Time Study and Work Measurement Introduction to Work Measurement

Chapters: Sections:
12.Introduction to Work Measurement 1. Time Standards and How They Are
Part III 13.Direct Time Study Chapter 12 Determined
14.Predetermined Motion Time Systems 2. Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards
15.Standard Data Systems 3. Allowances in Time Standards
16.Work Sampling 4. Accuracy, Precision, and Speed of
17.Computerized Work Measurement and Application in Work Measurement
Standard Maintenance
18.Economic Justification and Applications of
Time Standards
19.Learning Curves
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Time Is Important Some Definitions

Most workers are paid for their time on the job
Work measurement – evaluation of a task in terms of
the time that should be allowed by an average worker to
perform the task

The labor content (cost of labor time) is often a
4 techniques

major factor in the total cost of a product or
Focus on human work

service

Standard time (allowed time) – amount of time that should
be allowed for an average worker to process one work unit

For any organization, it is important to know using the standard method and working at normal pace
how much time will be required to accomplish a

Includes allowance
given amount of work

Time study

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Some Definitions When Are Time Standards Beneficial?

Work measurement Characteristics of industrial situations in which
time standards would be beneficial

Time study – all the ways in which time is analyzed in
Low productivity: significant opportunities for
work situations improvement

Broader term
Repeat orders: once the time standard is set
for the first, it can be used for successive ones

Focus on machine times

Long production runs: reduced average cost of
work measurement

How much time it should take to accomplish a given task

Repetitive work cycles: work measurement can
be justified more readily

Both terms (work measurement and time study) can be
used interchangeably
Short cycle times: requires less time to set
standards
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

1
 Functions of Time Standards Methods to Determine Time Standards

They define a “fair day’s work”

They provide a means to convert workload into
staffing and equipment needs

They allow alternative methods to be
compared objectively

They provide a basis for wage incentives and
evaluation of worker performance

They provide time data for:

Vary in terms of

Production planning and scheduling
accuracy and reliability of the values derived from the

Cost estimating method

Material requirements planning
amount of time required to apply the corresponding
method
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Methods to Determine Time Standards Work Measurement Techniques

Estimation 1. Direct time study (DTS)

Judgment of a person who is familiar with the job

Subjective 2. Predetermined motion time system (PMTS)

Least accurate method

Historical records 3. Standard data systems (SDS)

Records on the actual times and production quantities for
previous identical or similar job orders - “Time card”s
These 3 are known as engineered standards

Average time per part
Some effort has been made to determine the best

Improvement over estimates method to accomplish a given task

Limitation: No indication of efficiency measures

Work measurement techniques 4. Work sampling

Time consuming
Determine proportions of time spent in work

More accurate than estimation and historical records activities using randomized observations

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Task Hierarchy & Work Measurement Direct Time Study

Direct observation of a task using a stopwatch to record the
time taken to accomplish a task.

The task is usually divided into work elements and each work
element is timed seperately.

During the observation, the analyst evaluates the worker’s

pace - performance rating

Normal time
Tn=Tobs(PR)
where Tn= normal time, min; Tobs=observed time, min;
Pyramidal Structure of Work PR=performance rating of the worker’s pace

Work measurement techniques measure
Standard time

work at different levels of this hierarchy Tstd=Tn(1+Apfd)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

2
Predetermined Motion Time Systems Standard Data Systems

A database of normal times of basic motion elements
A compilation of normal time values for work elements
(therbligs) such as reach, grasp, move etc.
used in the tasks performed in facility

Conditions under which the motion elements (work variables)
are performed are important.

Used to establish time standards for tasks composed of

Example: normal time for TL
work elements similar to those in the database

Distance moved

Weight of the object being moved

Source of data: direct time study, PMTS, work sampling,

The analyst list all of the basic motion elements that comprise historical data
the task; then normal times for basic motion elements are
summed up to obtain the normal time for the task

Effect of work variables should be included

Advantages:
Tables

No need for performance rating

Charts

Can be applied before production starts

Mathematical equations
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Work Sampling Cycle Time Variations

A random sampling technique to estimate the proportions of
time spent in different activities
Once the method has been standardized, the
actual time to perform the task is a variable

Identify activities clearly. Example: machine setup, production, because of:
idleness

Differences in worker performance

Multiple subjects (entities) can be included

Mistakes, failures and errors

Observations

Random: minimize bias

Variations in starting work units

Large in number: to achieve statistical accuracy

Variations in hand and body motions

Objectives:
Extra elements not performed every cycle

Setting time standards: Statistical estimation error is high 

Estimating resource utilization (different from other techniques) ☺
Differences among workers

