advantages of such fibers are:

 They are more flexible.

 They can be installed easily.

 They can better withstand stress.

 They are less expensive and weigh nearly 60% less than glass fibers.

 However, the attenuation in these fibers is high. They are frequently used for short
distance computer applications with information capacity of about 6 Mbps (megabyte
per second) over a distance of 50−200 meter.

Examples:
 A polystyrene core and methyl methacrylate cladding.

 Core of polymethyl methacrylate and cladding of its co-polymer.

Glass core with Plastic cladding (PCS)

 These fibres are termed as PCS fibres.

 The advantage of glass core is low attenuation.

 This type of fibres is less affected by external radiations and hence, they are more
suitable for military purposes.

Glass core with Glass cladding (SCS)

 This type is known as SCS.

 The attenuation characteristics of this type of fibres are slightly better than PCS fibres.

 These fibres have best propagation properties.

 These fibres are smooth and they are immune to increased attenuation in radiation
areas.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Classification Based on Propagation Mode and Refractive

Index
 The mode of propagation means number of paths available to light for its propagation
in the core.

 For example, a single mode of propagation means that just one path for a light ray
through the core is available.

 In multiple mode propagation means that more than one path for a light ray through
the core is available.

 Index profile is a graph of refractive indices of core and cladding versus distance from
axis of the core.

Single mode step index fiber

 In this type of fiber, the propagation is of single mode (available path) type.

 The light travels on a single path along axis of the core.

 It is simply the zero-order mode.

 A typical SMF has a core diameter of 4 μm, which is several times more than the light
wavelength.

 The refractive index of the core is constant but it changes quickly at the core–cladding
interface (boundary), as shown in the figure.

 In general, the function shown in the image is known as a step function.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

 The image below depicts a single-mode step index fiber (SMF).

Intermodal dispersion
 Here light rays propagate through different paths hence their reaching time at the
destination is different.

 Single mode fibres only have one mode of propagation; hence, intermodal dispersion
does not exist.

 Low dispersion makes the fibre suitable for high data transmission.

 Part of the light in these fibres propagates through the cladding as well. Therefore, the
cladding needs to be thick and have low loss.

 These fibres are costlier and are more difficult to manufacture and handle.

Multimode step index fiber (MMF)

 In multimode step index fibre (MMF) light follows zig-zag paths inside the fibre.

 Here core is of larger diameter typically of 100 μm.

 This gives large N.A. and higher number of modes.

 However, the high number of modes increases intermodal dispersion results in a lower
data rate and less efficiency.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

 In the same figure, the refractive index step function is shown combined with the graph
of n → distance from the core axis.

 The multiple-step index fiber is shown in the below figure.

Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber

 In this fiber, the refractive index of the core is not constant but changes with distance
from the core's axis.

 This change is possible because the core is prepared with coaxial layers with different
refractive indices.

 The refractive index continuously decreases smoothly as we move away from the axis
of the core.

 In this condition, the path of the light ray will not be zigzag but in the curve form as
shown in the below figure.

 As n1 of core changes over core–core section, the acceptance angle, θmax given by

∴ sin θmax = √ n12 − n22 = n1 √ 2 Δ .

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

 Numerical Aperture sin θmaxdecreases as we move away from the axis.

 A graded index fiber has half the number of modes as compared to a multimode step
index fiber.

 The modal dispersion is lower than it is for multimode step index fiber.

 A typical fiber has a core diameter of 100 μm. This type of fiber manufacturing is more
difficult.

 If the accepting angle is small then the coupling of the light source with the input of
fiber is very difficult.

Differences between Step Index Fibers and Graded Index Fibers

Step index fiber Graded index fiber

The refractive index of the core is uniform The refractive index of the core is non-
and a step or abrupt change in the uniform, the refractive index of the core
refractive index takes place at the decreases parabolically from the axis of
interface of the core and cladding in step- the fiber to its surface.
index fibers.
The light rays propagate in a zigzag The light rays propagate in the form of
manner inside the core. The rays travel in skew rays or helical rays. They will not
the fiber as meridional rays and they cross cross the fiber axis.
the fibre axis for every reflection.
Signal distortion is more in the case of Signal distortion is very low even though
high-angle rays in multimode step index the rays travel at different speeds inside
fiber. In single-mode step-index fiber, the fiber.
there is no distortion.
The bandwidth is about 50 MHz km for The bandwidth of the fiber lies in between
multimode step-index fiber whereas it is 200 MHz km to 600 MHz km even though
more than 1000 MHz km in the case of theoretically it has an infinite bandwidth.
single mode step index fibre.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Attenuation of light rays is more in The attenuation of light rays is less in

multimode step-index fibers but for single graded index fibers.
mode step index fibers, it is very less.
NA of multimode step index fiber is more NA of graded index fibers is less.
whereas, in single-mode step-index fibers,
it is very less.

Differences between Single-Mode Fibers and Multimode Fibers

Single-mode fibers Multimode fibers

In single-mode fibers, there is only one In multimode fibers, a large number of

path for ray propagation. paths are available for light ray
propagation.
Single-mode step-index fibers have less Multimode step-index fibers have larger
core diameter (<10 μm) and the difference core diameters (50–200 μm) and the
between the refractive indices of core and difference between the refractive indices
cladding is very small. of core and cladding is large.
Launching light into single-mode fibers is Launching light into multimode fibers is
difficult. easy.
In single-mode fibers, there is no There are signal distortion and dispersion
dispersion. takes place in multimode fibers.
Signal transmission capacity is less but the Signal transmission capacity is more in
single-mode fibers are suitable for long- multimode fibers. Because of large
distance communication. dispersion and attenuation, they are less
suitable for long-distance transmission.
Fabrication cost is very high. Fabrication cost is less.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

Advantages

Information capacity and low attenuation

 Information-carrying capacity of fiber optics cable is much more than copper, coaxial
cable and microwave systems.

 It is normally expressed in terms of the amount of data that can be transferred through
the cable in a given period of time or information bandwidth.

 The higher the bandwidth, the greater the information-carrying capacity.

Small size
 The fiber optic cable is a lot smaller in size than conventional wire cables. It is light
weight and occupies much less space.

 A fiber optic cable of 0.25 inch diameter will carry the same information as a 3 inch
bundle of 900 pairs of copper cable.

Security and privacy

 Problems with placing so many copper cable together is called cross-talk, defined as
the interference of signals between adjacent wire pairs.

 There is no cross-talk in Fiber Optics and the transmission is secure and private.

Electromagnetic isolation
 The electromagnetic field present around high voltage lines do not affect the data being
transferred in fiber optic cable.

Electrical isolation
 Fiber optic cable is not an electrically conductive medium. Thus, fiber optic transmitter
and receiver do not have to have a common ground between them.

 Fiber cable is immune to lighting, radiations and nuclear explosions.

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Disadvantages
 Some types of cable are harder to join, especially if using splicing. Splicing can be more
time-consuming and thus increasing the cost of installation of the cable.

 All fiber optic systems are limited to fix point-to-point ground installation. They cannot
leave the ground nor be associated with a mobile communication station.

 Since fiber optic is non-conductive, if electrical communication is needed at a remote

site, an additional conducting member has to be added to the total cable configuration.

 Fragility is another major disadvantage of fiber optics. These are easily broken or
damaged due to age and vibrations.

 Lack of standards and knowledge is a problem. Standards for the implementation of

networks and signal levels are still in progress. Lack of knowledge of the industry and
installation techniques has been a major issue.

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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Applications of Fiber Optics

 Due to the various advantages, fiber optics widely used in many systems. Some of these
are as follows:

 Digital transmission system

 Close circuit TV (CCTV) links for traffic control and security, etc.

 Fiber optics sensors

 The public telecommunication networks, such as telephone, cable TV,

videophone, multimedia, desktop teleconferencing, etc.

 Undersea cable system for international telecommunication network.

 In military mobiles such as air-craft, tanks, ships, fiber-guided missiles, short

and long-distance communication links, etc.

 The signal multiplexing and transmission in automotive electronics, centralized

locking, door, lamps, power, windows, seat mechanism, etc., in automobiles
fiber optics are widely used.

Physics (2301HS103)
B.Tech. 2024(e) – Page 24
Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Examples
Q.1 Light of 800 nm wavelength is used in fiber optics communication. If the band
width in this case is 1% of the frequency of light used, how many audio signal
communication channels with a band width of 10 kHz each, can be
accommodated?
Ans. Frequency of light (optical signal),
c 3.0 × 108
f = = = 3.8 × 1014 Hz
λ 800 × 10−9
Band width is 1 % of this frequency
∴ Band Width = 0.01 × 3.8 × 1014 = 3.8 × 1012 Hz
Total Band Width
The number of 10 kHz band width channels =
Band Width of each channel

3.8 × 1012 Hz
=
10 × 103
= 3.8 × 108
Q.2 A light ray is entering a fiber optics as shown in the fig. what should be the
minimum value of the refractive index n1 of the fiber if the cladding is of air
and light incident at all angles is to have total internal reflections?
Ans.

sin θmax = √n12 − n22

We want minimum value of n1 for which the light entering at all the angles is
internally reflected.
Now, sin θmax = 1
∴ n12 − n22 = 1
But n2 = 1.0 for air
∴ n12 − 1.0 = 1
∴ n12 = 2

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

∴ n1 = √2 = 1.41

Q.3 In a fiber optics, the core materials have refractive index 1.62 and the
refractive index of cladding material is 1.34. Find the values of critical angle
and half angle of acceptance cone.
Ans. n
(1) For critical angle, sin ϕc = 2
n1
1.34
sin ϕc =
1.62
1.34
∴ ϕc = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 (0.827)
1.62
∴ ϕc = 55.8°
(2) Acceptance cone half angle,
1
∴ θmax = sin−1 [n12 − n22 ]2
1
∴ θmax = sin−1 [1.622 − 1.342 ]2
1
∴ θmax = sin−1 [0.828]2
1
∴ θmax = sin−1 [0.909]2
∴ θmax = 65.5°
Q.4 In a fiber optics the core material has refractive index 1.63. The refractive
index of the cladding is 1.48. Calculate the normalized refractive index
difference and numerical aperture.
Ans. Normalized refractive index difference,
n1 − n2
∆=
n1
1.63 − 1.48
∴∆=
1.63
∴ ∆ = 0.092
Numerical aperture = n1 √2 ∆
= 1.63 × √2 × 0.092
∴ N. A. = 0.699
Q.5 A fiber optics has fiber index 1.36 and relative difference in index ∆ = 0.025.
Find the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle.
Ans. The numerical aperture is

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

N. A. = n1 √2 ∆
= 1.36 × √2 × 0.025
= 0.304
Acceptance angle is,
∴ ϕmax = sin−1 (NA)
∴ ϕmax = sin−1 (0.304)
∴ ϕmax = 17.7°
Q.6 A step index fiber in air has NA of 0.16, a core refractive index of 1.45 and core
diameter of 60 μm. Calculate the V number for this fiber. Light used is of
wavelength 0.9 μm.
Ans. 2πa
V= √n12 − n22
λ
πD
V= √n12 − n22
λ
πD
V= × NA
λ
(3.14) × 60 × 10−6
V= × 0.16
0.9 × 10−6
V = 33.5
Q.7 A fiber optics is 2 m long and has a diameter of 20 μm. If a ray of light is
incident on one end of the fiber at an angle of 40°, how many total internal
reflections will take place, before it leaves the fiber? Refractive index of fiber
is 1.33.
Ans.

At point A, according to Snell’s law

n1 sin ϕ1 = n2 sin 40°
1.33 × sin ϕ1 = 1 × sin 40°

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

sin 40°
∴ sin ϕ1 = = 0.483
1.33
∴ ϕ1 = 28.9°
∴ ϕ = 90° − 28.9° = 61.1°
From the fig.,
x = a tan ϕ
∴ x = 10 × 10−6 × tan 61.1° (radius, a = 10 μm)
The distance along axis per one reflection is
2𝑥 = 1.81 × 10−5 × 2 = 3.62 × 10−5 m
If N is the number of reflections and L is the length of the fiber,
N ∙ 2𝑥 = L = 2 m
L 2
∴N= =
2𝑥 3.62 × 10−5
1
=
1.81 × 10−5
= 55249
Q.8 Calculate the refractive indices of core material and cladding material of a
fiber optics for which NA is 0.22 and relative (or normalized) refractive
difference ∆ = 0.012.
Ans. NA = n1 √2 ∆
NA
∴ n1 =
√2 ∆
NA
∴ n1 =
√2 ∆
0.22
∴ n1 =
√2 × 0.012
∴ n1 = 1.42 Ans. for core

Now, NA = √n12 − n22

∴ (NA)2 = n12 − n22

∴ n22 = n12 − (NA)2
∴ n22 = (1.42)2 − (0.22)2
∴ n2 = 1.40 Ans. for cladding material

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 1 Fiber Optics

Exercise
Ex-1: Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and critical angle of a fiber having
refractive indices of core and cladding as 1.50 and 1.45 respectively.

(Ans. NA=0.384, acceptance angle =22.58, critical angle =75.16)

Ex-2: Calculate the numerical aperture and hence acceptance angle for a fiber optics given
that μ for core and cladding are 1.45 and 1.40 respectively.

(Ans. NA=0.3775, acceptance angle =22.18)

Ex-3: Fiber optics has an acceptance angle of 30 and refractive index of core is 1.3. Find out
refractive index of cladding and relative index for a fiber.

(Ans. refractive index of cladding n2 = 1.2, relative index Δ = 0.07692)

Ex-4: A fiber optics has a numerical aperture of 0.20 and a cladding refractive index of 1.55.
Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in water which has a refractive index 1.33.
(n0 = 1.33)

(Ans. refractive index n1 = 1.5628, NA in water = 0.150, acceptance angle = 8.37)

Ex-5: Calculate the numerical aperture, acceptance angle and the critical angle of a fiber
having core refractive index 1.5 and the cladding refractive index 1.45.

(Ans. NA = 0.38, acceptance angle = 22. 8O , critical angle = 75. 2O )

Ex-6: A glass clad fiber is made with core glass of refractive index 1.5 and the cladding is
doped to give an index difference of 0.0005. Determine: (i) the cladding refractive
index, (ii) the critical angle, (iii) the acceptance angle and (iv) the numerical aperture.

(Ans. (i) the cladding refractive index = 1.49925, (ii) the critical angle = 88. 2O , (iii) the
acceptance angle = 2. 72O and (iv) the numerical aperture = 0.0474)

Ex-7: A fiber optics has a numerical aperture of 0.2 and a cladding refractive index of 1.59.
Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in water which has a refractive index of
1.33.

(Ans. acceptance angle = 8. 64O)

Ex-8: A fiber optics has a numerical aperture of 0.15 in air and a cladding refractive index
of 1.5. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber in liquid of refractive index 1.3. Also find
core refractive index of fiber.

(Ans. Refractive index of fiber n1 = 1.5075, NA = 0.1154)

**********

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Unit-2 ⇝ Semiconductor devices

Introduction to semiconductor
 Semiconductors are material having electrical conductivity considerably greater than
that of an insulator but significantly lower than that of a conductor.

 Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are Elemental semiconductors and are widely used in
semiconductor devices.

 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP), Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), etc. are
known as compound semiconductors.

 These compound semiconductors which are formed from the combinations of the
elements.

 E.g. Magnesium oxide (MgO), Magnesium silicon (MgSi), Zinc oxide (ZnO), Zinc sulphide
(ZnS), etc. are widely used in fabrication of optoelectronic devices.

 Such as LASER, LEDs etc…

 Semiconductors consists two charge carriers, namely electrons and holes, for
conduction.

 The electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor is significantly low.

 These pure semiconductors are known as intrinsic semiconductors.

 Through the technique of doping, the conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased

in magnitude to a desire value for conduction.

 The doped semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors.

 Extrinsic semiconductors are widely used in fabrication of solid state devices.

