1.

Maintenance Rehearsal
o This involves repetition without attaching meaning or connections to other information.
o Typically results in poor encoding and weak memory. For example, repeating a phone number
over and over without context often leads to forgetting.
2. Elaborative Rehearsal
o This method involves attaching meaning or making connections to the information.
o Leads to better encoding and stronger memory. For instance, relating a phone number to
significant dates or personal information helps improve recall.

Maintenance rehearsal is superficial, whereas elaborative rehearsal engages deeper cognitive processes,
enhancing retrieval capabilities later.

Levels of processing theory

Experiment by Craik & Tulving (1975)

1. A question about the physical features of the word. For example, participants see the word bird and are
asked whether it is printed in capital letters (Figure 7.1a). 2.
2. A question about rhyming. For example, participants see the word train and are asked if it rhymes with
the word pain. 3.
3. A fill-in-the-blanks question. For example, participants see the word car and are asked if it fits into the
sentence “He saw a _______ on the street.”

(1) physical features = shallow processing; (2) rhyming = deeper processing; (3) fill in the blanks = deepest
processing.

Forming Visual Images

Bower and Winzenz (1970) investigated the impact of using visual imagery to enhance memory. They utilized
the paired-associate learning method to study how imagery could connect words and improve recall.

Kelimeleri eşlediler. Ağaç ve bot gibi. Sonra iki ayrı gruba birine kelimeleri birine ağaca asılı bot gibi görselli
kelime eşleşmesi vererek hafıza testi yaptılar. The group that created mental images remembered more than
twice as many words compared to the repetition group.

Linking Words to Yourself

- Eric Leshikar and coworkers (2015)
 two conditions, the self condition, in which participants indicated whether the adjective described
themselves (yes or no), and the common condition, in which participants indicated whether the word
was commonly used (yes or no).
 then they had a recignition test. The results, show that memory was better for the self condition than
the common condition.

Generating Information
- Slameka and Graf (1978) studied how actively generating material influences memory, a phenomenon
known as the generation effect.
 Read group: read pairs of related words (e.g., king–crown, horse–saddle).
 Generate group: Participants filled in blanks (e.g., king–cr_____, horse–sa_____). recalling 28%
more word pairs.
Organizing Information: Retrieval and Organizational Trees

1. Retrieval Cues
o Jenkins and Russell (1952) demonstrated that participants naturally group related items during
recall. For example, recalling "apple" might serve as a retrieval cue for other fruits like "grape"
and "plum." This spontaneous organization improves recall as items within categories act as
cues for one another.
2. Bower et al. (1969) Organizational Tree Experiment
o Participants were given four organizational trees, each representing categories such as
minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation.
o Separated Group: Participants studied the trees in their organized format, allowing for clear
categorical connections. They recalled an average of 73 words.
o Unseparated Group: Participants received randomized trees mixing categories. This group only
recalled an average of 21 words.

Key Findings

Organizing information during encoding significantly enhances memory retrieval. Structured presentation (e.g.,
hierarchical trees) fosters categorical organization in recall, supporting the use of meaningful frameworks for
studying and learning

Preventing Organization

Bransford & Johnson (1972)

This study illustrated the importance of organization for memory by showing how the lack of a meaningful
framework impairs understanding and recall.

Experiment Details:
Participants were asked to read the following abstract and confusing passage:

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry...

Without a prior meaningful context, the passage was difficult to comprehend and remember. However, when
participants were shown a relevant picture (e.g., a balloon setup) before reading, their memory improved
significantly. The picture provided a framework that helped link sentences into a cohesive mental
representation, emphasizing the role of organization in encoding.

Relating Words to Survival Value

Nairne (2010)
This study proposed that memory evolved to enhance survival in challenging environments.

Experiment Details:

 Participants were asked to imagine themselves stranded on a grassland without survival materials.
  They rated words from a list based on relevance to survival tasks like finding supplies, water, or
protection.
 A surprise memory test showed that survival processing resulted in better recall than other encoding
techniques like forming visual images or generating information.

Further research supported the idea that memory is enhanced when tied to survival-related scenarios—even in
fictional cases, such as imagining a zombie attack.

These studies underline the impact of context and evolutionary relevance on memory encoding.

Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory

1. Retrieval Cues

 Definition: Stimuli that help access stored memories. They can be words, images, or contexts that
trigger the recall of information.
 Importance: Retrieval cues enhance memory performance by providing hints that facilitate the
retrieval process.