Determining allowance factors (different from other techniques) ☺

The learning curve phenomenon
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards Average (Standard) Worker

Time to perform a task depends on
A worker who
•worker (gender, strength etc.),
•worker’s pace,
is representative of the persons who usually perform
•method used, tasks similar to the task being measured.
•work unit
if the work is performed mostly by men (women), then
the average worker is male (female)
Factors that must be standardized before a time standard can
be set (except for the worker)

have learned the task, practiced and proficient at it

is capable of performing the task consistently

throughout the shift

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

3
 Standard Method Standard Work Units

Determining the optimum method for processing a work
The time needed to process the work unit depends on its
unit starting condition

Therefore this condition must be specified by engineering
documents

“One best method”: the safest, quickest, most
productive, and least stressful to the worker
If the actual condition deviates from the specification, then
extra time may be required to accomplish the task

Must include all of the details on how the task is

Exactly what changes are made in the work unit by the
performed, including:
task?

Procedure - hand and body motions

Tools

Equipment
What is the final state of the completed work unit?

Workplace layout (what are the locations of the parts, tools)

Irregular work

Service work: more difficult to define

Working conditions (is the work performed outside or inside)

Setup
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Measurement Accuracy and Precision

A procedure in which an unknown quantity is
Accuracy
compared to a known standard, using an
Degree to which the measured value agrees with the
true value of the quality of interest
accepted and consistent system of units
Freedom from systematic errors, which are positive
or negative deviations from the true value that are
consistent from measurement to measurement

Important attributes of a measurement system:

Accuracy
Precision

Precision
Repeatability of the measurement system

High precision means random errors are small,

Speed of response where errors are assumed to follow a normal
distribution

Plus or minus three standard deviations often used

Work measurement is a measurement process as a benchmark: [µ−3σ,µ−3σ]
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Measurement Accuracy vs. Precision Accuracy in Work Measurement

Accuracy is concerned with closeness to the true
value

But what is the true value of a task time?

Measurement is a procedure in which an

unknown quantity is compared with a known
standard

But the known standard in work measurement
is the definition of standard performance used
High accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy by the company
Low precision High precision High precision
The standard is not based on time
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

4
 Precision in Work Measurement Relative Accuracy of Time Standards

Precision is concerned with the expected variability within
a single time study

Precision of a time standard is determined at a certain

reliability or confidence level

For example, the standard time for a task is 4.00 min, and we
are 95% confident that the actual time is within 5% of that
time

95 out of 100 time studies performed on the task, the
resulting standard time values lie between 3.80 min and 4.20
min

Related term: Consistency – concerned with variations in

standard time values among different time study analysts
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Application Speed Ratio Relative Application Speed

Speed of response – the lag between the time when the
measuring device is applied and when the measured value is
available to the user

how much time is required to determine the time standard for a

given task

Varies for different work measurement techniques

In work measurement speed of response is application speed

ratio.

Application speed ratio = ratio of the time required to set the

standard divided by the value of the time standard itself

Typical values = 100 to 250

Application speed ratio=100: It takes 100 min of analyst time to
determine a 1 min-time standard.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Computerized Work Measurement Worker Performance

Facilitates collection of data
Average (Standard) Worker ????

Performs routine computations
Defined as the pace (tempo) or relative speed

with which the worker does the task.

Organizes time standards files and databases

As worker performance increases, cycle time

Retrieves data in predetermined motion time systems decreases
and standard data systems

Assists in the preparation of the documentation

From the employer’s viewpoint, it is desirable
for worker performance to be high

Methods descriptions

Reports

What is a reasonable performance/pace to
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
expect from a worker in accomplishing a given
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
task?

5
 Normal Performance (pace) Normal Time

A pace of working that can be maintained by a properly
The time to complete a task when working at
trained average worker throughout an entire work shift normal performance
without harmful short-term or long-term effects on the
worker’s health or physical well-being

Actual time to perform the cycle depends on

The work shift is usually 8 hours, during which periodic rest worker performance
breaks are allowed
Tn = Tc x Pw

Normal performance = 100% performance
where

Faster pace > 100%, slower pace < 100% Tc = actual cycle time,
Tn = normal time,

Common benchmark of normal performance:
Pw = worker performance or pace

Walking at 3 mi/hr (~4.83 km/hr)

Dealing four hands of cards from a 52 card deck in exactly 30
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
sec©2007 Pearson Education,
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.2: Normal Performance Example 2.2: Solution

Given: A man walks in the early morning for (a) At 3 mi/hr, time = 1.85 mi / 3 mi/hr
= 0.6167 hr = 37 min
health and fitness. His usual route is 1.85 miles.
The benchmark of normal performance = 3 (b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc
mi/hr. Pw = 37 min / 30 min = 1.233 = 123.3 %

or an alternative approach in (b):

Determine: Using v = 1.85 mi / 0.5 hr = 3.7 mi/hr
(a) how long the route would take at normal Pw = 3.7 mi/hr / 3.0 mi/hr = 1.233
performance

If worker performance > 100%, then the time required to
(b) the man’s performance when he completes complete the cycle will be less than normal time.
the route in 30 min.