 Example of solid state devices are as follow:

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Properties of semiconductors
 The resistivity of semiconductors lies between a conductor and an Insulator.

 At zero (0) K it behaves as insulator. They have negative temperature coefficient of

resistance. (decreases in resistivity with increase in temperature)

 In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are charge carriers.

 If we increase the temperature of semiconductor, its electrical conductivity also

increases.

 They have an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band at zero (0) K.

 They are formed by a covalent bond and have small energy gap (or) band gap.

(a) Intrinsic semiconductor

 A semiconductor in extremely pure form, without the addition of impurities is known
as intrinsic semiconductors. i.e. Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si)

 Its electrical conductivity can be changed due to thermal excitation.

 At 0 K the valance band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty.

 The carrier concentration (i.e.) electron density (or) hole density increases
exponentially with increase in temperature.

(b) Extrinsic semiconductor

 A semiconductor in extremely impure form, with the addition of impurities is known
as extrinsic semiconductors. E.g. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP),
Cadmium Sulphide (CdS), etc.

 Extrinsic semiconductor can be of two types:

 P – type semiconductors

 N – type semiconductors

 P – type semiconductors

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 It is formed by doping a trivalent impurity in Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si). e.g.

Gallium (Ga), Indium (In), Boron (B).

 Let us assume, a trivalent element B is added to an intrinsic semiconductor Si.

 All the valence electrons of B will form covalent bonds with neighboring Si
atoms as shown in figure.

 The dopant is in need of an electron to complete its fourth covalent bond

formation with Si.

 Thus, holes act as acceptors of electrons.

 These holes have slightly higher energy and creates an energy level called
acceptor level just above valence band.

 As the dopant atoms accept electrons, they are also called Acceptors.

 An electron must gain energy of an order of Ea in order to create hole in valence

band.

 The acceptor atoms get negatively ionized after accepting electrons from
valence band at room temperature.

 This is how holes are created in valence bands.

 This is why holes are majority charge carriers in p – type semiconductors.

 At sufficient high temperatures, additional electron hole pairs are generated due
to braking of covalent bond.

 N – type semiconductors

 The n-type semiconductors are formed by doping a pentavalent impurity in

Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si). e.g. Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb).

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Let us assume, a pentavalent element P is added to an intrinsic semiconductor

Si.

 All the valence electrons of P will form covalent bonds with neighboring Si
atoms, leaving an extra electron (fifth electron) in the unbounded state as shown
in figure.

 This extra electron is weakly bounded to the atom and enters into an energy
level in donor state, just below the conduction band.

 As these electrons are not tightly bound to the atom, all such electrons at room
temperature can get excited into conduction band, even for small amount of
external energy.

 As the pentavalent atom donates electrons to conduction band, they are also
called donor atoms.

 Ed is the minimum energy required for electron to enter in conduction band.

 So, in this type of semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge
carriers.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Carrier transport
 Any motion of free charge carriers in a semiconductor leads to a current.

 This motion can be caused by an electric field due to an externally applied voltage.

 We will refer to this transport mechanism as drift current.

 In addition, the charge carriers also move from high carrier density regions to low
carrier density regions.

 This carrier transport mechanism is due to the thermal energy and the associated
random motion of the carriers.

 We will refer to this transport mechanism as diffusion current.

Diffusion current
 Current produce due to the motion of charge carriers from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.

 Regions having more no. of electrons is called higher concentration region and that
with less no. of electrons is called lower concentration region.

 The above process occurs in semiconductors that are non-uniformly doped.

 Let us consider an n–type semiconductor with non-uniform doping.

 Due to non-uniform doping, more no. of electrons are present on the left side, whereas
lesser no. of electrons are present on the right side.

 The number of electrons on left side is more, as a result of which they will experience
repulsive force from each other.

 Diffusion current occurs without an external voltage (electric field) applied.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Drift current

 The flow of charge carriers, which is due to applied voltage or electric field is called
drift current.

 In semiconductors there are two types of charge carriers i.e. holes and electrons.

 When voltage is applied to semiconductors, free electrons moves towards the positive
terminal of battery and holes moves towards the negative terminal.

 The average velocity that an electron or hole achieves, due to applied voltage or electric
field is called “Drift velocity”.

Drift current Diffusion current

Drift current requires external voltage. Diffusion current does not require
external voltage.
It is present in both conductors and It is present only in semiconductors.
semiconductors.
Can be present in intrinsic and extrinsic Can be present only in extrinsic
semiconductors. semiconductors with uneven doping.
Its value is generally high in reverse bias. Its value is generally high in forward bias.
Drift current is caused by electric field. Diffusion current is caused by variation
in carrier concentration.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

P–N Junction Diode

 When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact

surface is called p-n junction.

 Most semiconductor devices contain one or more pn junctions.

 The pn junction is of great importance because of the control element, so it can be used
as semiconductor devices.

 A p-n junction diode is a two terminal device which allows electric current only in one
direction, while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse direction.

 A p-type semiconductor has holes as majority charge carriers and n-type has electrons
as majority charge carriers.

 In addition to these majority charge carriers, minority charge carriers are also present
in both the types of semiconductors.

 The majority charge carriers near or at the junction, diffuse across the junction and
recombine, after a few recombination, the process stops.

 This is because the electrons crossing the junction are repelled by negative ions created
and holes are repelled by positive ions created.

 The immobile ions, at the junction creates a zone that is devoid of charge carriers.
(Majority charge carriers).

 This zone, depleted or devoid of charge carriers is called Depletion region.

 There is no current under this condition.

 The thickness of the depletion region is of an order of 10−6 m.

 In this depletion region no current will flow now onwards.

 This P – N junction diode is in now stable state or equilibrium state.

 In electronics, the term bias refers to the use of d.c. voltage to establish certain
operating conditions for an electronic device.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 In relation to a pn junction, there are following two bias conditions:

(4) Forward biasing

(5) Reverse biasing

Forward bias

 Forward biasing is when we connect p-type to positive terminal of battery and n-type
to negative terminal of battery as shown in Figure.

 When external d.c. voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels
the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing.

 The applied forward potential establishes an electric field which acts against the field
due to potential barrier.

 As potential barrier is very small (0.1 to 0.3 V), therefore, a small forward voltage is
sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier.

 Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance
becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit.

 Therefore, current flows in the circuit.

 This is called forward current.

In forward bias the following points are worth noting:

 The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage (0.1 to 0.3 V), then it is
eliminated.

 The junction offers low resistance (called forward resistance, Rf) to current flow.

 Current flows in the circuit due to the low resistance path. The magnitude of current
depends upon the applied forward voltage.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

I-V characteristics
 With forward bias to the pn junction i.e. p-type connected to positive terminal and n-
type connected to negative terminal, the potential barrier is reduced.

 At some forward voltage (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), the potential barrier is
eliminated and current starts flowing in the circuit.

 From now onwards, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage.

 From the forward characteristic, it is seen that at first current increases very slowly
and the curve is non-linear.

 It is because the applied voltage is used to overcome the potential barrier.

 However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier, the pn junction
behaves like a conductor.

 Therefore, the current rises very sharply with increase in external voltage. Forward
resistance calculation:
ΔVF
RF =
ΔIF

Reverse bias
 Reverse biasing is when we connect positive terminal of battery to n-type and negative
terminal of battery to p-type.

 When an external voltage applied to a p-n junction increases the potential barrier it is
called in Reverse bias.

 It is clear that applied voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same
direction as the field due to potential barrier.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier height is
increased as shown in figure.

 This barrier prevents the flow of charge carrier across the junction.

 A very small current flows in the circuit due to the motion of minority carriers.

 This current is called ‘Reverse current’.

In reverse bias the following points are worth noting:

 The potential barrier is increased.

 The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse resistance, R r) to current flow.

 No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of high resistance path.

I-V characteristics

 With reverse bias to the pn junction i.e. p-type connected to negative terminal and n-
type connected to positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is increased.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no current flows
through the circuit.

 However, in practice, a very small current (of the order of µA) flows in the circuit with
reverse bias.

 This is called reverse saturation current (Is) and is due to the minority carriers.

 If reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority

carriers) may knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms.

 At this stage breakdown of the junction occurs, characterized by a sudden rise of

reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy
the junction permanently.

 Reverse resistance calculation:

ΔVR
RR =
ΔIR

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Light-emitting diode (LED)

 A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased.

 Light-emitting diodes are not made from silicon or germanium but are made by using
elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic.

 By varying the quantities of these elements, it is possible to produce light of different

wavelengths with colors that include red, green, yellow and blue.

 For example, when a LED is manufactured using gallium arsenide (GaAs), it will
produce a red light.

 If the LED is made with gallium phosphide (GaP), it will produce a green light.

Forward bias

 When light-emitting diode (LED) is forward biased, the electrons from the n-type
material cross the p-n junction and recombine with holes in the p-type material.

 Here, the free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than
the holes in the valence band.

 When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form
of heat and light (Photon).

 In germanium and silicon diodes, almost the entire energy is given up in the form of
heat and emitted light is insignificant.

 However, in materials like gallium arsenide, the number of photons of light energy is
sufficient to produce quite intense visible light.

 In Fig. 2 the arrows are shown as pointing away from the diode, indicating that in
forward biased light is being emitted by the device.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Although LEDs are available in several colors (red, green, yellow and orange are the
most common), the schematic symbol is the same for all LEDs.

LED Voltage and Current

 The forward voltage ratings of most LEDs is from 1 V to 3 V and forward current ratings
range from 20 mA to 100 mA.

 In order that current through the LED does not exceed the safe value, a resistor R S is
connected in series with it as shown in Figure.

 The input voltage is VS and the voltage across LED is VD.

∴ Voltage across R S = VS − VD
VS − VD
∴ Circuit current, IF =
RS

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Photo-diode
 A photo-diode is a reverse-biased silicon or germanium pn junction in which reverse
current increases when the junction is exposed to light.

 The reverse current in a photo-diode is directly proportional to the intensity of light

falling on its pn junction.

 This means that greater the intensity of light falling on the pn junction of photo-diode,
the greater will be the reverse current.

Reverse bias

 In photo-diode, when pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with
the increase in light intensity and vice-versa.

 When light (photons) falls on the pn junction, the energy is imparted by the photons to
the atoms in the junction.

 This will create more free electrons (and more holes).

 These additional free electrons will increase the reverse current.

 As the intensity of light incident on the pn junction increases, the reverse current also
increases.

 In other words, as the incident light intensity increases, the resistance of the device
(photo-diode) decreases.

 The schematic symbol of a photo-diode is shown in figure 2. The inward arrows

represent the incoming light.

Operation
 Above figure shows the basic photo-diode circuit. The circuit has reverse biased photo-
diode, resistor R and d.c. supply.

 When no light is incident on the pn junction of photo-diode, the reverse current Ir is

extremely small. This is called dark current.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 The resistance of photo-diode with no incident light is called dark resistance (RR).

 Dark resistance of photo-diode, RR

VR
RR =
Dark current
 When light is incident on the pn junction of the photo-diode, there is a transfer of
energy from the incident light (photons) to the atoms in the junction.

 This will create more free electrons (and more holes).

 These additional free electrons will increase the reverse current.

 As the intensity of light increases, the reverse current IR goes on increasing till it
becomes maximum.

 This is called saturation current.

I-V characteristics

 Figure shows the graph between reverse current (IR) and reverse voltage (VR) for
various illumination levels.

 It is clear that for a given reverse-biased voltage VR, the reverse current IR increases as
the illumination (E) on the pn junction of photo-diode is increased.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Transistor
 When a third doped element is added to a crystal diode in such a way that pn junctions
are formed, the resulting device is known as transistor.

 Invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen and W.H. Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, U.S.A.

 They are mechanically strong, have practically unlimited life and can do some jobs
better than vacuum tubes.

 A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type

semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

 There are two types of transistors, namely;

(4) p-n-p transistor

(5) n-p-n transistor

 A p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type as

shown in figure.

 However, an n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by

a thin section of p-type as shown in figure.

 In each type of transistor, the following points may be noted:

(1) These are two pn junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a
combination of two diodes connected back to back.

(2) There are three terminals, one taken from each type of semiconductor.

(3) The middle section is a very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the
function of a transistor.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Working of a Transistor
 The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector-base
junction is reverse biased.

 If for a moment, we ignore the presence of emitter-base junction, then practically no

current would flow in the collector circuit because of the reverse bias.

 However, if the emitter-base junction is also present, then forward bias on it causes the
emitter current to flow.

 It is seen that this emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit.

 Therefore, the current in the collector circuit depends upon the emitter current.

 If the emitter current is zero, then collector current is nearly zero.

 If the emitter current is 1 mA, then collector current is also about 1 mA. This is precisely
what happens in a transistor.

NPN transistor
 Figure shows the npn transistor with forward bias to emitter-base junction and reverse
bias to collector-base junction.

 The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter to flow towards the base.

Physics (2301HS103)
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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 This constitutes the emitter current IE.

 As these electrons flow through the p-type base, they tend to combine with holes.

 As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few electrons (less than 5%)
combine with holes to constitute base current IB.

 The remainder (more than 95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute
collector current IC.

 In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

 It is clear that emitter current is the sum of collector and base currents.

IE = IB + IC

PNP transistor
 Figure shows the basic connection of a pnp transistor.

 The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base.

 This constitutes the emitter current IE.

 As these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons.

 As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%)
combine with the electrons.

 The remainder (more than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC.

 In this way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

 It may be noted that current conduction within pnp transistor is by holes.

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Schematic diagrams

 For npn connection, it is clear that conventional current flows out of the emitter as
indicated by the outgoing arrow in figure.

 Similarly, for pnp connection, the conventional current flows into the emitter as
indicated by inward arrow in figure.

 There are three leads in a transistor viz., emitter, base and collector terminals.

 However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require four terminals;

two for the input and two for the output.

 This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal of the transistor common to both
input and output terminals.

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 Accordingly; a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three ways:

(1) Common base (CB) connection

(2) Common emitter (CE) connection

(3) Common collector (CC) connection

 Each circuit connection has specific advantages and disadvantages.

 It may be noted here that regardless of circuit connection, the emitter is always biased
in the forward direction, while the collector always has a reverse bias.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Common base (CB) Connection

 In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output is
taken from collector and base.

 Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the
name common base connection.

Current amplification factor (α)

 It is the ratio of output current to input current.

 In a common base connection, the input current is the emitter current I E and output
current is the collector current IC.

 The ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current at constant
collector base voltage VCB is known as current amplification factor i.e.
∆IC
α= at constant VCB
∆IE

 It is clear that current amplification factor is less than unity (1).

 This value can be increased (but not more than unity) by decreasing the base current.

 This is achieved by making the base thin and doping it lightly.

 Practical values of α in commercial transistors range from 0.9 to 0.99.

Expression for collector current

 The whole of emitter current does not reach the collector.

 It is because a small percentage of base, as a result of electron-hole combinations

occurring in base area, gives rise to base current.

 Moreover, as the collector-base junction is reverse biased, therefore, some leakage

current flows due to minority carriers.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Therefore, total collector current consists of:

 That part of emitter current which reaches the collector terminal (I C) i.e. α "IE".

 The leakage current Ileakage. This current is due to the movement of minority
carriers across base-collector junction on account of it being reverse biased.
This is generally much smaller than α IE.

 ∴ Total collector current, IC = α IE + Ileakage

 It is clear that if IE =0 (i.e., emitter circuit is open), a small leakage current still
flows in the collector circuit.

 This Ileakage is abbreviated as ICBO, meaning collector-base current with open

emitter.
∴ IC = α IE + ICBO … … (1)

Now IE = IC + IB

∴ IC = α (IC + IB ) + ICBO

or IC (1 − α) = α IB + ICBO
α ICBO
or IC = IB + … … (2)
(1 − α) (1 − α )

 It is clear from equations 1 & 2 that the collector current (IC) of a transistor can
be controlled by either the emitter current (IE) or base current (IB).

