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Psy2008 L6

The document discusses long-term memory processes including encoding, retrieval, and consolidation, emphasizing the importance of deep processing for better memory retention. Techniques to enhance memory such as visual imagery, self-referencing, generation effect, retrieval practice, and organization are outlined. Additionally, it highlights the significance of matching encoding and retrieval conditions, as well as the role of sleep in memory consolidation.

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6 views27 pages

Psy2008 L6

The document discusses long-term memory processes including encoding, retrieval, and consolidation, emphasizing the importance of deep processing for better memory retention. Techniques to enhance memory such as visual imagery, self-referencing, generation effect, retrieval practice, and organization are outlined. Additionally, it highlights the significance of matching encoding and retrieval conditions, as well as the role of sleep in memory consolidation.

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Cognitive Psychology:

Long-term memory (II)


Dr Jinger Pan
Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Retrieval, Consolidation
Encoding: Getting information into the LTM

Retrieval: Transferring information from LTM to working memory

Consolidation: Converting unstable memory trace (e.g., newly-formed


memory) in LTM into a stable form that is resistant to forgetting

What can we do to facilitate these processes?


Encoding
Working memory  Long-term memory
▫ Maintenance vs . Elaborative rehearsal
 Maintenance: simply repeating the information
 Elaborative: considering meaning or making connections to
other information.
▫ Shallow vs. Deep processing
 Shallow: little attention to an item’s meaning
 Deep: focus on an item’s meaning and relate it to something
else
Processing depth
• Participants were presented words and asked
three types of questions with different
processing depth
(1) physical features = shallow processing: is
the word DOWN in small or capital letter?
(2) rhyming = deeper processing: does down
rhyme with gown?
(3) fill in the blanks = deepest processing:
processing of meaning was needed: place ____
on the table

• Deeper processing is associated with better Graik & Tulving, 1975


memory
Encoding: Deep processing
Ways to enhance memory
▫ Visual imagery: creating mental pictures
▫ Self-reference effect: relating things we want to remember to
ourselves, this can lead to stronger memories
▫ Generation effect: self-generating materials we want to remember
▫ Retrieval practice: Recreating something you’ve learned in the past
from your memory
▫ Organization: organize information in meaningful ways
Encoding: Visual imagery
• Experimental Procedure: Paired associate learning

• A list of 15 pairs of nouns, such as boat-tree, was


presented to subjects for 5 seconds each.

• One group was told to silently repeat the pairs as they


were presented.

• The other group was told to form a mental picture in which


the two terms were interacting.

• Recall test with one word in each pair presented.

Bower & Winzen (1970)


Encoding: Self-referencing
• Rogers et al. (1977)
• e.g., remember the word happy
• Four types of questions, answer yes/no

1. Question: “Big letters?" (Structural)

2. Question: "Rhymes with snappy?" (Phonetic)

3. Question: "Means the same as upbeat?" (Semantic)

4. Question: "Describes you?” (Self-reference)


Encoding: Generation effect
• Slameka & Graf (1978): asked subjects to study a list of words in two
different ways
▫ Read group: Read pairs of related words,
 king-crown; horse-saddle; lamp-shade; .etc
▫ Generate group: Fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first
word,
 king-cr___; horse-sa___ ; lamp-sh____ ; .etc
▫ Memory test: the first word of the pair is provided and subjects were
asked to recall the associated word.
▫ The generate group out performed significantly the read group by 28%.
Encoding: Generation effect
• Generation effect: material that is self-generated tends to be
better remembered
▫ First time learning “3 + 5 = 8”
 Read group: 3 + 5 = 8
 Generate group: 3 + 5 = ? Better approach
▫ Solving a problem vs. remembering a solution (Jacoby, 1978)
 Solving a problem: better retention of the solution
Encoding: Retrieval practice
• Retrieval practice
▫ Retrieve something you’ve learned in the past from your memory
 After a period of time (not immediately after initial learning)

▫ e.g., Roediger and Karpicke (2006)


 Group 1: Reread the passage (no retrieval)
 Group 2: Take a recall test (retrieval required) Better approach
 Then tested recall after a delay; testing group performed better
Encoding: Retrieval practice
• The Testing effect (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006)

 Group A was given another 7 minutes to continue studying.

Study text → 7 min → 7 min study time → …Final test

 Group B was given a test on what they had read.