If worker performance < 100%, then the time required to
complete the cycle will be greater than normal time.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Distribution of Worker Performance How a Normal Time is Defined

Variations among workers →performance variations Distribution of worker performance, indicating
how normal time is defined so that it can be
Worker performance is expressed in terms of readily achieved by most workers
daily output

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

6
 More on Normal Performance Standard Time

Normal performance is commonly defined to
Same as normal time, but acknowledges that
be a pace that can be readily attained by the periodic rest breaks must be taken by the
majority of workers worker

Companies want most workers to be able to

achieve the normal performance easily.
Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the
work shift

A typical policy is to define standard

Lunch breaks (yemek molası-1/2 or 1 hour)
performance so that an average worker is

usually not counted as part of work shifts
able to work at a pace that is 130% of that
pace
Shorter rest breaks (çay molası-15 mins)

usually counted as part of work shifts

Thus, most workers are able to easily
achieve normal performance

Other interruptions (allowances)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Rest Breaks in a Work Shift Allowances in Time Standards

A typical work shift is 8 hours (8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.
Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor
with one hour lunch break)
Apfd to obtain the standard time

In Turkey work time is defined as 45 hours a week
(so 8:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. with one hour lunch break,
provided that workers work for 5 days)
Purpose of allowance factor is to compensate for
lost time due to work interruptions and other

The shift usually includes one rest break in the morning
and another in the afternoon. reasons

The employers allows these breaks, because they know
Standard time:
that the overall productivity of a worker is higher if rest
breaks are allowed. Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)

In Turkey the rest periods are not included in daily work
hours in which employers are paid for.
where pfd = personal time, fatigue, and delays
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Reasons for Lost Time at Work

(Allowances) PFD Allowance
Work-related interruptions Non-work-related interruptions
Personal time

Rest room breaks, phone calls, water fountain stops,

Machine breakdowns
Personal needs (e.g., cigarette breaks (5% typical)

Waiting for materials or restroom breaks)
For example: A larger value will be approporiate if the work
environment is hot
parts
Talking to co-workers about

Receiving instructions from matters unrelated to work

Fatigue
foreman
Lunch break (not included in
Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to work-related

Talking to co-workers about Apfd) stresses and conditions (5% or more)- refer to Chapter 23
work-related matters
Smoke break
For example: If the work is physiologically very demanding,
then relaxation time should be allowed periodically for the

Rest breaks for fatigue
Beverage break body to recover (in this case use 20% allowance)

Cleaning up at end of shift
Personal telephone call

Delays

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

7
 PFD Allowance Normal time vs Standard time

Personal time
Normal time: Time it takes to perform a task
under the normal (standard) (100%)

Fatigue
performance

Delays

Random, unavoidable interruptions
Normal time does not include allowances for

Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions (5% typical)

Usually management is responsible for these delays.
time losses

Sudden urge for a cigarette break? Is it personal or delay?

Standard time: Normal time + allowance

Do you know how to measure allowances?
Normal time(1 + Apfd)
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
Tstd = standard time, Tn = normal time, Apfd = PFD
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
allowance factor
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency

Two (three) common measures of worker
Two (three) common measures of worker
productivity used in industry productivity used in industry

Standard hours – represents the amount of work
actually accomplished during a given period (shift,
week)
Worker efficiency – work accomplished during the
shift expressed as a proportion of shift hours

Quantity of work units (in terms of time) produced Ew = Hstd / Hsh
Hstd = Q Tstd where
where
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Ew =worker efficiency, normally expressed as a
Q = quantity of work units completed during the
percentage, hr
period, pc
Tstd =standard time per work unit, hr/pc Hsh =number of shift hours, hr

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.3: Determining Standard Time

Irregular Work Elements and Standard Output

Elements that are performed with a frequency
Given: The normal time to perform the regular
of less than once per cycle work cycle is 3.23 min. In addition, an irregular
work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is

Examples: performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance
factor is 15%.