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

CB Characteristics
Input characteristic
 It is the curve between emitter current IE and emitter-base voltage VEB at constant
collector-base voltage VCB.

 The emitter current is generally taken along y−axis and emitter-base voltage along
x−axis.

 Figure shows the input characteristics of a typical transistor in CB arrangement.

 The emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB.
It means that input resistance is very small.

 The emitter current IE is almost independent of collector-base voltage VCB.

 This leads to the conclusion that emitter current (and hence collector current) is almost
independent of collector voltage.

Input resistance
 It is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage (ΔVEB) to the resulting change in emitter
current (ΔIE) at constant collector-base voltage (VCB) i.e.
∆VBE
Input resistance, ri = , at constant VCB
∆IE

Output characteristic
 It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-base voltage VCB at constant
emitter current IE.

 Generally, collector current is taken along y−axis and collector-base voltage along
x−axis.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Figure shows the output characteristics of a typical transistor in CB arrangement.

 The collector current IC varies with VCB only at very low voltages (<1 V).

 The transistor is never operated in this region.

 When the value of VCB is raised above 1−2 V, the collector current IC becomes constant
as indicated by straight horizontal curves.

 It means that now IC is independent of VCB and depends upon IE only.

 This is consistent with the theory that the emitter current flows almost entirely to the
collector terminal.

 The transistor is always operated in this region.

 A very large change in collector-base voltage (VCB) produces only a tiny change in
collector current (IC). This means that output resistance is very high.

Output resistance
 It is the ratio of change in collector-base voltage (ΔVCB) to the resulting change in
collector current (ΔIC) at constant emitter current (IE) i.e.
∆VCB
Output resistance, ro = , at constant IE
∆IC

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Common emitter (CE) Connection

 In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and output is
taken from the collector and emitter.

 Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence
the name common emitter connection.

Base current amplification factor (β)

 In common emitter connection, input current is IB and output current is IC.

 The ratio of change in collector current (∆IC) to the change in base current (∆IB) is
known as base current amplification factor i.e.
∆IC
β= … … … (1)
∆IB

 In almost any transistor, less than 5% of emitter current flows as the base current.

 Therefore, the value of β is generally greater than 20.

 Usually, its value ranges from 20 to 500.

 This type of connection is frequently used as it gives appreciable current gain as well
as voltage gain.

Relation between β and α

 A simple relation exists between β and α. This can be derived as follows:
∆IC
β= … … … (1)
∆IB

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

∆IC
α= … … … (2)
∆IE

Now IE = IB + IC

or ∆IE = ∆IB + ∆IC

or ∆IB = ∆IE − ∆IC

 Substituting the value of ∆IB in equation (1),

∆IC
β= … … … (3)
∆IE − ∆IC

 Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. of equation (3) by ∆IE ,

∆IC
∆IE α
∴β= =
∆IE ∆IC 1−α
∆IE − ∆IE
α
∴β=
1−α
 It is clear that as α approaches unity, β approaches infinity.

 In other words, the current gain in common emitter connection is very high.

 It is due to this reason that this circuit arrangement is used in about 90 to 95 percent
of all transistor applications.

Expression for collector current

 In common emitter circuit, IB is the input current and IC is the output current.

we know, IE = IB + IC … … … (1)

and, IC = αIE + ICBO … … … (2)

 Put value of From equation (1) in equation (2),

we get, IC = αIE + ICBO = α(IB + IC ) + ICBO

or, IC (1 − α) = αIB + ICBO

α 1
or, IC = IB + I … … … (3)
1−α 1 − α CBO
 From equation (3), it is apparent that if I B = 0 (i.e. base circuit is open), the collector will
be the current to the emitter.

 This is abbreviated as ICEO, meaning collector-emitter current with base open.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

1
∴ ICEO = I
1 − α CBO
 Substituting this value in equation (3), we get,
α
IC = I + ICEO
1−α B
α
or IC = βIB + ICEO (∵ β = )
1−α
Concept of ICEO
 In CE configuration, a small collector current flows even when the base current is zero
[see Fig. (i)].

 This is the collector cut off current (i.e. the collector current that flows when base is
open) and is denoted by ICEO. The value of ICEO is much larger than ICBO.

 When the base voltage is applied as shown in Fig. (ii), then the various currents are:

 Base current = IB

 Collector current = βIB + ICEO

 Emitter current = collector current + base current

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 Emitter current = (βIB + ICEO ) + IB

= (β + 1)IB + ICEO

 It may be noted here that:

1
ICEO = I
1 − α CBO
1
ICEO = (β + 1)ICBO , [∵ =β + 1]
1−α

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

CE Characteristics
Input characteristic
 It is the curve between base current IB and base-emitter voltage VBE at constant
collector-emitter voltage VCE.

 The input characteristics of a CE connection can be determined by the circuit shown in

figure.

 Keeping VCE constant (say at 10 V), note the base current IB for various values of VBE.

 Then plot the readings obtained on the graph, taking I B along y-axis and VBE along x-
axis.

 This gives the input characteristic at VCE =10 V as shown in figure.

 Following a similar procedure, a family of input characteristics can be drawn.

 The following points may be noted from the characteristics:

(1) The characteristic resembles that of a forward biased diode curve. This is
expected since the base-emitter section of transistor is a diode and it is forward
biased.

(2) As compared to CB arrangement, IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore,

input resistance of a CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.

Input resistance
 It is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the change in base current
(ΔIB) at constant VCE i.e.
∆VBE
Input resistance, ri = , at constant VCB
∆IB

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Output characteristic
 It is the curve between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant
base current IB.

 The output characteristics of a CE circuit can be drawn with the help of the circuit
shown in figure.

 Keeping the base current IB fixed at some value say, 5 µA, note the collector current IC
for various values of VCE.

 Then plot the readings on a graph, taking IC along y−axis and VCE along x−axis.

 This gives the output characteristic at IB = 5 µA as shown in Fig. (I).

 The test can be repeated for IB = 10 µA to obtain the new output characteristic as shown
in Fig. (II).

 Following similar procedure, a family of output characteristics can be drawn as shown

in Fig. (III).

 The following points may be noted from the characteristics:

(1) The collector current IC varies with VCE for VCE between 0 and 1 V only. After this,
collector current becomes almost constant and independent of V CE. This value

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

of VCE up to which collector current IC changes with VCE is called the knee voltage
(Vknee). The transistors are operated in the region above knee voltage.

(2) Above knee voltage, IC is almost constant. However, a small increase in IC with
increasing VCE is caused by the collector depletion layer getting wider and
capturing a few more majority carriers before electron-hole combinations occur
in the base area.

(3) For any value of VCE above knee voltage, the collector current IC is approximately
equal to β × IB .

Output resistance
 It is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in collector
current (ΔIC) at constant IB i.e.
∆VCE
Output resistance, ro = , at constant IB
∆IC

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Common collector (CC) Connection

 In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while output is
taken between the emitter and collector.

 Here, collector of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence
the name common collector connection.

 Figure shows common collector npn transistor circuit.

Current amplification factor (γ)

 In common collector circuit, input current is the base current I B and output current is
the emitter current IE.

 The ratio of change in emitter current (ΔIE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) is known
as current amplification factor in common collector (CC) arrangement i.e.
∆IE
γ=
∆IB

 This circuit provides about the same current gain as the common emitter circuit as ΔIE
≈ ΔIC.

 However, its voltage gain is always less than 1.

Relation between γ and α

∆IE
γ= … … … (1)
∆IB
∆IC
α= … … … (2)
∆IE

Now IE = IB + IC

or ∆IE = ∆IB + ∆IC

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

or ∆IB = ∆IE − ∆IC

 Substituting the value of ∆IB in equation (1),

∆IE
γ= … … … (3)
∆IE − ∆IC

 Dividing the numerator and denominator of R.H.S. by ΔIE , we get

∆IE
∆IE 1
γ= =
∆IE ∆IC 1−α
∆IE − ∆IE
1
∴ γ=
1−α
 Expression for collector current

We know, IC = αIE + ICBO

Also, IE = IB + IC = IB + (αIE + ICBO )

∴ IE (1 − α) = IB + ICBO
IB ICBO
or, IE = +
1−α 1−α
or, IC ; IE = (β + 1)IB + (β + 1)ICBO

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

CC Characteristics
Input characteristic
 The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base
current (IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).

 The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y−axis (vertical line).

 The input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC) is taken along x−axis (horizontal line).

 To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V EC is kept constant at 3 V

and the input voltage VBC is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.

 For each level of input voltage VBC, the corresponding input current IB is noted.

 The output voltage VEC is increased from 3 V to different voltage level, say for example
5 V and then kept constant at 5 V.

 While increasing the output voltage VEC, the input voltage VBC is kept constant at zero
volts.

 This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage (VEC).

Input resistance
 It is the ratio of change in base-collector voltage (ΔVBC) to the change in base current
(ΔIB) at constant VCE i.e.
∆VBC
Input resistance, ri = , at constant VCE
∆IB

Output characteristic
 The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or emitter
current (IE) and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC).

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 The output current or emitter current (IE) is taken along y−axis (vertical line).

 The output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC) is taken along x−axis (horizontal
line).

 To determine the output characteristics, the input current I B is kept constant at zero
micro amperes and the output voltage VEC is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.

 For each level of output voltage VEC, the corresponding output current IE is noted.

 A curve is then drawn between output current IE and output voltage VEC at constant
input current IB (0 μA).

 The input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA and then kept constant at 20 μA.

 While increasing the input current (IB), the output voltage (VEC) is kept constant at 0
volt.

 This region is known as the active region of a transistor.

 This process is repeated for higher fixed values of input current I B (i.e. 40 μA, 60 μA, 80
μA and so on).

 In common collector configuration, if the input current or base current is zero then the
output current or emitter current is also zero.

 As a result, no current flows through the transistor.

 So, the transistor will be in the cut-off region.

 If the base current (IB) is slightly increased then the output current or emitter current
(IE) also increases.

 So, the transistor falls into the active region.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 If the base current is heavily increased then the current flowing through the transistor
also heavily increases.

Output resistance
 It is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in emitter
current (ΔIE) at constant IB i.e.
∆VCE
Input resistance, ri = , at constant IB
∆IE

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Transistor as an Amplifier
 Figure 1 shows the common emitter npn amplifier circuit.

 Note that a battery VBB is connected in the input circuit in addition to the signal voltage.

 This d.c. voltage is known as bias voltage and its magnitude is such that it always keeps
the emitter-base junction forward biased regardless of the polarity of the signal source.

Operation
 During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the forward bias across the emitter-base
junction is increased.

 Therefore, more electrons flow from the emitter to the collector via the base.

 This causes an increase in collector current.

 The increased collector current produces a greater voltage drop across the collector
load resistance RC.

 However, during the negative half-cycle of the signal, the forward bias across emitter-
base junction is decreased.

 Therefore, collector current decreases.

 This results in the decreased output voltage (in the opposite direction).

 Hence, an amplified output is obtained across the load.

Analysis of collector currents

 When no signal is applied, the input circuit is forward biased by the battery V BB.

 Therefore, a d.c. collector current IC flows in the collector circuit.

 This is called zero signal collector current.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

 When the signal voltage is applied, the forward bias on the emitter base junction
increases or decreases depending upon whether the signal is positive or negative.

 During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the forward bias on emitter-base junction is
increased, causing total collector current iC to increase.

 Reverse will happen for the negative half-cycle of the signal.

 Figure 2 shows the graph of total collector current iC versus time.

 From the graph, it is clear that total collector current consists of two components,
namely;
(1) The d.c. collector current IC (zero signal collector current) due to bias battery
VBB. This is the current that flows in the collector in the absence of signal.

(2) The a.c. collector current ic due to signal.

∴ Total collector current, iC = ic + IC

 The useful output is the voltage drop across collector load R C due to the a.c. component
i𝐼 .

 The purpose of zero signal collector current is to ensure that the emitter-base junction
is forward biased at all times.

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Examples
Q.1 What value of series resistor is required to limit the current through a LED to 20
mA with a forward voltage drop of 1.6 V when connected to a 10 V supply?
VS = 10 V; VD = 1.6 V; IF = 20 mA = 20 × 10−3 A
Ans.
VS − VD
Series resistor, R S =
IF
10 − 1.6
RS =
20 × 10−3
R S = 420 Ω
Note: R S is also called current-limiting resistor.
Q.2 What is current through the LED if voltage drop across the LED is 2.4 V (VS =
20 V and R S = 3.3 kΩ).
VS = 20 V; VD = 2.4 V; R S = 3.3 kΩ = 3.3 × 103 Ω
Ans.
VS − VD
IF =
RS
20 − 2.4
IF =
3.3 × 103
IF = 5.33 × 10−3 A
IF = 5.33 mA
Q.3 Determine the dark resistance. Assume a reverse-biased voltage of 15 V (dark
current Ir = 40 μA).
Dark current, Ir = 40 μA = 40 × 10−6 A
Ans.
Reverse voltage, VR = 15 V
VR 15
Dark resistance, R R = =
Ir 40 × 10−6
R R = 1500 × 103 Ω
R R = 1500 kΩ
Q.4 In a common base connection, IE = 1 mA, IC = 0.95 mA. Calculate the value of IB .

IE = 1 mA; IC = 0.95 mA; IB = ?

Ans.
Using the relation, IE = IB + IC
∴ 1 = IB + 0.95
∴ IB = 1 − 0.95
∴ IB = 0.05 mA

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Q.5 For the common base circuit shown in figure, determine IC and VCB. Assume the
transistor to be of silicon.

Since the transistor is of silicon, VBE = 0.7 V. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
Ans.
the emitter-side loop, we get,
VEE = IE R E + VBE
VEE − VBE
IE =
RE
8 V − 0.7 V
IE = = 4.87 mA
1.5 kΩ
∴ IC ≈ IE = 4.87 mA
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector-side loop, we have,
VCC = IC R C + VCB
∴ VCB = VCC − IC R C
VCB = 18 V − 4.87 mA × 1.2 kΩ
VCB = 12.16 V
Q.6 Find the α rating of the transistor shown in
figure. Hence determine the value of IC using
both α and β rating of the transistor.

Figure shows the conditions of the problem.

Ans.
β 49
α= = = 0.98
1+β 1 + 49
The value of IC can be found by using either α or β rating as under:
IC = α IE = 0.98 (12 mA) = 11.76 mA
IC = α IB = 49 (240 μA) = 11.76 mA

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

Q.7 For a transistor, β = 45 and voltage drop across 1 kΩ which is connected in the
collector circuit is 1 volt. Find the base current for common emitter connection.

Figure shows the required common emitter connection. The voltage drop across
Ans.
RC (= 1 kΩ) is 1volt.
1V
∴ IC = = 1 mA
1 kΩ
IC
Now, β =
IB
IC 1
∴ IB = = = 0.022 mA
β 45
Q.8 A transistor is connected in
common emitter (CE) configuration
in which collector supply is 8 V and
the voltage drop across resistance
RC connected in the collector circuit
is 0.5 V. The value of RC = 800 Ω. If α
= 0.96, determine: (i) collector-
emitter voltage (ii) base current.

Figure shows the required common emitter connection with various values.
Ans.
(i) Collector-emitter voltage,
VCE = VCC − 0.5 = 8 − 0.5 = 7.5 V
(ii) The voltage drop across RC (= 800 Ω ) is 0.5 V
0.5 V 5
∴ IC = = mA = 0.625 mA
800 Ω 8
Now,

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Unit 2 Semiconductor devices

α 0.96
β= = = 24
1−α 1 − 0.96
∴ Base current,
IC 0.625
IB = = = 0.026 mA
β 24
Q.9 For a certain transistor, IB = 20 μA; IC = 2 mA and β = 80. Calculate ICBO .