2. Cued Recall

 Definition: A type of memory retrieval where a person is provided with specific cues to help recall
information.
 Comparison to Free Recall: Cued recall typically results in higher retrieval rates compared to free
recall, as cues provide context and associations that aid memory retrieval.

3. Tulving & Pearlstone (1966)

 Study Overview: This experiment investigated the effectiveness of retrieval cues in memory recall.
 Method: Participants were presented with a list of words categorized into specific groups (e.g., birds,
furniture) but were not informed of the categories during the study phase.
 Results:
o Free Recall: Participants recalled about 40% of the words without any cues.
o Cued Recall: When provided with category names as cues, participants recalled 75% of the
words.
 Conclusion: The study demonstrated that retrieval cues significantly enhance memory recall,
highlighting the effectiveness of cued recall over free recall.

4. Mantyla (1986)

 Study Overview: This experiment further explored the power of self-generated retrieval cues
compared to cues generated by others.
 Method: Participants were presented with a list of 504 nouns. They were instructed to create three
associated words for each noun (self-generated retrieval cues).
 Results:
o When participants were tested with their own self-generated cues, they remembered 91% of
the nouns.
o When tested with cues generated by other participants, recall dropped to 55%.
  Conclusion: The results indicated that self-generated retrieval cues are significantly more effective for
memory retrieval than cues generated by others, emphasizing the personal connection and relevance
of self-created cues.

Summary

 Retrieval cues play a crucial role in enhancing memory recall, with cued recall being more effective
than free recall.
 The studies by Tulving & Pearlstone and Mantyla illustrate the importance of context and personal
relevance in memory retrieval, demonstrating that tailored cues can lead to significantly improved
recall rates.

Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval

 Encoding Specificity emphasizes the importance of context in memory retrieval. This was demonstrated in
Baddeley and Godden's "diving experiment," where participants who learned words underwater recalled them
better when tested underwater than when tested on land.
- Harry Grant and coworkers (1998): noise and quiet conditions thing

 State-Dependent Learning highlights the role of internal mood and physiological states. Research by
Eich and Metcalf showed that participants recalled information better when their mood at retrieval
matched their mood during encoding.
 Transfer-Appropriate Processing focuses on the similarity of cognitive tasks during encoding and
retrieval. In Morris et al.'s experiment, participants who engaged in a rhyming-based task during
encoding performed better on a rhyming test than those who engaged in a meaning-based task. This
indicates that matching the type of cognitive processing during both encoding and retrieval enhances
memory performance.

Consolidation: Establishing Memories

Overview of Consolidation
Consolidation refers to the process through which new memories transition from a fragile state, where they are
prone to disruption, into a more stable, permanent state resistant to interference. This concept was initially
demonstrated by Georg Müller and Alfons Pilzecker in 1900. Their study provided foundational insights into
how memory formation and stability are affected by intervening experiences.

Müller & Pilzecker's Experiment

 Design: Participants were divided into two groups to study lists of nonsense syllables.
o The "immediate" group learned one list and immediately moved on to the second list.
o The "delay" group learned the first list and waited six minutes before studying the second list.
 Results: When participants were tested on the first list:
o Delay group: 48% recall.
o Immediate group: 28% recall.
 Conclusion: The immediate presentation of the second list interfered with the consolidation of the first
list, highlighting the critical window for memory stabilization.

Types of Consolidation

1. Synaptic Consolidation
o Occurs over minutes to hours.
 oInvolves structural changes at the synapse.
oA rapid process operating at the level of individual neurons.
2. Systems Consolidation
o Occurs over months to years.
o Involves reorganization of neural circuits in the brain.
o Gradual and operates at the level of entire brain networks.

Key Characteristics

 Parallel Processes: Synaptic and systems consolidation occur simultaneously but operate at different
speeds and levels of the nervous system. For example, changes at the synapse (synaptic consolidation)
happen quickly, while broader neural circuit reorganization (systems consolidation) takes longer.
 Disruption Sensitivity: During the early phase, memories are particularly susceptible to disruption, as
shown in the immediate recall conditions of Müller and Pilzecker's experiment.

Synaptic Consolidation

Synaptic consolidation involves rapid structural changes at synapses, which occur over minutes or hours. This
process works alongside systems consolidation, a slower reorganization of neural circuits. When an experience
occurs, it triggers synaptic changes that represent the memory. Synaptic consolidation is key to transforming
these changes into stable, long-term memories.