Changing a tool

Exchanging parts when containers become full

Determine

Irregular elements are prorated into the regular (a) the standard time
cycle according to their frequency (b) the number of work units produced during
an 8-hr shift if the worker's pace is consistent
with standard performance.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

8
 Example 2.6: Standard hours and worker
Example 2.3: Solution efficiency

(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5
Given: The worker performance of 125% in the previous
example.
= 3.48 min

Tsd=4.00 min. The worker produces 150 work units
Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15) during an 8-hour shift.
= 4.00 min

Determine:
(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr (a) number of standard hours produced
shift (b) worker efficiency
Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units

Solution:
(a) Hstd=150(4 min)=600 min= 10.0 hr

Normal time of a task involves normal times (Hstd = Q Tstd)
for regular and irregular work elements (b) Ew = 10hr / 8 hr =125 %
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.6: Standard hours and worker

efficiency (skip) More on Worker Efficiency

Note that worker efficiency is found to be
Worker efficiency is commonly used to evaluate
equal to the worker performance (rate). workers in industry.

In many incentive wage payment plans, the worker’s

What are the reasons for that? earnings are based on

worker’s efficiency, Ew,

The number of hours actually worked is consistent or
with 15% allowance factor.
the number of standard hours accomplished, Hstd.

The entire work cycle consists of manual labor.
Either one of these two measures can be derived from

So, worker efficiency=worker performance (rate) the other one. Thus, they are equivalent.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Case 2.a: Cycle Times with No Overlap

Cycle Time Analysis Between Worker and Machine

Two categories of worker-machine systems in terms of cycle time
Worker elements and machine elements are sequential
analysis

Cases:
There is no overlap in work elements between the

1. Systems in which the machine time depends on operator worker and the machine
control
While worker is busy, machine is idle

A typist typing a list of names on a typewriter
While machine is busy, worker is idle

Carpenter using power saw to cut lumber

A construction worker operating a backhoe
Worker’s work elements are external

Cycle time analysis is same as for manual work cycle

2. Systems in which machine time is constant and independent
Normal time for cycle
of operator control Tn = Tnw + Tm,

Operator loading semi-automatic production machine where

Our focus is on this 2nd type Tnw = Normal time for the worker-controlled portion of the

Two types: cycle time, min
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Tm = Machine cycle time (assumed to be constant)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

9
 Case 2.a: Cycle Times with No Overlap
Between Worker and Machine Case 2.b: Internal Work Elements

Standard time for cycle
Some worker elements are performed while
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am) machine is working
where
Internal work elements performed simultaneously
with machine cycle
Tnw = Normal time for the, min

External work elements performed sequentially with
Tm = Machine cycle time (constant) machine cycle
Am = Machine allowance factor

Desirable to design the work cycle with internal

Am=30%: Workers love that since efficiencies are rather than external work elements
overestimated

Am=0%: Workers hate that since efficiencies are
overestimated
If it is possible, include operator work elements

Am= Apfd
that are performed while machine is running.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.10: Internal vs external work

Normal Time and Standard Time elements in cycle time analysis
Worker Machine

Normal time Seq. Work Element Description Time Time
Tn = Tnw + Max{Tnwi , Tm} (min) (min)

1 Worker walks to tote pan containing raw stock 0.13 (idle)

Standard time
2 Worker picks up raw workpart and transports to machine 0.23 (idle)
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) +
Max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd) , Tm(1 + Am)}
3 Worker loads part into machine and engages machine 0.12 (idle)
semiautomatic cycle

Actual cycle time (skip)
Tc = Tnw / Pw + Max{Tnwi/Pw , Tm} 4 Machine semiautomatic cycle (idle) 0.75

5 Worker unloads finished part from machine 0.10 (idle)

where
Tnw = normal time for the worker’s external elements, min 6 Worker transports finished part and deposits into tote pan 0.15 (idle)
Tnwi = normal time for the worker’s internal elements, min
Tm = machine cycle time, min Total 0.73 0.75
Tc=0.73+0.75=1.48 min
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.10: Internal vs external work Example 2.10: Internal vs external work
elements in cycle time analysis elements in cycle time analysis
Worker Machine
Seq. Work Element Description Time Time
(min) (min)
The cycle time is reduced from 1.48 min to 0.97 min.