IC = β IB + ICEO
Ans.
2 = 80 × 0.02 + ICEO
∴ ICEO = 2 − 80 × 0.02 = 0.4 mA
Now,
β 80
α= = = 0.988
β+1 80 + 1
∴ ICBO = (1 − α) ICEO = (1 − 0.988) × 0.4 = 0.0048 mA
Q.10 A transistor has the following ratings: IC (max) = 500 mA and βmax = 300. Determine
the maximum allowable value of IB for the device.
IC(max) 500 mA
Ans. IB(max) = = = 1.67 mA
β(max) 300
For this transistor, if the base current is allowed to exceed 1.67 mA, the collector
current will exceed its maximum rating of 500 mA and the transistor will probably
be destroyed.

**********

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Unit-3 ⇝ Integrated Circuits

Introduction to integrated circuits

 The circuits discussed so far in the text consisted of separately manufactured
components (resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors etc.) joined by wires or plated
conductors on printed board.

 Such circuits are known as discrete circuits because each component added to the
circuit is discrete (i.e. distinct or separate) from the others.

 This led to the development of microelectronics in the late 1950s.

 A micro-circuit is simply a miniature assembly of electronic components.

 One type of such circuit is the integrated circuit, generally abbreviated as IC.

 An integrated circuit has various components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes,

transistors etc.

 How circuits containing hundreds of components are fabricated on a small

semiconductor chip to produce an IC is a fascinating feat of microelectronics.

 This has not only fulfilled the increasing demand of industries for electronic equipment
of smaller size, lighter weight and low power requirements, but it has also resulted in
high degree of reliability.

 An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such as transistors, diodes,

resistors, capacitors etc. are automatically part of a small semiconductor chip.

 An integrated circuit consists of a number of circuit components (e.g. transistors,

diodes, resistors etc.) and their inter connections in a single small package to perform
a complete electronic function.

Physics (2301HS103)
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 These components are formed and connected within a small chip of semiconductor
material.

 The following points are worth noting about integrated circuits:

(3) In an IC, the various components are automatically part of a small semi-
conductor chip and the individual components cannot be removed or replaced.
This is in contrast to discrete assembly in which individual components can be
removed or replaced if necessary.

 The size of an IC is extremely small. In fact, ICs are so small that you
normally need a microscope to see the connections between the
components.
(4) Figure shows a typical semi-conductor chip having dimensions 0.2 mm × 0.2 mm
× 0.001 mm. It is possible to produce circuits containing many transistors,
diodes, resistors etc. on the surface of this small chip.

(5) No components of an IC are seen to project above the surface of the chip. This is
because all the components are formed within the chip.

IC symbols
 In general, no standard symbols exist for ICs.

 Often the circuit diagram merely shows a block with numbered

terminals.

 However, sometimes standard symbols are used for

operational amplifiers or digital logic gates.

 Figure 1 shows the symbol of an IC r-f amplifier containing 3

transistors, 3 resistors and 8 terminals.

 Figure 2 shows an IC audio amplifier which contain 6

transistors, 2 diodes, 17 resistors and has 12 terminals.

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IC classification
 Four basic types of constructions are employed in the manufacture of integrated
circuits, namely

 (1) Mono-lithic, (2) Thin-film, (3) Thick-film, (4) Hybrid

Monolithic IC
 A monolithic IC is one in which all circuit components and their inter-connections are
formed on a single thin wafer called the substrate.

Applications
 Microprocessors and Microcontrollers: These are the brains of most digital devices,
from computers to smartphones to embedded systems.

 Memory Chips: Such as RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read-Only
Memory).

 Digital Logic Gates and Circuits: Used in various digital systems for processing and
controlling data.

 Analog ICs: Including operational amplifiers (op-amps), voltage regulators, and

analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

 Radio Frequency (RF) ICs: Used in wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular networks.

Advantages
 Compact size.

 High reliability.

 Low cost per unit for mass production.

Disadvantages
 Limited flexibility for customization.

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Thin-film IC
 This IC is fabricated by depositing films of conducting
material on the surface of a glass or ceramic base.

Applications
 Precision resistors: Used in precision analog circuits and
sensors.

 Thin-film transistors (TFTs): Commonly found in display

technologies like LCDs (liquid crystal displays).

 Thin-film capacitors: Used in filtering and tuning circuits.

 Sensors: Such as pressure sensors and temperature sensors.

Advantages
 High precision and stability.

 Low temperature coefficient of resistance.

 Suitable for high-frequency applications.

Disadvantages
 Higher fabrication cost compared to thick-film ICs.

 Limited availability of materials.

Thick-film IC
 A thick-film integrated circuit (IC) is a microchip made by depositing relatively thick
layers of materials onto a substrate, typically ceramic, to create electronic components
and circuits.

Applications
 LED Drivers: Controlling and driving LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes).

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 Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs): Used for manufacturing resistors, conductors, and
insulators on PCBs.

 Power Supplies: Including voltage regulators and power converters.

 Automotive Electronics: For engine control units (ECUs), airbag systems, and sensor
interfaces.

Advantages
 Lower fabrication cost compared to thin-film ICs.

 Good for applications not requiring high precision.

 Suitable for high-power applications.

Disadvantages
 Lower precision and stability compared to thin-film ICs.

 Limited frequency response.

Hybrid IC
 Hybrid ICs combine monolithic and discrete components on a single substrate.

Applications
 Aerospace and Defense: Used in radar systems, missile guidance, and avionics.

 Medical Devices: Including pacemakers, medical imaging systems, and patient

monitoring devices.

 Telecommunications: For base stations, satellite communication, and fiber optics.

 Industrial Control Systems: Such as motor control, process control, and automation.

Advantages
 Integration of both active and passive components.

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 High reliability due to hermetic packaging.

 Customizable for specific applications.

Disadvantages
 Larger size compared to monolithic ICs.

 Higher cost compared to monolithic or thick-film ICs.

 Limited availability of specialized components.

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IC packings
 In order to protect ICs from external environment and to provide mechanical
protection, various forms of encapsulation are used for integrated circuits.

 Just as with semi-conductor devices, IC packages are of two types.

(6) Hermetic (metal or ceramic with glass)

(7) Non-hermetic (plastics)

 Plastics are cheaper than hermetic but are still not regarded as satisfactory in extremes
of temperature and humidity.

 Figure (1) shows TO-5 (type of 'metal can’) package which

resembles a small signal transistor in both appearance and size but
differs in that it has either 8, 10 or 12 pigtail-type leads.

 The close leads spacing and the difficulty of removal from a printed
circuit board (PCB) has diminished the popularity of this package
with the users.

 Figure (2) shows a flat pack container with 14 leads, seven on each
side.

 Figure (3) shows the dual-in-line (DIL) pack in 14-lead version.

 The 14-pin DIL is the most popular form and has seven connecting pairs per side.

 The pairs of pins of this pack are in line with one another, the pins being 2.5 mm apart
to allow IC to be fitted directly into the standard printed circuit boards (PCB).

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Scale of integration
 An IC chip may contain as large as 100,000 semiconductor devices or other
components.

 The relative number of these components within the chip is given by referring to its
scale of integration.

 The following terminology is commonly used.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of ICs

 Integrated circuits free the equipment designer from the need to construct circuits with
individual discrete components such as transistors, diodes and resistors.

 With the exception of a few relatively simple circuits, the availability of a large number
of low-cost integrated circuits has greatly decreased the necessity for discrete circuitry.

 As a result, it is important to highlight the major benefits of integrated circuits over

discrete circuits.

 However, integrated circuits have some disadvantages and continuous efforts are on to
overcome them.

Advantages
 Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections.

 Extremely small size due to the fabrication of various circuit elements in a single chip
of semi-conductor material.

 Lesser weight and space requirement due to miniaturized circuit.

 Low power requirements.

 Greater ability to operate at extreme values of temperature.

 Low cost because of simultaneous production of hundreds of alike circuits on a small

semiconductor wafer.

 The circuit lay out is greatly simplified because integrated circuits are constrained to
use minimum number of external connections.

Disadvantages
 If any component in an IC goes out of order, the whole IC has to be replaced by the new
one.

 In an IC, it is neither convenient nor economical to fabricate capacitances exceeding 30

pF. Therefore, for high values of capacitance, discrete components exterior to IC chip
are connected.

 It is not possible to fabricate inductors and transformers on the surface of semi-

conductor chip. Therefore, these components are connected exterior to the semi-
conductor chip.

 It is not possible to produce high power ICs (greater than 10 W).

 There is a lack of flexibility in an IC i.e., it is generally not possible to modify the

parameters within which an integrated circuit will operate.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Operational amplifier (Op-amp)

 An operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a circuit that can perform such mathematical
operations as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.

 Figure shows the block diagram of an operational amplifier. Note that Op-amp is a
multistage amplifier.

 The three stages are: differential amplifier input stage followed by a high-gain CE
amplifier and finally the output stage.

 The key electronic circuit in an Op-amp is the differential amplifier.

 A differential amplifier (DA) can accept two input signals and amplifies the difference
between these two input signals.

Schematic symbol of operational amplifier

 The basic operational amplifier has five terminals; two terminals for supply voltages
+V and –V; two input terminals (inverting input and noninverting input) and one
output terminal.

 Note that the input terminals are marked + and –. These are not polarity signs. The –
sign indicates the inverting input while the + sign indicates the noninverting input.

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 A signal applied to plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output as at the
input. A signal applied to the minus terminal will be shifted in phase 180° at the output.

 The voltages v1, v2 and vout are node voltages. The differential input vin is the difference
of two node voltages v1 and v2.

 The Op-amp is produced as an integrated circuit (IC). Because of the complexity of the
internal circuitry of an Op-amp.

The following points may be noted about operational amplifiers

(1) The input stage of an Op-amp is a differential amplifier (DA) and the output stage is
typically a class B push-pull emitter follower.
(2) The internal stages of an Op-amp are direct-coupled i.e., no coupling capacitors are
used. The direct coupling allows the OP-amp to amplify d.c. as well as a.c. signals.

(3) An Op-amp has very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and very low output
impedance (ideally zero). The effect of high input impedance is that the amplifier will
draw a very small current (ideally zero) from the signal source.

(4) The effect of very low output impedance is that the amplifier will provide a constant
output voltage independent of current drawn from the source.
(5) An Op-amp has very high *open-loop voltage gain (ideally infinite); typically more
than 200,000.

(6) The Op-amps are almost always operated with negative feedback. It is because the
open loop voltage gain of these amplifiers is very high and we can sacrifice the gain
to achieve the advantages of negative feedback including large bandwidth (BW) and
gain stability.

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Slew rate
 The slew rate of an Op-amp is a measure of how fast the output voltage can change and
is measured in volts per microsecond (V/µs).

 If the slew rate of an Op-amp is 0.5 V/µs, it means that the output from the amplifier
can change by 0.5 V every μs.

 Since frequency is a function of time, the slew rate can be used to determine the
maximum operating frequency of the Op-amp as follows:
Slew Rate
Maximum operating frequency, fmax =
2π VPK

 Here Vpk is the peak output voltage.

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Frequency response
 The operating frequency has a significant effect on the operation of an Op-amp. The
following are the important points regarding the frequency response of an Op-amp:

 The maximum operating frequency of an Op-amp is given by;

Slew Rate
fmax =
2π VPK

 Thus, the peak output voltage limits the maximum operating frequency.

 When the maximum operating frequency of an Op-amp is exceeded, the result is a

distorted output waveform.

 Increasing the operating frequency of an Op-amp beyond a certain point will:

 Decrease the maximum output voltage swing.

 Decrease the open-loop voltage gain.

 Decrease the input impedance.

 Increase the output impedance.

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Inverting amplifier
 An Op-amp can be operated as an inverting amplifier as shown in figure.

 An input signal Vin is applied through input resistor Ri to the minus input (inverting
input).

 The output is fed back to the same minus input through feedback resistor Rf.

 The plus input (non-inverting input) is grounded.

Voltage gain
 An Op-amp has an infinite input impedance.

 This means that there is zero current at the inverting input.

 If there is zero current through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage
drop between the inverting and noninverting inputs.

 This means that voltage at the inverting input (–) is zero because the other input (+) is
grounded.

 The 0 V at the inverting input terminal (point A) is referred to as virtual ground.

 This condition is illustrated in figure 1.

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 The point A is said to be at virtual ground because it is at 0 V but is not physically

connected to the ground.

 Referring to figure 2, the current I1 to the inverting input is zero.

 Therefore, current Iin flowing through Ri entirely flows through feedback resistor Rf. In
other words, If = Iin.
voltage across R i Vin − VA Vin − 0 Vin
Now, Iin = = = =
Ri Ri Ri Ri
voltage across R f VA − Vout 0 − Vout − Vout
And, If = = = =
Rf Rf Rf Rf
Vout Vin
since, If = Iin , − =
Rf Ri
Vout Rf
∴ Voltage gain, ACL = =−
Vin Ri

 The negative sign indicates that output signal is inverted as compared to the input
signal. The following points may be noted about the inverting amplifier:

(1) The closed-loop voltage gain (ACL) of an inverting amplifier is the ratio of the
feedback resistance Rf to the input resistance Ri. The closed-loop voltage gain is
independent of the OP-amp’s internal open-loop voltage gain. Thus, the negative
feedback stabilizes the voltage gain.
(2) The inverting amplifier can be designed for unity gain. Thus, if Rf = Ri, then
voltage gain, ACL = -1. Therefore, the circuit provides a unity voltage gain with
180° phase inversion.

(3) If Rf is some multiple of Ri, the amplifier gain is constant. For example, if Rf = 10
Ri, then ACL = -10 and the circuit provides a voltage gain of exactly 10 along with
a 180° phase inversion from the input signal. If we select precise resistor values
for Rf and Ri, we can obtain a wide range of voltage gains. Thus, the inverting
amplifier provides constant voltage gain.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Non-inverting amplifier
 There are times when we wish to have an output signal of the same polarity as the input
signal. In this case, the Op-amp is connected as noninverting amplifier as shown in
Figure.

 The input signal is applied to the noninverting input (+).

 The output is applied back to the input through the feedback circuit formed by feedback
resistor Rf and input resistance Ri.

 Note that resistors Rf and Ri form a voltage divide at the inverting input (–).

 This produces negative feedback in the circuit.

 Note that Ri is grounded.

 Since the input signal is applied to the noninverting input (+), the output signal will be
non-inverted i.e., the output signal will be in phase with the input signal.

Voltage gain
 As per virtual ground condition, the potential at point A is the same as Vin.

 Since the input impedance of OP-amp is very high, all of the current that flows through
Rf also flows through Ri.

 Keeping these things in mind, we have,

Voltage across R i = Vin − 0;

Voltage across R f = Vout − Vin

Now, current through R i = current through R f

Vin − 0 Vout − Vin
∴ =
Ri Rf

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

∴ Vin R f = Vout R i − Vin R i

∴ Vin (R f + R i ) = Vout R i
Vout Rf + Ri Rf
∴ = =1+
Vin Ri Ri
Vout Rf
∴ Closed-loop voltage gain, ACL = =1+
Vin Ri

 The following points may be noted about the noninverting amplifier:

Rf
ACL = 1 +
Ri

 The voltage gain of noninverting amplifier also depends upon the values of Rf and Ri.

 The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier can be made equal to or greater than 1.

 The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier will always be greater than the gain of an
equivalent inverting amplifier by a value of 1.

 If an inverting amplifier has a gain of 150, the equivalent noninverting amplifier will
have a gain of 151.

 The voltage gain is positive.

 This is not surprising because output signal is in phase with the input signal.

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Voltage follower
 The voltage follower arrangement is a special case of noninverting amplifier where all
of the output voltage is fed-back to the inverting input as shown in figure.

 Note that we remove Ri and Rf from the noninverting amplifier and short the output of
the amplifier to the inverting input.

 The voltage gain for the voltage follower is calculated as under:

Rf 0
∴ ACL = 1 + =1+ =1
Ri Ri

 Thus, the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage follower is 1.

 The most important features of the voltage follower configuration are its very high
input impedance and its very low output impedance.