Hebb (1948)

Donald Hebb proposed that learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes at
synapses. According to Hebb, repeated activity strengthens synapses through structural changes, increased
neurotransmitter release, and enhanced firing of connected neurons. He suggested that changes in multiple
synapses provide a neural record of experiences.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Long-term potentiation is a phenomenon where repeated stimulation leads to enhanced firing of neurons. For
example, when neuron A repeatedly stimulates neuron B, structural changes occur, increasing neuron B’s
response. LTP demonstrates how experience strengthens synaptic connections, forming the basis for learning
and memory.

- Nörotransmitter Salınımı Artar:

- Sinaptik Hassasiyet Artar
- Yapısal Değişiklikler: Sinaptik bağlar güçlenir ve büyür,

Systems Consolidation

 Definition: A slow process of memory stabilization involving the gradual reorganization of neural
circuits within the brain. It occurs over months or years and complements faster synaptic consolidation.
 Relation to the Hippocampus: During the initial stages of consolidation, the hippocampus plays a key
role in forming connections with cortical areas. Over time, cortical connections strengthen, and reliance
on the hippocampus diminishes.

Standard Model of Consolidation

  Mechanism: Proposes that memories depend on the hippocampus during the early stages of
consolidation. Over time, connections between cortical areas strengthen, and the hippocampus becomes
less critical for memory retrieval.
 Evidence: Based on retrograde amnesia studies, which show that recent memories are more vulnerable
to loss than older memories due to their dependence on the hippocampus.

Reactivation

 Role: During reactivation, the hippocampus "replays" neural activity related to a memory. This
strengthens connections between cortical regions and helps establish long-term storage.
 Function: Acts as a bridge or "glue" to bind different components of a memory before they are fully
integrated into the cortex.

Amnesia

 Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past events, often most severe for memories formed just before
an injury (graded amnesia). It supports the idea that memories become more stable over time.
 Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an injury, highlighting the hippocampus's
role in initial memory formation.

Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

 This model contrasts the standard model of consolidation, which suggests that the hippocampus is
only involved in recent memories.
 The multiple trace model posits that the hippocampus is continually involved in storing and retrieving
episodic memories, even long after they have been consolidated in cortical areas. This means the
hippocampus remains essential for both recent and remote episodic memories.

Gilboa et al. (2004)

 Study: Gilboa et al. used brain imaging to explore the role of the hippocampus in both recent and
remote episodic memories.
 Findings: They found hippocampal activation during the recall of both recent and remote memories,
supporting the idea that the hippocampus remains involved regardless of the memory's age.

Remote Episodic Memories

 Remote episodic memories are older, long-term memories that often involve specific experiences or
events from the past.
 Evidence suggests that the hippocampus contributes to retrieving these memories, which maintain their
vividness and episodic nature when compared to general semantic memories.

Activation of the Hippocampus

  Studies using techniques like fMRI demonstrate that the hippocampus shows varying levels of
activation depending on the episodic character of a memory.
 For memories that remain vivid and episodic (e.g., a specific event from a week ago), hippocampal
activation is high.

Viskontas et al. (2009)

 Experiment:
1. Participants viewed pairs of stimuli (e.g., an alligator and a candle) and were asked to imagine
them interacting.
2. Testing Intervals: Their memory was tested 10 minutes later and 1 week later using fMRI and
behavioral recall.
 Findings:
o For pairs where participants still "remembered" the episodic details after a week, hippocampal
activation remained high.
o For pairs where episodic memory degraded to semantic familiarity ("know"), hippocampal
activation significantly dropped.

Remember/Know Procedure

 Method: This procedure distinguishes between episodic and semantic memory:

1. Remember: The participant recalls specific details of encountering the stimulus (episodic
memory).
2. Know: The stimulus is familiar, but the participant lacks specific contextual details (semantic
memory).
3. Don’t Know: The participant has no memory of the stimulus.
 Importance: This method demonstrates how memories transition from episodic (rich in detail) to
semantic (general familiarity) over time.
 remember responses indicate episodic memory and know responses indicate semantic memory.

Multivoxel Pattern Analysis (MVPA) and Bonnici et al. (2012)

Background

 Autobiographical Memories: Bonnici and colleagues focused on autobiographical memories,

differentiating between recent (2 weeks old) and remote (10 years old) memories.
 Objective: The study aimed to explore how different brain regions store and process vivid
autobiographical memories using fMRI and MVPA.