Study text → 7 min → test → …Final test

 The final test took place after either 5 minutes, 2 days or 1 week.
Encoding: Retrieval practice
• The testing effect (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006)
• A more recent study
• Testing during studying improves memory and inference:
https://beckman.illinois.edu/about/news/article/2020/02/17/t
esting-during-studying-improves-memory-and-inference
Encoding: Organization
• Organizing information
▫ Chunking
▫ Re-organizing the information during encoding
 Lamp, Stone, Table, Pencil, Flower, Paper
 (Lamp, Table) (Stone, Flower) (Paper, Pencil)
▫ Research shows that subjects spontaneously organize items as they
recall them (Jenkins & Russell, 1952).
▫ Remembering words in a particular category serves as a retrieval
cue – a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember
information stored in memory.
Retrieving Information from LTM
Retrieval:
▫ The process of transferring information from LTM back into
STM/working memory.
▫ Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve

Memory performance is determined by:


▫ The depth of processing during encoding
▫ The relationship between how information is
initially encoded and how it is later retrieved
Retrieval: Retrieval Cues
• Cued-recall: cue presented to aid recall
▫ Increased performance over free-recall (i.e. simply asked to
recall stimuli)
▫ Retrieval cues are words or other stimuli that help us
remember information stored in our memory.
Retrieval: Retrieval Cues
• Mantyla (1986)
▫ Presented his subjects with a list of 504 nouns.
▫ Study phase: to generate three words they associated with
each noun.
 Banana: yellow, bunches, edible
 Math: science, numbers, boring
▫ Test phase: presented with the three words they had generated
(self-generated retrieval cues) for half the nouns, or with three
words that someone else had generated (other-person-
generated retrieval cues) for the other half of the nouns.
 Banana: yellow, bunches, edible
 Math: rigor, difficult, useful
 (Control group, new participants) Banana: yellow, bunches, edible
Any implications?
Retrieval: Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval

• Encoding Specificity
▫ When we learn something new, our brains not only encode the new
information but information about the environment we are in as
well.

▫ Retrieval will be more successful if encoding and retrieval are in


the same context.
Retrieval: Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
• Godden & Baddeley’s (1975)“diving experiment”
▫ Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in
the same location

a b c d
Retrieval: Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
• State Dependent Learning
▫ Memory retrieval is most efficient when an
individual is in the same state of
consciousness as they were when the
memory was formed.
 E.g. the effect of mood on memory (Bower,
1981; Eich & Metcalfe, 1989)
Retrieval: Matching Conditions of Encoding and Retrieval
• Transfer-appropriate processing
▫ Retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both
encoding and retrieval
▫ Morris et al. (1977)
Encoding Retrieval
Group 1 Meaning: ______ had a silver engine. Some of the test words rhymed
Group 2 Rhyming: ______ rhymes with can. with the target words, some did
not.
Examples Answer yes if the test word
Target words Test words
rhymed with one of the target
Train Rain
words.
Building Street
Man Pan Results: Rhyming group: 49%; Meaning group: 33%
Consolidation
• Converting unstable memory trace
(e.g., newly-formed memory) into a
stable form that is resistant to
forgetting
• Müller and Pilzecker (1900)
▫ Immediate group: learn the second list
immediately after the first one
 The second list interrupted the forming of
a stable memory for the first group
▫ Delay group: learn the second list 6
minutes after the first list
• Sleep facilitates memory consolidation
▫ Gais et al. (2006): Learn a list of 24 words
▫ Sleep group: go to sleep within 3 hours after
learning
▫ Awake group: stay awake for 10 hours before
going to sleep
▫ 1. Sleeping stops interference from
environmental stimuli
▫ 2. Consolidation appears to be enhanced during
sleep: information acquired during waking may
be reactivated during sleep, promoting memory
stabilization.
 Explicit Memory ( e.g., language)
 Procedural Memory ( e.g., motor skills)
Consolidation
Can we selectively enhance the storage of individual memories?
Rudoy et al.,(2009):
Selectively enhance memory consolidation of new information
1. Study period
▫ Remember 50 items
▫ Each item was paired with a characteristic sound
2. Take a nap
▫ During the nap, the sounds for 25 of the objects were presented
3. Test period (after waking)
▫ The 25 Items that were cued by their sounds during sleep  remember
better
Sleep and Memory Consolidation

(no sound) (no sound)


Additional learning materials
• Nightly scents could boost memory: https://www.inc.com/erik-
korem/neuroscience-shows-that-nightly-scents-could-boost-memory-help-
your-productivity.html
Readings
• Goldstein, E. B. (2019). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting mind,
research and everyday experience (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Chapter 7

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