 These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier to be connected between high-
impedance sources and low-impedance loads.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

IC-741

 The 741 IC Op-amp looks like a chip and it is a general-purpose Op-amp.

 The 741 IC Op-amp diagram is shown below that consists of 8 pins.

 The most important pins are pin-2, pin-3 and pin-6 because pin 2 and 3 represent
inverting and non-inverting terminals where pin6 represents voltage out.

 Op-amp is mainly used to perform mathematical operations in various electronic

circuits.

 741 IC is built from various transistor stages which commonly contain a differential i/p
stage, a push-pull o/p stage and an intermediate gain stage.

 The differential Op-amps comprises of a matched pair of FETs or bipolar junction

transistors.

 Pin configuration of IC 741:

 Pin 1 is offset null.

 Pin 2 is inverting input terminal.

 Pin 3 is a non-inverting input terminal.

 Pin 4 is negative voltage supply (VCC).

 Pin 5 is offset null.

 Pin 6 is the output voltage.

 Pin 7 is positive voltage supply (+VCC)

 Pin 8 has no connection.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

IC-555
 The IC 555 timer is a one type of chip used in different applications like an oscillator,
pulse generation, timer.

 The designing of IC 555 timers can be done by using various electrical and electronic
components like transistors, resistors, diodes and a flip flop.

 The main function of this IC is to generate an accurate timing pulse.

 Pin-1 is a GND pin which is used to supply a zero voltage to the IC.

 Pin-2 is a trigger pin which is used to convert the FF from set to RST (reset). The output
of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse that is applied to
the trigger pin.

 Pin-3 is an output pin.

 Pin-4 is a RST pin. When the negative pulse is applied to this pin to disable or reset, and
false triggering can be neglected by connecting to VCC.

 Pin-5 is the control voltage pin used to control the pulse width of the output waveform
and also the levels of threshold and trigger. When an external voltage is applied to this
pin, then the output waveform will be modulated.

 Pin-6 is the threshold pin, when the voltage is applied to threshold pin, then it contrasts
with a reference voltage. The set state of the FF can be depending on the amplitude of
this pin.

 Pin-7 is the discharge pin, when the output of the open collector discharges a capacitor
between the intervals, then it toggles the output from high to low.

 Pin-8 is the voltage supply pin which is used to supply the voltage to the IC with respect
to the ground terminal.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Examples
Q.1 Determine the maximum operating frequency for the circuit shown in figure. The
slew rate is 0.5 V/µs. The Vpk is approximately 8 V.

The maximum operating frequency (fmax) is given by

Ans.
Slew Rate 0.5 V/μs 500 kHz
∴ fmax = = =
2π VPK 2π × 8 2π × 8
∴ fmax = 9.95 kHz [∵ 0.5 V/μs = 500 kHz]
Q.2 The amplifier in Figure is being used to amplify an input signal to a peak
output voltage of 100 mV. What is the maximum operating frequency of the
amplifier?

The maximum operating frequency (fmax) is given by

Ans.
Slew Rate 0.5 V/μs
∴ fmax = = [∵ 100 mV = 0.1 V]
2π VPK 2π × 0.1
500 kHz
∴ fmax = = 796 kHz [∵ 0.5 V/μs = 500 kHz]
2π × 0.1
Q.3 Given the OP-amp configuration in figure, determine the value of R f required to
produce a closed-loop voltage gain of –100.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Rf Rf
Ans. ∴ Voltage gain, ACL = − or (−100) = −
Ri 2.2
∴ R f = 100 × 2.2
∴ R f = 220 kΩ
Q.4 Determine the output voltage for the circuit of figure.

Rf 200 kΩ
Ans. ∴ ACL = − =− = −100
Ri 2 kΩ
∴ output voltage, Vout = ACL × Vin
Vout = (−100) × (2.5 mV)
Vout = −250 mV
Q.5 Find the output voltage for the circuit shown in figure.

Rf 1 kΩ
Ans. ∴ Voltage gain, ACL = − =− = −1
Ri 1 kΩ
Since the voltage gain of the circuit is –1, the output will have the same amplitude
but with 180° phase inversion.

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Q.6 For the circuit shown in figure, find (i) closed-loop voltage gain (ii)
input impedance of the circuit (iii) the maximum operating frequency. The slew
rate is 0.5 V/µs.

Rf 100 kΩ
Ans. (𝐢) Closed − loop Voltage gain, ACL = − R = − 10 kΩ = −10
i

(𝐢𝐢) The input impedance Zi of the circuit is = Zi = R i = 10 kΩ

(iii) To calculate the maximum operating frequency (f max) for this inverting
amplifier, we need to determine its peak output voltage.
With values of Vin = 1 Vpp and ACL = 10, the peak-to-peak output voltage is:
Vout = (1VPP ) × (ACL )
Vout = (1VPP ) × (10) = 10 VPP
Therefore, the peak output voltage is,
10
Vpk = =5V
2
Slew Rate 0.5 V/μs
∴ fmax = =
2π VPK 2π × 5
500 kHz
∴ fmax = = 15.9 kHz [∵ 0.5 V/μs = 500 kHz]
2π × 5
Q.7 You have the following resistor values available: 1 kΩ; 5 kΩ; 10 kΩ and 20 kΩ
Design the Op-amp circuit to have a voltage gain of –4.
Since the voltage gain is negative, the Op-amp is operating as an inverting
Ans.
amplifier.
Rf
Now, ACL = − = −4
Ri
We need to use resistors that have a ratio of 4 : 1. The two resistors which satisfy
this requirement are: R f = 20 kΩ and R i = 5 kΩ.

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Q.8 Calculate the output voltage from the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in
figure for an input of 120 μV.

Rf 240 kΩ
Ans. ∴ Voltage gain, ACL = 1 + =1+
Ri 2.4 kΩ
∴ ACL = 1 + 100 = 101
∴ Output voltage, Vout = ACL × Vin
∴ Vout = 100 × 120 μV = 12.12 mV
Q.09 For the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in figure, find peak-to-peak output
voltage.

The input signal is 2 V peak-to-peak.

Ans.
Rf 5 kΩ
∴ Voltage gain, ACL = 1 + =1+ =1+5=6
Ri 1 kΩ
∴ Peak-to-peak output voltage = ACL × Vin = 12 V
Q.10 For the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in figure, find (i) closed loop voltage
gain (ii) maximum operating frequency. The slew rate is 0.5 V/µs.

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Rf 100 kΩ
Ans. 1. Voltage gain, A CL = 1 + = 1 + = 1 + 10 = 11
Ri 10 kΩ
2. To determine the value of maximum operating frequency (f max), we need to
calculate the peak output voltage for the amplifier. The peak-to-peak output
voltage is
Vout = (1VPP ) × (ACL )
Vout = (1VPP ) × (11) = 11 VPP
Therefore, the peak output voltage is,
11
Vpk = = 5.5 V
2
Slew Rate 0.5 V/μs
∴ fmax = =
2π VPK 2π × 5.5
500 kHz
∴ fmax = = 14.47 kHz [∵ 0.5 V/μs = 500 kHz]
2π × 5.5

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Unit-3 Integrated Circuits

Exercise
Q.1 An operational amplifier has a slew rate of 1 V/μs. What is the maximum
frequency of a sinusoidal signal of 10 V peak amplitude that the amplifier can
handle without distortion? [1 V/µs = 1 × 106 Hz]
[Ans. fmax = 15.92 kHz]
Q.2 An operational amplifier needs to handle a 1 V peak sinusoidal signal at a
frequency of 20 kHz. What should be the minimum slew rate of the
operational amplifier?
[Ans. Slew rate = 125.66 × 103 V/s]
Q.3 Figure shows an inverting Op-amp. Find the closed-loop gain if
(i) Rsource = 0 Ω (ii) Rsource = 1 kΩ.

[Ans. (i) ACL = -100 (ii) ACL = -50]

Q.4 For the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in figure, find the output voltage
for an input voltage of (i) 1 V (ii) –1 V.

[Ans. (i) Vout = 11 V (ii) Vout = - 11 V]

Q.5 For an Inverting amplifier circuit shown in figure determine the output
voltage.

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[Ans. Vout = - 400 mV]

Q.6 Design an inverting amplifier with a gain of 10 and an input impedance of 15
kΩ.
[Ans. Rf = 150 kΩ]
Q.7 In an inverting amplifier circuit, the input resistor R in is 2 kΩ, the feedback
resistor Rf is 8 kΩ, and the input voltage Vin is 3 V. Calculate the gain and the
output voltage Vout.
[Ans. Av = - 4, Vout = - 12 V]
Q.8 In a non-inverting amplifier circuit, the resistor Rin is 2 kΩ, the feedback
resistor Rf is 8 kΩ, and the input voltage Vin is 3 V. Calculate the gain and the
output voltage Vout.
[Ans. Av = 5, Vout = 15 V]

**********

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Unit 4 ⇝ Communication System

Introduction to Communication System

 In radio transmission, it is necessary to send audio signal from a broadcasting station
over long distances to a receiver.

 Wire is not used in this communication; hence it is called wireless.

 The audio signal cannot be sent directly over the air for long distance.

 Even if the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, though it cannot be sent very
far without using large amount of power.

 The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency (E=hϑ).

 Audio signal (20 Hz to 20 KHz) power is quite small.

 Electrical energy radiation is possible at high frequencies which allows thousands of

miles of transmission with small power.

 Therefore, to transmit audio signal properly, a method must be required which will
permit transmission to occur at high frequencies while it simultaneously allows the
carrying of audio signal.

 This is achieved by superimposing electrical audio signal on high frequency carrier.

 This process is known as modulation.

 At the radio receiver, the audio signal is removed from the modulated wave.

 This process is known as demodulation.

 In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various aspects of modulation and
demodulation.

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Basic Terminology in Communication System

 Radio communication involves transmitting, propagating, and receiving of radio waves
through a transmitting station.

 The system can be divided into three parts: transmitter, wave transmission, and
receiver.

 Figure shows the principles of radio broadcasting, transmission, and reception.

Transmitter
 A transmitter is an important equipment in broadcasting station.

 It produces radio waves for space transmission.

 The important components of a transmitter are microphone, audio amplifiers,

oscillator and modulator.

Microphone
 A microphone converts sound waves into electrical waves.

 It produces an electric audio signal with frequency corresponding to the original

sound signal.

 The output is fed to a multistage amplifier.

Audio amplifier
 The sound signal from the microphone is quite weak and needs to be amplified.

 This work is done with series audio amplifiers.

 The amplified output of the last audio amplifier is fed to the modulator.

Oscillator
 The purpose of an oscillator is to produce a high frequency signal called a carrier
wave.

 A crystal oscillator is usually used for this.

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 RF amplifier stages (not shown in Figure) increase the strength level of the
carrier wave to a sufficient level.

 Most of the broadcast stations have a transmission power of several kilowatt.

Such high power is required to transmit the signal over the necessary distances.

Modulator
 The amplified electric audio signal and carrier wave are fed into the modulator.

 Here, the audio signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in a suitable way.

 The resulting waves are called modulated waves or radio waves and the process
is called modulation.

 The modulation process allows the audio signal to be transmitted at the carrier
frequency.

 Because the carrier frequency is very high, the sound signal can be transmitted
over large distances.

 The radio waves of the transmitter are fed to a transmitting antenna or an aerial
from which they radiate into space.

Transmission of radio waves

 A transmitting antenna emits radio waves in space in all direction.

 Those radio waves travel at the speed of light, i.e., 3 × 108 m/s.

 Radio waves are electromagnetic waves and have the same general properties.

 They are like light and heat waves, except that they have a longer wavelength.

 At this point, it can be emphasized that radio waves are transmitted without a wire.

 It can be easily shown that at high frequency the electric energy can be emitted into
space.

Radio receiver
 On reaching the receiving antenna, the radio waves induce a small e.m.f. within it.

 This small voltage is fed into the radio receiver.

 Here the radio waves are first amplified and then the signal is separated from them by
a demodulation process.

 The signal is amplified by audio amplifiers and sent to a speaker for reproduction as
sound waves.

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Modulation
 As mentioned earlier, a high frequency carrier wave is used to transmit the audio signal.

 The question is how the audio signal should be added to the carrier wave.

 The answer is to change a carrier characteristic in accordance with the signal.

 In such conditions, sound is included in the received wave.

 This process is called modulation.

 The process of changing some characteristic (e.g., amplitude, frequency or phase) of a

carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation.

 Modulation means change.

 The resulting wave is called a modulating wave or radio wave and contains an audio
signal.

 As a result, modulation allows for high-frequency transmission while also allowing for
the transmission of an audio signal.

Need for modulation

 Modulation is very necessary in communication systems for the following reasons. The
value of refractive index will be a positive real number equal to or greater than 1.

Practical antenna length

 According to this theory, the length of the transmitting antenna should be
approximately equal to the wavelength of the wave in order for the wave to be
transmitted effectively.

velocity 3 × 108
∴Wavelength = = meter
frequency frequency (Hz)

 Since audible frequencies are between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the length of the
transmitting antenna would be very long for direct transmission into space.

 For example, radiating a frequency of 20 kHz directly into space would require
an antenna length of (3 × 108 )/ (20 × 103 ) = 15,000 meter.

 This is too long an antenna to actually construct.

 For this reason, it is impossible to emit the audio signal directly into space.

 On the other hand, if a carrier wave of 1000 kHz is used to transmit the signal,
we only need an antenna 300 meter long, and this size is easy to construct.

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Operating range
 The energy of a wave depends on its frequency.

 The higher the frequency of the wave, the greater its energy.

 Since audio signals have a low frequency, they do not travel far when radiated
directly into space.

 The only practical solution is to modulate a high frequency carrier with an audio
signal and allow transmission at that high frequency (i.e., carrier frequency).

Wireless communication
 One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried without
wires i.e., emitted into space.

 At audio frequencies, radiation is almost impossible because of the low

efficiency of radar.

 However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies

(> 20 kHz).

 Therefore, modulation is always done in communication systems.

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Types of Modulation
 As we know, modulation is the process of changing the amplitude, frequency or phase
of a carrier wave according to the intensity of the signal.

 Accordingly, there are three basic types of modulation, namely

(1) Amplitude modulation

(2) Frequency modulation

(3) Phase modulation

 Amplitude modulation is used in radio broadcasts in India.

 However, in the case of television broadcasting, frequency modulation is used in the

audio signal and amplitude modulation is used in the image signal.

 Therefore, our attention is limited to the first two most important types.

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Amplitude Modulation
 When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance with the
intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation.

 Amplitude modulation changes only the amplitude of the carrier wave according to the
strength of the signal.

 However, the frequency of the modulating wave does not change. i.e., Carrier frequency.

 Figure shows the principle of amplitude modulation.

 Figure (i) shows an electrical audio signal, figure (ii) shows a constant amplitude
carrier wave and figure (iii) show an amplitude modulated (AM) wave.

 The amplitudes of both the positive and negative half cycles of the carrier change with
the signal.

 For example, when the signal increases in a positive half-cycle, the amplitude of the
carrier wave also increases.

 On the other hand, the negative half-cycles of the signal decrease the amplitude of the
carrier.

 An electronic circuit in which amplitude modulation takes place is called a modulator.

 The following points should be considered for amplitude modulation:

(1) The amplitude of a carrier wave changes with signal intensity.

(2) The amplitude of the carrier wave is modulated or changed in sync with the
signal frequency fS .

(3) The frequency of the amplitude modulated wave does not change i.e., carrier
frequency fC .

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Modulation Factor
 An important consideration in amplitude modulation is the description of modulation
depth. i.e., How much the amplitude of the carrier varies with the signal.

 This is represented by a factor called the modulation factor and can be defined as:

 The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier
wave is called the modulation factor m.
Amplitude change of carrier wave
i.e. Modulation factor, m =
Normal carrier amplitude (unmodulated)

 The modulation factor value depends on the carrier and signal amplitude.