1 Worker unloads finished part from machine 0.10 (idle)
% cycle time reduction=(CTcurrent-CTimproved)/CTcurrent
=(1.48-0.97)/1.48=%34
2 Worker loads part into machine and engages 0.12 (idle)
semiautomatic machine cycle

Rcurrent=1/1.48 min=0.68 units per min
3 Machine semiautomatic cycle (idle) 0.75

Rimproved=1/0.97 min=1.03 units per min

4 Worker transports finished part and deposits it into tote 0.15+ (operating)

% increase in R=(Rimproved-Rcurrent)/Rcurrent
pan, walks to tote pan containing raw stock, and picks up 0.13+
raw workpart and transports it to machine. (This element 0.23=
is internal to the machine semiautomatic cycle.) =(1.03-0.68)/0.68=%53
0.51

Total 0.73 0.75
%decrease in R=(Rcurrent-Rimproved)/Rcurrent

Tc=0.10+0.12+0.75=0.97 min =(0.68-1.03)/0.68=-%53

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

10
 Other Types of Allowances Contingency Allowances

There are other reasons for adding allowances, which are not
as common as PFD allowances. They are applied in addition to
Apfd
Problem area Problems and examples

Contingency Allowance Materials or Starting materials or parts are out of specification, and extra time is

Additional allowance due to a problem with the task (e.g., raw parts needed to correct the nonconformance (e.g., oversized casting that
material problem ) - not greater than 5% requires an extra machining pass or slower feed rate).

Temporary basis – after solving the underlying problem, it will Process Manufacturing process is not in statistical control (Section 10.2),
disappear
and additional time is required to inspect every piece rather than
inspect on a sampling basis.

Policy allowance: They are based on company policy

Machine allowance (set by company policy as a part of the wage Equipment Equipment is malfunctioning or breaking down more frequently
incentives.) than what is provided by the unavoidable delay factor, and
additional time is needed to compensate the worker to make

Training allowance – for teaching new workers adjustments, lubricate the machine more frequently, or other extra
task(s) not included in the standard time.

Learning allowance – learning a new task

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Policy Allowances Other types of policy allowances

To cover special work situations that are
Training allowances: for workers whose responsibilities
usually associated with a wage incentive include teaching other workers
system.

Learning allowances: for workers who are learning a
new job, or new employees

Example: Machine allowance – provides an
opportunity of the worker to maintain a high
Worker would be reluctant to train others or to learn new
rate of earnings even though (s)he has control jobs unless some form of compensation were provided
over only a portion of the cycle. to cover the losses because of training.

Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)

If a wage incentive plan is not used, there is no reason to
have policy allowances.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example 2.8: Effect of machine allowance

on standard time Example 2.8: Solution

Given: The work cycle consists of several
The normal time for the work cycle: Tn=1.0+2.0=3.0 min
manual work elements (operator controlled)
and one machine element performed under (a) Tstd=1.0(1+0.15)+2.0=3.15 min
semiautomatic control. The manual work (Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am))
elements: a normal time of 1 min and the
semiautomatic machine cycle time is 2 min. Workers 
Apfd=15%.
(b) Tstd=1.0(1+0.15)+2.0(1+0.30) =3.75 min
(Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am))

Determine: the standard time using
(a) Am=0, Workers ☺
(b) Am=30%.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. ©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

11
Example 2.9: Effect of machine allowance Example: Use of machine allowance in a
on worker efficiency wage incentive plan

Given: Standard times in the previous example (Example 2.8). Given: A wage incentive plan pays workers a

Determine: The worker efficiencies if 150 units are produced
daily wage at a rate of $15/hr multiplied by the
in an 8-hour shift. number of standard hours accomplished
during the shift. Tnw =1 min, Tm =3 min, Apfd

Solution: =15%. Workers’ work elements are external.
(a) Hstd=150(3.15)=472.5min=7.875hr 
(Hstd = Q Tstd)
Ew=7.875/8.0=0.984=98.4%  Determine the standard time for
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
a) Am=0, 
(b) Hstd=150(3.75)=562.5min=9.375hr ☺ b) Am=30%. ☺
(Hstd = Q Tstd)
Ew=9.375/8.0=1.172=117.2% ☺ c) What does a worker earn for the day under
(Ew = Hstd / Hsh) each Am (policy!) if (s)he produces 115 parts a
day?
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example Solution
a) Tstd = 1 (1 + .15) + 3 (1 + 0)=4.15 min
b) Tstd = 1 (1 + .15) + 3 (1 + 0.30)=5.05 min
c) Hstd under
a) Hstd=115(4.15)/60=7.95 hr 
b) Hstd=115(5.05)/60=9.68 hr ☺
The worker is paid under
a) 15(7.95)=$119.25 
b) 15(9.68)=$145.19 ☺

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

12