Procedure

1. Participants were asked to recall autobiographical events:

o Recent Memories: Events from 2 weeks prior.
o Remote Memories: Events from 10 years prior.
2. Scanning Sessions:
 oMemories were rated for vividness on a scale of 1 to 5.
oParticipants recalled memories in a scanner 1 week later.
3. MVPA was applied to analyze patterns of voxel activation for six specific memories (three recent, three
remote).

Findings

1. Hippocampus Activation:
o Both recent and remote memories activated the hippocampus.
o The posterior hippocampus contained more detailed information about remote memories,
suggesting a role in long-term episodic memory storage.
2. Prefrontal Cortex:
o More information about remote memories was represented in the prefrontal cortex.
o This highlights the increasing role of cortical regions in supporting remote memories as they
become more stable and consolidated over time.
3. Cortical Contributions:
o Autobiographical memory retrieval also activated other cortical structures, indicating a
distributed network involved in recalling personal experiences.

Implications

 Support for the Multiple Trace Model:

o The hippocampus remains involved in retrieving episodic details of remote memories.
 Role of the Prefrontal Cortex:
o As memories age, the prefrontal cortex plays a larger role, possibly in organizing and
contextualizing the information.

These findings illustrate the complex and dynamic interaction between the hippocampus and cortical areas in
processing vivid autobiographical memories.

Consolidation and Sleep: Enhancing Memory

The experiment by Gais et al. (2006) aimed to understand how sleep affects memory consolidation. The study
involved high school students learning 24 pairs of English-German vocabulary words. Participants were divided
into two groups:

1. Sleep Group: These participants learned the words and went to sleep within 3 hours of studying.
2. Awake Group: These participants stayed awake for 10 hours after studying the words before sleeping.

Both groups were tested on the vocabulary pairs 24 to 36 hours after the initial learning session. The results
demonstrated that the sleep group retained significantly more information compared to the awake group.

The findings suggest that sleep enhances memory consolidation by reducing environmental interference and
promoting processes in the brain that solidify memories during sleep

Wilhelm et al. (2011) conducted an experiment to investigate how expectations influence memory consolidation
during sleep. Participants learned a memory task involving a card-matching game. After practicing, they were
divided into two groups:
 1. Expected Group: These participants were informed that they would be tested on the task 9 hours later
after sleeping.
2. Unexpected Group: These participants were told they would be tested on a different task instead.

After a night’s sleep, participants were tested, and the results revealed that the expected group performed
significantly better than the unexpected group, despite both groups having the same amount of sleep. This
indicates that the expectation of future relevance plays a role in memory consolidation. The study highlights the
brain’s ability to selectively strengthen memories deemed important for the future during sleep.

The concept of reconsolidation refers to the idea that when a memory is reactivated, it becomes temporarily
fragile, much like when it was initially formed. During this phase, the memory requires reconsolidation to
stabilize again. This process allows the memory to be updated or even altered.

Key Experiments

Nader et al. (2000) - Famous Rat Experiment

This study used classical conditioning to create a fear response in rats. The experiment paired a tone with a
shock, resulting in the rats freezing when the tone was presented. The critical finding was that injecting
anisomycin (a protein synthesis inhibitor) at different stages affected memory:

1. Injection before consolidation: The rats did not form the memory, as evidenced by no freezing
response when the tone was played later.
2. Injection after consolidation: Memory remained intact, and the rats froze upon hearing the tone.
3. Injection after reactivation (tone replayed): Memory was disrupted, and the rats no longer froze. This
demonstrated that reactivated memories could be made fragile and then altered during
reconsolidation.

Hupbach et al. (2007) - Reconsolidation in Humans

This experiment showed reconsolidation in humans using object lists:

 Reminder Group: Participants were exposed to a subtle reminder of List A before learning a new list
(List B). On a final test, participants mistakenly recalled items from List B when asked about List A. This
suggested that the reminder triggered reconsolidation, allowing interference.
 No-Reminder Group: Participants learned List A without any reminders and demonstrated better recall
of List A with fewer intrusions from List B.

Implications

These studies highlight that reconsolidation is a dynamic process enabling memories to be updated. This has
practical applications, such as treatments for conditions like PTSD, where reactivating traumatic memories and
modifying their emotional impact can be therapeutic.