 The following are some examples of amplitude modulation for different values of the
modulation factor m.
(1) When the signal amplitude is zero, the carrier is not modulated as shown in
figure (i). The carrier amplitude does not change.

 When the signal amplitude is zero, the carrier is not modulated as shown in
figure (i). The carrier amplitude does not change.

∴ Amplitude change of carrier = Final-Initial = A – A = 0

∴ Amplitude of normal carrier = A

0
∴ Modulation factor, m = = 0 or 0%
A
(2) When signal amplitude is equal to the carrier amplitude as shown in Fig. (ii),
the amplitude of carrier varies between 2A and 0.

Amplitude change of carrier = Final − Initial = 2A − A = A

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A
∴ Modulation factor, m = = 1 or 100%
A
∴ In this case, the carrier is said to be 100% modulated.

(3) When the signal amplitude is one-half the carrier amplitude as shown in fig.
(iii), the amplitude of carrier wave varies between 1.5 A and 0.5 A.

∴ Amplitude changes of carrier = Final − Initial = 1.5 A − A = 0.5 A

0.5A
∴ Modulation factor, m = = 0.5 /50%
A
∴ In this case, the carrier is said to be 50% modulated.

(4) When the signal amplitude is 1.5 times the carrier amplitude as shown in fig.
(iv), the maximum value of carrier wave becomes 2.5 A.

∴ Amplitude change of carrier = Final – Initial = 2.5 A – A = 1.5 A

1.5 A
∴ Modulation factor, m= = 1.5 /150%
A
∴ In this case, the carrier is said to be 150% modulated i.e. over-modulated.

Importance of modulation factor

 Modulation factor is very important parameter because it decides the strength and
quality of the transmitted signal.

 In an AM wave, the signal is confined in the change of the carrier amplitude.

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 When the carrier is modulated to a small degree (i.e. small m), the amount of amplitude
variation in carrier wave is small.

 Therefore, the transmitted audio signal is not very strong.

 The greater the degree of modulation (i.e. m), the stronger and clearer the sound signal.

 Modulation factor is very important parameter because it decides the strength and
quality of the transmitted signal.

 In an AM wave, the signal is confined in the change of the carrier amplitude.

 When the carrier is modulated to a small degree (i.e. small m), the amount of amplitude
variation in carrier wave is small.

 Therefore, the transmitted audio signal is not very strong.

 The greater the degree of modulation (i.e. m), the stronger and clearer the sound signal.

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Analysis of Amplitude Modulated Wave

 A carrier wave may be represented by:

ec = Ec cos ωc t

Where ec = instantaneous voltage of carrier

Ec = amplitude of carrier

ωc = 2πfc

= angular velocity at carrier frequency fc

 In amplitude modulation, the amplitude carrier wave Ec is adjusted in line with the
strength of the signal, as seen in fig.

 If the modulation factor is m than the signal produces a maximum change of mEc in the
amplitude of carrier wave.

 Obviously, the amplitude of signal is mEc, hence, the signal can be represented by

eS = mEC cosωS t

Where eS = Instantaneous voltage of signal

mEC = amplitude of signal

ωS = 2πfS = angular velocity at signal frequency fS

 The amplitude of the carrier wave changes with signal frequency fS and is given by

Amplitude of AM wave = EC + mEC cos wS t = EC (1 + mcos wS t)

 The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is

∴ e = Amplitude × cos wC t

= EC (1 + mcos wS t)cos wC t

= EC cos wC t + mEC cos wC t cos wS t

mEC
= EC cos wC t + (2cos wC t cos wS t)
2

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mEC
= EC cos wC t + (2 cos wC t cos wS t)
2
mEC
= EC cos wC t + [cos (wC + wS )t + cos(wC − wS ) t]
2
{∵ 2cosAcosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)}
mEC mEC
∴ e = EC cos wC t + cos(wC + wS ) t + cos(wC − wS ) t
2 2
 From this above equation, following points are noted:

(1) The AM wave is equivalent to the addition of three different sinusoidal waves.
First with frequency fC , and amplitude EC . {∵wC = 2πfC }
mEC
Second with frequency fC + fS , and amplitude
2
mEC
Third with frequency fC − fS , and amplitude
2
(2) The AM wave having three frequencies fC , fC + fS and fC − fS .

The first frequency fC is the carrier frequency.

Therefore, modulation does not change the original carrier frequency.

However, it produces two new frequencies (fC + fS ) and (fC − fS ) which is
known as sideband frequencies.

fC + fS is known as upper sideband frequency.

fC − fS is known as lower sideband frequency.

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Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

 Amplitude modulation has the following limitations:

Noisy reception
 For AM waves, the signal consists of amplitude variations in the carrier wave.

 Practically all natural and man-made noises are composed of disturbances of electrical
amplitude.

 Therefore, reception is generally noisy because radio receivers cannot separate noise
amplitude variations and information signal amplitude variations.

Low efficiency
 In amplitude modulation, the useful power is in the sidebands because they contain the
signal.

 As mentioned earlier, AM waves have lower sideband power.

 For example, at 100% modulation, the sideband power is only one-third of the total
power in the AM wave.

 Therefore, the efficiency of amplitude modulation is low.

Lack of audio quality

 In amplitude modulation, the useful power is in the sidebands because they contain the
signal.

 As mentioned earlier, AM waves have lower sideband power.

 For example, at 100% modulation, the sideband power is only one-third of the total
power in the AM wave.

 Therefore, the efficiency of amplitude modulation is low.

 This means that the maximum modulation frequency can be 5 kHz, which is hardly
enough to properly reproduce music.

Small operating range

 This means that the maximum modulation frequency can be 5 kHz, which is hardly
enough to properly reproduce music.

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Frequency Modulation
 When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the
signal, it is called frequency modulation (FM).

 In FM, only the frequency of the carrier wave is changed but the amplitude of the
modulated wave remains same.

 The frequency variation of the carrier wave depends on the instantaneous amplitude
of the signal, as shown in figure (iii).

 The carrier frequency is unaffected when the signal voltage is zero, as in the cases of A,
C, and E.

 When the signal reaches a positive peak, as in B, the carrier frequency increases to a
maximum, as shown by closely spaced cycles.

 However, during negative signal peaks such as D, the carrier frequency decreases to a
minimum value, as shown by widely spaced cycles.

Illustration
 The process of frequency modulation (FM) becomes clearer when you consider the
numbers.

 Figure shows the FM signal with carrier frequency fc = 100 kHz.

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 Note that the FM signal has constant amplitude but different frequencies above and
below the carrier frequency of 100 kHz (= fc ). Therefore, fc (= 100 kHz) is called the
center frequency.

 The change in carrier frequency is generated by the audio modulation signal.

 The degree of frequency change or frequency deviation of fC (= 100 kHz) depends on

the amplitude of the audio modulation signal.

 As the modulating signal increases, the frequency deviation also increases and vice
versa.

 Therefore, the peak audio voltage produces the largest frequency deviation.

 As shown in figure, the center frequency is 100 kHz and the maximum frequency
deviation is 30 kHz.

 The following points related to frequency modulation (FM) can be considered:

 The frequency deviation of the FM signal depends on the amplitude of the

modulating signal.

 The center frequency is the frequency without modulation or when the

modulation voltage is zero.

 The frequency of the sound (i.e. the frequency of the modulating signal) does
not determine the frequency deviation.

Advantages
 The following are the advantages of FM over AM:

 The reception sound is noiseless. As discussed earlier, noise is a type of

amplitude fluctuation, and FM receivers reject these signals.

 The operating range is quite large.

 It gives high-fidelity reception.

 The efficiency of transmission is very high.

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Theory of Frequency Modulation (FM)

 In frequency modulation (FM), the amplitude of the carrier wave is constant, but the
frequency of the carrier wave, fC , is varied in accordance with the modulating signal.

 The carrier frequency fC varies depending on the speed of the signal frequency fS ;
where the frequency deviation is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.

 Note that the maximum frequency deviation is [fC(max) – fC ] and occurs at the peak
voltage of the modulating signal.

 Assume that a 100 MHz carrier is modulated with a 1 kHz frequency and 1V amplitude
signal and the maximum frequency deviation is 25 kHz.

 This means that the carrier frequency changes sinusoidally between (100 + 0.025) MHz
and (100 – 0.025) MHz at the rate of 1000 times per second (1 kHz).

 When the amplitude of the modulating signal increases to 2V, the maximum frequency
deviation becomes 50 kHz, and the carrier frequency changes between (100 + 0.05)
MHz and (100 – 0.05) MHz at a rate of 1000 times per second.

 Suppose we want to vary the carrier frequency fC using a modulated sinusoidal signal
eS (= ES cos ωS t).

 Let k eS be the change in carrier frequency. where k is a constant known as the

frequency deviation constant.

 The instantaneous carrier frequency fi is given by the formula.

∴ fi = fC + k eS
= fC + k ES cos ωSt (∵ eS = ES cos ωS t)

 Figure shows a graph of fi versus time.

 It is important to note that this is a frequency-time curve, not an amplitude-time curve.

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 The coefficient k ES represents the maximum frequency deviation and is expressed as

Δf.

∴ Maximum frequency deviation, Δf = k ES

∴ fi = fC + Δf coswS t (∵ fi = fc + k ES cos ωSt)

Equation of FM wave
 In frequency modulation, the carrier frequency varies sinusoidally with the signal
frequency.

 The instantaneous frequency deviation from the carrier is proportional to the

instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

 Therefore, the instantaneous angular frequency of FM is given by

∴ wi = wC + ΔwC coswS t (∵ fi = fC + Δf coswS t)

∴ wi = wC + ΔwC coswS t

 ∴Total phase angle θ = wt so that if w is variable, then

t

∴ θ = ∫ wi dt
0

= ∫(wC + ΔwC cos wS t) dt

0

ΔwC
∴ θ = wC t + sinwS t
wS
ΔwC
Where is called modulation index mf .
wS

∴ θ = wC t + mf sinwS t

 The instantaneous value of the FM voltage wave is given by

∴ e = EC cos θ

∴ e = EC cos( wC t + mf sinwS t)

 Above equation is general voltage equation of a FM wave.

 The following points may be noted carefully:

(1) The modulation index mf is the ratio of the maximum frequency deviation (Δf)
to the frequency (= fS ) of the modulating signal.

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ΔwC fCmax − fC Δf
∴ Modulation index, mf = = =
wS fS fS

(2) The value of modulation index is greater than 1.

Frequency Spectrum
 Advanced mathematics is required to derive the spectrum of an FM wave.

 We will discuss only results without derivations.

 If fC and fS are the carrier and signal frequencies, respectively, then the FM spectrum
has the following frequencies:

fC ; fC ± fS ; fC ± 2fS ; fC ± 3fS and so on.

 Here,fC + fS , fC + 2fS , fC + 3fS … … are the upper sideband frequencies

while fC – fS , fC – 2fS , fC – 3fS … … are the lower sideband frequencies.

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Comparison of FM and AM

AM FM
Amplitude changes with modulation. Amplitude is constant with modulation.
Frequency is constant with modulation. In FM, frequency changes with
modulation.
The carrier amplitude changes in The carrier frequency changes in
accordance to the intensity of the accordance to the intensity of the
modulating signal. modulating signal.
Modulation factor (m) should not exceed The modulation index (mf) value can be
1, for good quality AM signal. greater than 1.

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Demodulation
 The process of recovering an audio signal from a modulated wave is called
demodulation or detection.

 Modulation is done at the transmitting station to transmit the audio signal over longer
distances to the receiver.

 Once the modulated wave is received by a radio receiver, the audio signal must be
recovered from it.

 This process is performed at the radio receiver and is called demodulation.

Necessity of demodulation
 We have already mentioned that an amplitude modulated wave consists of a carrier
frequency and sideband frequencies.

 Audio signals are contained in sideband frequencies, which are radio frequencies.

 As shown in figure, if the modulated wave is amplified and input directly to the speaker,
no sound will be heard.

 This is because the speaker diaphragm cannot respond to such high frequencies.

 At high frequency the current rapidly reverses before the diaphragm moves in one
direction, the diaphragm tends to move in the opposite direction.

 Hence, diaphragm cannot move at all and as a result, no sound can be heard.

 Therefore, the audio signal must be separated from the carrier wave at a suitable stage
within the receiver.

 The recovered audio signal is then amplified and fed to a speaker, where it is converted
into sound.

Essentials in Demodulation
 To make the modulated wave audible, you need to change the type of modulated wave.

 This can be done by a circuit called detector.

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 The detector circuit performs two functions:

(1) It rectifies the modulated wave.

 The negative half of the modulated wave is eliminated.

 As shown in figure (i), the positive and negative halves of the modulated
wave are exactly the same.

 Therefore, the average current will be zero and the speaker will not be able
to respond.

 The average value is shown by the dotted line in figure (ii).

 Therefore, the diaphragm has definite displacement depending on the

average value of the waves.

 It can be seen that the shape of the average wave is similar to the shape of
the modulation envelope.

 Since the signal has the same shape as the envelope, the average waveform
will also have the same shape as the signal.

(2) It separates the audio signal from the carrier

 The rectified modulated wave contains the audio signal and carrier wave.

 It is desired to recover the audio signal.

 This is achieved by a filter circuit that removes the carrier frequency and
allows the audio signal to reach the load, i.e. the speaker.

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A.M. Radio Receivers

 AM Radio receivers reproduce sound waves from modulated or radio waves.

 Amplitude modulation is the only method used for radio transmission and reception in
India.

 These radio receivers are therefore known as A.M. radio receivers.

 Followings are some points which must follow by A.M. radio receivers to reproduce
audio wave from A.M. wave.

 A portion of the emitted radio waves must be interrupt by the receiving antenna.

 From among the various radio waves that the receiving antenna has
interrupted, the radio receiver has to select the most suitable radio wave.

 For this, tuned parallel LC circuits must be chose.

 These circuits select only the radio frequency which resonated with
them.

 The selected radio wave is then must be amplified by a r.f. amplifier.

 The audio signal must be separated from an amplified radio wave.

 The audio signal must be amplified by series audio amplifiers.

 The amplified audio signal is then must fed to speaker to reproduce sound wave.

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FM Receiver
 FM receivers are more complex and therefore more expensive than regular AM
receivers.

 The frequency range of FM broadcast signals is 88 MHz to 108 MHz.

 Figure shows a block diagram of an FM receiver.

 For better understanding, we will discuss the different sections of the FM receiver.

(1) R.F. Tuner

 The frequency range of FM signals is 88 to 108 MHz.

 A weak FM signal (e.g. 2 μV) is picked up by the antenna and fed into the RF
tuner.

 The R.F. tuner consists of (i) R.F. amplifier, (ii) mixer, and (iii) local oscillator.

 The R.F. amplifier amplifies the selected FM signal (up to 200 μV in this case).

 The output of the RF amplifier is fed into a mixer stage where it is combined
with the local oscillator output signal.

 The two frequencies collide to produce an intermediate frequency (IF).

 The intermediate frequency (IF) is equal to the difference between the oscillator
frequency and the RF frequency.

 No matter what frequency your FM receiver is tuned to, the IF is always 10.7
MHz.

(2) IF Amplifier Stage

 The output signal of the mixer always has a frequency of 10.7 MHz and is fed to
the IF amplifier.

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 The IF amplifier is tuned to the IF (= 10.7 MHz), so it has good amplification.

 Note that the IF amplifier's bandwidth is approximately 200 kHz or 0.2 MHz.

 The IF gain is very large (10,000 in this case), so the output is 2 V.

(3) Limiter Stage

 The output of the IF stage is fed into a limiter.

 This circuit is an IF amplifier tuned to 10.7 MHz, but its primary function is to
remove AM interference from the FM signal.

 Figure shows how a limiter removes AM interference from an FM signal.

 However, the limiter circuit keeps the output level constant for different input
levels.

(4) FM Detector

 After the limiter removes the amplitude modulation from the FM signal, the IF
signal controls the input of the FM detector.

 An FM detector is a circuit that converts frequency variations to amplitude

variations.

 FM detectors are also called discriminators because they can distinguish

between different frequencies at the input and provide different output
voltages.

 The resulting amplitude modulated signal is rectified and amplified and fed to a
speaker for sound reproduction.

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Unit 4 Communication System

Difference Between FM and AM Receivers

 The following are the points of differences between the two types of receivers.

 The FM receiver has two additional stages. Limiters and discriminators are very
different from AM receivers.

 FM broadcast signals have a frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz, while AM

broadcast signals have a frequency range of 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.

 FM receivers are interference-free and can successfully handle very weak

signals.

 FM bandwidth is approximately 200 kHz compared to AM's 10 kHz bandwidth.

 The IF of an FM receiver is 10.7 MHz, while the IF of an AM receiver is 455 kHz.

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Unit 4 Communication System

Examples
Q.1 The maximum peak-to-peak voltage of an AM wave is 16 mV and the
minimum peak-to-peak voltage is 4 mV. Calculate the modulation factor.
Ans. Fig. shows the conditions of the problem.
Maximum voltage of AM wave is
16
∴ Vmax = = 8 mV
2
Minimum voltage of AM wave is
4
∴ Vmin = = 2 mV
2
Vmax − Vmin 8 −2
∴Modulation factor, m = =
Vmax + Vmin 8+2
6
=
10
∴ m = 0.6
Q.2 A carrier of 100V and 1200 kHz is modulated by a 50 V, 1000 Hz sine wave
signal. Find the modulation factor.
Ans. ES
∴ Modulation factor, m =
EC
50
=
100
∴ m = 0.5
Q.3 A 2500 kHz carrier is modulated by audio signal with frequency span of 50 −
15000 Hz. What are the frequencies of lower and upper sidebands? What
bandwidth of RF amplifier is required to handle the output?
Ans. ∴ The modulating signal (e.g. music) has a range of 0.05 to 15 kHz.
∴ The sideband frequencies produced range from fC ± 0.05 kHz to
fC ± 15 kHz.
∴ Therefore, upper sideband ranges from 2500.05 to 2515 kHz and lower
sideband ranges from 2499.95 to 2485 kHz.
∴ The sideband frequencies produced can be approximately expressed as
2500 ± 15 kHz.
∴ Therefore, bandwidth requirement = 2515 − 2485 = 30 kHz.

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Unit 4 Communication System

Q.4 A sinusoidal carrier voltage of frequency 1 MHz and amplitude 100 volts is
amplitude modulated by sinusoidal voltage of frequency 5 kHz producing
50% modulation. Calculate the frequency and amplitude of lower and upper
sideband terms.
Ans. ∴ Frequency of carrier, fC = 1 MHz = 1000 kHz
∴ Frequency of signal, fS = 5 kHz
∴ Modulation factor, m = 50% = 0.5
∴ Amplitude of carrier, EC = 100 V
∴ The lower and upper sideband frequencies are:
∴ fC − fS and fC + fS
or (1000 − 5) kHz and (1000 + 5) kHz
or 995 kHz and 1005 kHz
mEC 0.5 × 100
∴ Amplitude of each sideband term = = = 25 V
2 2
Q.5 A frequency modulated voltage wave is given by the equation:
e = 12 cos(6 × 108 t + 5 sin 1250 t)
Find (i) carrier frequency (ii) signal frequency (iii) modulation index (iv)
maximum frequency deviation.
Ans. The given FM voltage wave is
∴ e = 12 cos (6 × 108t + 5 sin 1250 t) ...(i)
The equation of standard FM voltage wave is
∴ e = Ec cos (ωc t + mf sin ωs t) ...(ii)
Comparing eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
wC 6 × 108
(i) Carrier frequency, fC = = = 95.5 × 106 Hz
2π 2π
w 1250
(ii) Signal frequency, fS = S = = 199 Hz
2π 2π
(iii) Modulation index, mf = 5
(iv) Max. frequency deviation, ∆f = mf × fS = 5 × 199 = 995

Q.6 A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier
voltage is 4 V and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 kHz, write down
the voltage equation of the FM wave.

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Unit 4 Communication System

Ans. The voltage equation of the FM wave is

∴ e = EC cos(ωC t + mf sin ωS t)_ _ _ (1)
rad
∴ wC = 2πfC = 2π × 25 × 106 = 1.57 × 108 s
rad
∴ wS = 2πfS = 2π × 400 = 2513 s

∆f 10 kHz
∴ mf = = = 25
fS 400 Hz
∴ e = 4 cos(1.57 × 108 t + 25 sin 2513 t)
Q.7 Calculate the modulation index for an FM wave where the maximum
frequency deviation is 50 kHz and the modulating frequency is 5 kHz.
Ans. ∴ Max. frequency deviation, Δf = 50 kHz
∴ Modulating frequency, fS = 5 kHz
∆f 50 kHz
∴ Modulation index, mf = = = 10
fS 5 kHz
Q.8 In a frequency modulated wave, frequency deviation constant is 75 kHz/volt
and the signal amplitude is 2V. Find the maximum frequency deviation.
Ans. ∴ Frequency deviation constant, k = 75 kHz/V
∴ Amplitude of signal, ES = 2V
∴ Max. frequency deviation, Δf = kES = 75 × 2 = 150 kHz

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Unit 4 Communication System

Exercise
Ex-1 The maximum peak-to-peak voltage of an AM wave is 16 mV while the minimum
peak-to-peak voltage is 8 mV. Find the percentage modulation.
Ans: m = 0.33
Ex-2 A carrier of peak voltage 0.05 V and frequency 200 kHz is amplitude modulated
by a signal of peak voltage 10 V and frequency 1 kHz. Find (i) frequencies in the
output spectrum and (ii) the peak values of output components if m = 0.5 and
voltage gain A = 100.
Ans: (i) 199 kHz, 200 kHz, 201 kHz (ii) 1.25 V, 5 V, 1.25 V
Ex-3 A carrier of 100 V and 1500 kHz is modulated by 60V, 1200 Hz sinusoidal signal. Calculate
modulation factor and express this as percentage.
Ans: m = 0.6 or m = 60%
Ex-4 A carrier with an amplitude of 140 V is modulated by a signal with an amplitude
of 80V. What is the percentage modulation? What is the amplitude of lower
sideband frequency?
Ans: m = 57%; Amplitude of lower sideband frequency = 40 V
Ex-5 A 500 Hz modulating voltage produces a frequency deviation of 2.25 kHz. What is
the modulation index? If the amplitude of the modulation voltage is kept constant,
but its frequency is raised to 6 kHz, what is the new deviation?
Ans: mf = 4.5; Δf = 54 kHz
Ex-6 A 36 MHz carrier is modulated by a 600 Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage
is 5 V and the maximum frequency deviation is 14 kHz, write down the voltage
equation of the FM wave.
Ans: e = 5 sin(72π × 106 t + 23.33 sin(1200πt))
Ex-7 A frequency modulated voltage wave is given by the equation: e = 16 cos (5 ×
108 t + 6 sin1800 t) Find (i) carrier frequency (ii) signal frequency (iii)
modulation index (iv) maximum frequency deviation.
Ans: (i) fC= 79.577 MHz, (ii) fm = 286.48 Hz, (iii) Modulation index (mf) = 6,
(iv) Maximum frequency deviation (Δf) = 1718.88 Hz

**********

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Unit 5 Transducers

Unit 5 ⇝ Transducers

Introduction to transducers
 A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy or signal into another. It is an
essential component in many electronic, mechanical, and electro-mechanical systems.

 A better measurement of a quantity can usually be made if it may be converted to

another form which is more conveniently or accurately displayed.

 The transducer is a device which provides a usable output in response to specific input
measure and which may be physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition.

 The transducer may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, acoustic,

thermal, nuclear, or a combination of any two or more of these.

 Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical such as temperature, pressure

displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities cannot be measured
directly.

 Hence such quantities are required to be sensed and changed into some form for easy
measurement.

 Electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance, inductance and capacitance

etc., can be conveniently measured, transferred and stored.

 Transducers are essential for the measurement, control, and communication of

physical phenomena, and they come in various forms to suit different purposes.

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Classification of transducers
 The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of electrical
principles involved, methods of application, methods of energy conversion used, nature
of output signal etc.

Primary and Secondary Transducers

 Transducers, on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary
and secondary transducers.

 When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon
is converted into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the
primary transducer.

 When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output
being of some form other than input signal.

 Then input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, such a transducer falls
in the category of secondary transducers.

 E.g. in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts
pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an output
voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary transducer.

Active and Passive Transducers

 Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, can be classified into
active and passive transducers.

 Self-generating type transducers i.e., the transducers, which develop their output in the
form of electrical voltage or current without any secondary source, are called the active
transducers.

 E.g. Tachogenerators used for measurement of angular velocity, thermocouples used

for measurement of temperature, piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of force.

 Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e., resistance, inductance or capacitance

changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers.

 These transducers require external power source for energy conversion.

 Resistive, inductive, capacitive, potentiometer, thermistor transducers fall in this

category.

Analog and Digital Transducers

 Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal can be classified into analog and
digital transducers.

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Unit 5 Transducers

 Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous
function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple etc.

 Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulses e.g.
it gives discrete output.

Transducers and Inverse Transducers

 Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-electrical quantity into
an electrical quantity.

 Inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical

quantity.

Selection of Transducers
 The points to be considered in determining a transducer suitability for a specific
measurement are as follows:
(1) Range: The range of the transducer should be large enough to cover all the
expected magnitudes of the measurement.

(2) Sensitivity: The transducer should produce enough output signal per unit of
measurement to provide meaningful data.

(3) Electrical Output Characteristics: The output impedance, the frequency

response, and the response time of the transducer output signal should be
compatible with the recording device and the rest of the measuring system
equipment.

(4) Physical Environment: The transducer selected should be able to survive the
environmental conditions while carrying out measurements and tests.

 Such parameters are temperature, acceleration, shock and vibration,

moisture, and corrosive chemicals that might damage some transducers.
(5) Errors: The errors resulting either from the measurement's surrounding
environment or from the transducer itself should be small or controlled enough
in order to make it possible for the collection of useful data.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Resistive transducers
 Resistance: It is the opposition that a material offers to the flow of electric current.
L
∴R ∝ (ohm‘ꭥ’)
A
ρ∗L
∴R =
A
L
∴R = (ꭥ ∙ m )
σ∗A

 In such a transducer, resistance between the output terminals of a transducer gets

varied according to the measurement.

 Resistive transducers are preferred over other transducers because dc and ac both are
suitable for resistance measurement.

 Resistance of any metal conductor is given by the equation:

L
∴R =ρ
A
 Where ρ is the resistivity of material of conductor Ω−m.

 L is the length of the conductor in meter.

 A is the cross-section area of the conductor in m2 .

 Physical phenomena i.e. input signal to the transducer causes variation in resistance by
changing any one of the quantities ρ, L and A.

 A resistive transducer is an electronic device that is capable of measuring various

physical quantities like temperature, pressure, vibration, force, etc.

 These physical quantities are otherwise extremely difficult to measure as they can
change easily.

 However, using this transducer, you can easily calculate the values of these quantities.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Resistive Transducer Circuit

 The resistive transducer consists of a long conductor
whose length can be varied with time.

 One end of the conductor is connected while the other

end is connected to a brush or a slider that can freely
move along the length of the transducers.

 We can calculate the distance of the object by connecting

the object to the slider of the resistive transducer.

 Whenever we apply energy to the object to displace it from its initial position, the slider
will move along the length of the conductor as a result of which the length will change.

 The change in the length of the conductor will cause the resistance of the conductor to
change as well.

 A transducer works in a way similar to that of a potentiometer which is used in the

calculation of the angular and linear displacement.

Advantages
 The resistive transducer can be used to give very quick results.

 The resistive transducers are available in various sizes and they have a considerably
high amount of resistance.

 We can use both AC or DC for calculating the change in resistance.

 They are quite affordable and can be easily available in the market.

 We can use this transducer in various applications even when they are not a necessity.

 It can be used to give accurate results.

Disadvantages
 A lot of power is wasted in moving the sliding contacts.

 The sliding contacts can produce a lot of noise.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Thermistor
 A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature.

 Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a thermistor
is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

 Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit.

 They are an accurate, cheap, and robust way to measure temperature.

 Thermistors are ideal when a precise temperature reading is required.

 The above schematic shows circuit symbol of a thermistor.

Uses of Thermistors
 Digital thermometers (thermostats).

 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks).

 Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens).

 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection).

 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained).

 To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials.

 The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its

temperature. We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter.

 How much the resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the
thermistor.

 The relationship between a thermistor’s temperature

and resistance is non-linear.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Thermistor Types
 There are two types of thermistors:

 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor

 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor

(1) Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor

 In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases.

And when temperature decreases, resistance increases.

 Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely

proportional. These are the most common type of thermistor.
1
R ∝
T
(2) Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

 In a PTC thermistor, When temperature increases, the resistance increases. And

when temperature decreases, resistance decreases.

 Hence in a PTC thermistor temperature and resistance are directly proportional.

 Although PTC thermistors are not as common as NTC thermistors, they are
frequently used as a form of circuit protection. Similar to the function of fuses,
PTC thermistors can act as current-limiting device.

R ∝ T

Thermistor Characteristics
 The relationship governing the characteristics of a thermistor is given below as:
1 1
β( − )
R1 = R 2 e T1 T2

 Where:

R1 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T1 [0K]

R 2 = resistance of the thermistor at temperature T2 [0K]

β = constant depending upon the material of the transducer

 There are different shapes and sizes of thermistors available in the market.

 Smaller thermistors are in the form of beads of diameter from 0.15 millimeter to 1.5
millimeter.

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Unit 5 Transducers

 Thermistors may also be in the form of disks and washers made by pressing the
thermistor material under high pressure into flat cylindrical shapes with a diameter
from 3 millimeter to 25 millimeter.

 Thermistors are available in different models: bead type, rod type, disc type, etc.

 The major advantages of thermistors are their small size and relatively low cost.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Thermocouple
 A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor that measures temperature through
the voltage generated when two different metals are joined together.

 The two metals are usually referred to as thermo-elements, and they are typically made
of different types of metals or alloys.

 A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor that measures temperature through

the voltage generated when two different metals are joined together.

 The two metals are usually referred to as thermo-elements, and they are typically made
of different types of metals or alloys.

 When one end of the thermocouple is exposed to a higher temperature than the other,
a temperature gradient is created across the two thermo-elements, causing a voltage
to be generated.

 This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the two ends of the
thermocouple and can be measured with a voltmeter.

 Thermocouples are commonly used in industrial applications to measure temperature

in harsh environments, such as high-temperature furnaces, where other types of
temperature sensors may fail.

 They are also used in household appliances like ovens and water heaters.

Working of thermocouple
 A thermocouple works on the principle of the Seebeck effect, which states that when
two different metals are joined together at two different temperatures, a voltage is
produced that is proportional to the temperature difference.

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Unit 5 Transducers

 A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metal wires, or thermo-elements, that are

joined at one end to form a junction. When the junction is exposed to a temperature
difference, a voltage is generated across the length of the thermocouple wire.

 This voltage is measured using a voltmeter and is related to the temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions by a mathematical formula that varies depending
on the types of metals used in the thermocouple.

 The accuracy of a thermocouple depends on several factors, including the types of

metals used, the temperature range being measured, and the sensitivity of the
measuring instrument.

Applications of thermocouple
 Electric power plants (temperature is an indicator of component overheating)

 Home appliances, where thermistors are not sufficient

 Industrial process control and factory automation

 Food and beverage manufacturing

 Metals and pulp and paper processing mills

 Environmental monitoring and studies

 Scientific research and development (R&D)

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Unit 5 Transducers

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

 When the temperature of an object changes then the resistance also changes
proportionally in Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).

 RTD is an electronic device that measures the resistance of an electrical wire, a

temperature sensor, for high accuracy.

 It has good linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures, making it an ideal
device for temperature measurement.

 The relation between temperature and resistance of the metallic wires is given by;
R T = R O (1 + αT)

 Where, R T = conductor resistance at T oC

R O = conductor resistance at 0 oC

α = coefficient of resistance

 Here, α represent the change (%) in resistance per oC change in temperature.

 i.e. α= 0.00385 for platinum, it means platinum wire with R O = 100 Ω when kept at
100 oC will have its resistance increased to:

R T = R O (1 + αT) = 100 (1 + 100 × 0.00358) = 138.5 Ω

 RTD devices commonly uses metals like Copper, Nickel, and Platinum, each with unique
resistance-temperature characteristics that correspond to temperature variations.

 Platinum has a temperature range of 650 oC, while Copper and Nickel have 120 oC and
300 oC respectively.

 The resistance-temperature characteristics curve shows platinum's resistance changes

by 0.4 Ω/ oC.

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Unit 5 Transducers

 Platinum purity is verified by R100 /R 0 ratio, with impurities affecting specific metal
values.

Construction
 The wire is wound on a form (coil) on a notched mica cross frame to improve thermal
conductivity and reduce response time.

 Industrial RTDs have a coil protected by a stainless-steel sheath or tube.

 The physical strain on a wire decrease as it expands and increases in length with
temperature change.

 However, increasing strain leads to increased tension, causing a change in resistance,

which is undesirable. Therefore, temperature changes should not alter wire resistance.

 Mica is used for RTD maintenance in plants, providing better electrical insulation
between steel sheath and resistance wire. The resistance wire should be wound
carefully over mica sheet due to less strain.

Working
 A bridge circuit is used to measure the resistance of an RTD by providing a constant
electric current and measuring the voltage drop across a resistor to calculate
temperature.

 By applying a calibration equation to the RTD resistance value, this temperature may
be determined.

 The figure shows the 2-wire RTD module.

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Unit 5 Transducers

(1) 2-Wire RTD

 In a 2-wire RTD configuration, the resistance of the connecting wires is

included in the measurement, which can lead to inaccuracies in the
temperature reading.
 This setup is the least accurate due to the introduction of lead wire
resistance.

(2) 3-Wire RTD

 The 3-wire RTD configuration compensates for the resistance of the

connecting wires by using a three-wire connection.
 This setup helps to minimize the errors caused by lead wire resistance,
resulting in improved accuracy compared to the 2-wire configuration.

(3) 4-Wire RTD

 The 4-wire RTD configuration is the most accurate because it completely

eliminates the impact of lead wire resistance.

 Two wires are used to pass current through the RTD element, while the
other two wires are used to measure the voltage across the RTD. This setup
provides highly accurate temperature measurements.

 In summary, the number of wires in an RTD configuration directly affects the accuracy
of the temperature measurement, with 4-wire RTD being the most accurate, followed
by 3-wire and then 2-wire configurations.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Advantages

Accuracy and Precision

 High accuracy and precision in temperature measurement.

 Provide reliable and repeatable results therefore used in applications that

require precise temperature control.

Wide Temperature Range

 RTDs can measure temperatures from -200°C to 850°C (-328°F to 1562°F).

 This makes them suitable for various industrial and scientific applications.

Linearity
 RTDs are easier to calibrate and interpret due to their linear relationship
between resistance and temperature compared to other temperature sensors.

Stability
 RTDs provide reliable temperature measurements due to their long-term
stability, ensuring accuracy and calibration over extended usage periods.

Low Drift
 RTDs have low drift, ensuring minimal resistance changes over time, promoting
long-term stability and accurate temperature measurements even after
prolonged use.

Disadvantages

Cost
 RTDs are more expensive than other temperature sensors due to high-quality
materials and precision manufacturing for accurate measurements.

Fragility
 RTDs, made of thin wire or film, are fragile and require careful handling to avoid
mechanical stress, vibration, or excessive current that can damage or alter their
resistance.

Slower Response Time

 RTDs have a slower response time than thermocouples, potentially limiting
their use in applications requiring rapid temperature changes due to their
longer time to reach thermal equilibrium.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Current Sensitivity
 RTDs' resistance increases with temperature, but changes in excitation current
can affect temperature measurement, potentially introducing measurement
errors due to self-heating or lead resistance.

Lead Wire Resistance

 The resistance of the connecting wires in 2-wire and 3-wire RTD configurations
can introduce errors in temperature measurements, which can be minimized or
eliminated using a 4-wire RTD configuration.

Applications
 Some common applications of RTDs include:

 Industrial Process Control

 Laboratory and Scientific Research

 Medical and Healthcare

 Automotive and Aerospace

 Energy and Power Generation

 Environmental Monitoring

 Food and Beverage Industry

 Petrochemical and Oil Refining

 Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology

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Unit 5 Transducers

Inductive transducers
 A transducer that works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is called an
inductive transducer.

 A self-inductance or mutual inductance is varied to measure required physical

quantities like displacement (rotary or linear), force, pressure, velocity, torque,
acceleration, etc.

 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) is an example of an inductive

transducer. Using LVDT, displacement is measured in terms of the voltage induced in
the winding by moving the core in one direction.

 These are analog passive transducers. These transducers operate, generally, upon one
of the following three principles.

(1) Variation of self-inductance of the coil.

(2) Variation of mutual inductance of the coil.

(3) Production of eddy currents.

 Here, we will discuss the principle of variation of self-inductance only.

 Transducers operating on the principle of variation of self-inductance.

μA
The self-inductance of a coil is given by the equation: L = N 2
l
 N = No. of turns on the coil

 l = Mean length of the magnetic path

 A = Area of cross-section of magnetic path

 µ = permeability (amount to magnetized a material under magnetic field)

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Unit 5 Transducers

 These transducers are usually used for measurement of displacement (linear as well as
angular).

 The displacement under measurement causes change in self- inductance of the coil by
varying any of these variables.

 Variable reluctance type inductive transducer for measurement of linear displacement

is shown in Figure.

 In such a transducer, length of magnetic path varies with the displacement so

reluctance of the magnetic circuit changes causing change in self-inductance of the coil.

 Reluctance of magnetic circuit, S is the total reluctance of iron path, and S g is reluctance
of air gap,

N2
The self-inductance of a coil, L =
Sg

1 1
L∝ ∝ , Where lg is the length of air gap
Sg lg

 Thus, it can be said that self-inductance of the coil is inversely proportional to length of
air gap.

 Displacement causes the change in the length of air gap so the change in the self-
inductance of the coil.

 Self-inductance of the coil is measured with the help of an AC bridge circuit.

Applications of the Inductive Transducer

 Proximity sensors to measure position, dynamic motion, touchpads, etc.6

 Detection of metals and missing parts

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Unit 5 Transducers

 Counting the number of objects

 Accelerometers

 Linear and Rotary Motor

 Galvanometers

 Pressure and airflow sensors

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Unit 5 Transducers

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 LVDT is an inductive type passive transducer.

 It measures force in terms of displacement of ferromagnetic core of a transformer.

 It converts translational or linear displacement into electrical voltage.

 It is also known as Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

Principle
 It is based on the principle of electro-magnetic induction.

Construction
 LVDT consist of cylindrical transformer where it is surrounded by one primary winding
in the center of the former and two secondary windings at the sides.

 The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite
to each other.

Low efficiency
 In amplitude modulation, the useful power is in the sidebands because they contain the
signal.

 As mentioned earlier, AM waves have lower sideband power.

 The primary winding is connected to the ac source.

 A movable soft iron core slides within hollow former and therefore affects magnetic
coupling between primary and two secondaries.

Operation
 Primary winding P connected to an AC source of voltage varying from 5 to 25 V and of
frequency ranging from 50 Hz to 20 KHz.

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 The secondary windings S1 and S2 are connected in series but opposition so that
voltages V1 and V2 induced in secondary windings S1 and S2 are 180 o out of phase with
each other.

 When the iron core lies at the center of both secondary, the output differential voltage
remains unaffected and have zero magnitude.

 When the core moves towards S1, it induces more emf across it and less emf across S2.

 Let’s assume that it is positive displacement. Due to more flux links with the S1 than S2.

 When the core moves towards S2, it induces more emf across it and less emf across S1.

 Let’s assume that it is negative displacement. Due to more flux links with the S2 than
S1.

 The output differential voltage is proportional to the displacement of the iron core.

Advantages
 High range (1.25 mm to 250 mm)

 No frictional losses

 High input and high sensitivity

 Low hysteresis

 Low power consumption

 Direct conversion to electrical signals

Disadvantages
 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup (shield) to
protect them from stray magnetic fields.

 They are affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications
 It is used where displacements ranging from fraction of mm to few cm are to be
measured.

 In accelerometers

 Measurements of roll position

 Jet engine controls in close proximity to exhaust gases

 Measurement of material thickness in hot strip or slab steel mills

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Unit 5 Transducers

Capacitive Transducer
 This transducer consists variable capacitor, the capacitance of which is changed by the
non-electrical quantity which have to be measured.

 The capacitance of a capacitor is given by

ε0 εr A
C= farads
d
 Where 𝜀0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m

 εr = relative permittivity of dielectric

 A = area of plates in m2

 d = the distance between the two plates in meter

 As the capacitance of a capacitor depends upon

 The area of its electrodes,

 The distance between the electrodes and

 The relative permittivity of the dielectric material

 Hence such transducers can be used for measurement of non-electrical quantities by

affecting any one of the above mentioned parameters.

 Capacitive transducers are analog passive transducers.

 The above changes can be caused by physical variable like displacement, force or
pressure.

 The change in capacitance may also be caused by change in permittivity as in the case
of measurement of levels of liquids or gases.

 The change in capacitance can be measured with an ac bridge, but it is usually

measured with the oscillatory circuit.

 The transducer, as a part of the oscillatory circuit, causes a change in the frequency of
the oscillator.

 This change in frequency is a measure of the magnitude of the non-electrical quantity

under measurement.

 Variable capacitance transducers find considerable usage in specific and limited areas
in the field of displacement measurement.

 They are ideally suited as non-contact type dynamic sensors, especially, in the studies
of vibration in very light structures such as thin walls and diaphragms.

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 The non-contact type sensors are desirable when a transducer is required for
measurement of mechanical displacement without causing any additional mechanical
loading on the vibrating object.

 The capacitive transducer employes principle of variation in capacitance with variation

in distance between plates for the measurement of linear displacement force as shown
in figure.

 A force is when applied, it changes the distance between the two plates of capacitor.

 The resultant change in capacitance can be measured by using an a.c. bridge or by using
an oscillatory circuit.

Advantages
 High impedance

 Excellent frequency response

 Not affected by stray magnetic field

 Highly sensitive

 High resolution

 Small operating power

Disadvantages
 Measuring circuit is very complicated

 Adequate design is required for accurate measurement

 Sensitive to physical conditions e.g. temperature, humidity etc.

Applications
 To measure linear and angular displacements

 Measure force and pressure

 Measure humidity, density, volume, level of liquid, weight etc.

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Unit 5 Transducers

Piezo-electric Transducer
 If mechanical pressure (tensile or compression) is applied to one pair of opposite faces
of certain crystals (like quartz, tourmaline and Rochelle salt) equal and opposite a
potential difference is developed across the crystal which is proportional to the applied
pressure.

 This effect is called as piezo-electric effect.

 This effect is reversible, i.e. when potential difference applied across the opposite faces
of the material; it changes its physical dimensions.

 Therefore, such transducers are converting electrical energy to mechanical energy and
mechanical energy to electrical energy.

 The piezoelectric transducer is used for the measurement of force, pressure, very small
displacement, vibrations and sound waves.

Principle
 The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied on the
quartz crystal, produces electric charges on the crystal surface.

 The Piezoelectric transducer is also known to be mechanically stiff.

 The Piezoelectric Transducer can measure pressure in the same way a force or an
acceleration can be measured.

Working
 When any pressure or force exerted on the crystal, it converts it into proportional
output electrical signal.

 It is also known as inverse transducer due to its reverse inherent characteristics.

 If any electrical signal is supplied to crystal, it converts it into some physical movement.

Advantages
 Very high frequency response.

 Self-generating, so no need of external source.

 Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.

 Barium titanate and quartz can be made in any desired shape and form. It also has a
large dielectric constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the direction of
orientation.

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Dis-advantages
 The piezoelectric transducer is used for dynamic measurement only.

 It has high temperature sensitivity.

 Some crystals are water soluble and get dissolve in high humid environment.

Applications
 Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an accelerometer, where
the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of acceleration.

 The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both tensional and
compression force measurements can be made.

 It can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of voltage.

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Opto-electrical transducers
 Opto-electrical transducers, also known as optoelectronic sensors, are devices that
convert optical signals or properties of light into electrical signals.

 They play a crucial role in a wide range of applications, from telecommunications and
data transmission to imaging, sensing, and more.

Principles of operation

Photoconductivity
 Photoconductive materials exhibit changes in electrical conductivity when exposed to
light.

 When light strikes the photoconductive material, it generates electron-hole pairs,

increasing its conductivity.

 This change in conductivity can be detected as an electrical signal.

Photovoltaic Effect
 The photovoltaic effect occurs in materials like semiconductors and photodiodes.

 When light incidents on these materials, it generates a voltage difference, creating an

electrical current.

 Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are classic examples of this effect.

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Photodiodes
 Photodiodes are specialized semiconductor devices designed to detect light.

 When illuminated, they generate a photocurrent in proportion to the incident light

intensity.

 Photodiodes are commonly used in optical communication and imaging applications.

Photoemission
 Photo-emissive materials emit electrons when illuminated by light.

 This emitted current can be collected and measured as an electrical signal.

 Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are a classic example of devices using this principle.

 As shown in figure, if the modulated wave is amplified and input directly to the speaker,
no sound will be heard.

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Types of Opto-electrical transducers

Photodiodes
 Photodiodes come in various types, such as PIN photodiodes and avalanche
photodiodes.

 PIN photodiodes are commonly used in light detection, while avalanche photodiodes
are employed in applications requiring high sensitivity and low noise, such as optical
communication and LIDAR.

Phototransistors
 These devices are similar to photodiodes but with an additional transistor structure.
When exposed to light, phototransistors generate a photocurrent that is then amplified
by the transistor, making them suitable for low-light applications and signal
amplification.

Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)

 Solar cells are opto-electrical transducers designed for the conversion of sunlight into
electricity. They are typically made from silicon, gallium arsenide, or other
semiconductor materials.

 Solar cells find extensive use in photovoltaic systems for clean energy production.

Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs)

 PMTs are highly sensitive devices used in applications where even single photons need
to be detected, such as in particle physics experiments, fluorescence spectroscopy, and
scintillation detectors.

 PMTs use a cascade of electron multiplication stages to amplify the initial photocurrent.

Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)

 CCDs are used in imaging applications, such as digital cameras and astronomical
telescopes.

 They consist of an array of light-sensitive capacitors that collect and store charge
proportional to the incident light.

 This charge is then sequentially read out to form images.

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Applications of Opto-electrical transducers

Optical Communication
 Photodetectors, such as photodiodes and phototransistors, are essential components
in optical communication systems, including fiber optics and data transmission.

Imaging
 CCDs and photodiodes are used in digital cameras, surveillance systems, medical
imaging, and scientific instruments to capture images and videos.

Sensors
 Optoelectronic sensors are employed in various applications, such as proximity
sensing, ambient light sensing in smartphones, and motion detection in security
systems.

Energy Harvesting
 Photovoltaic cells are used to convert sunlight into electricity in solar panels.

Scientific and Research Instruments

 PMTs and other sensitive detectors are used in laboratory experiments and scientific
research, including particle physics and astronomy.

Medical Devices
 Opto-electrical transducers are used in medical equipment like pulse oximeters, blood
glucose meters, and imaging devices for diagnosis and treatment.

* * * * * * * * * *

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