MODULE 4

COURSE TITLE: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, NUTRITION AND BODY METABOLISM

OVERVIEW WEEKS 15-17 LEARNING OUTCOMES

This module provides an By the end of this module, you should be

understanding of the structure able to:

and functions of the digestive

system and body nutrition and  List and define briefly the major
processes occurring during digestive
metabolism. Specifically, how system activity.
digestive system breaks down  Identify important dietary sources of the 6
ingested food into particles major nutrients.
 Describe consequences of excess or
small enough to be absorbed
deficit in vitamins.
into the blood; and how  Summarize the important events and
metabolism produces cellular products of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and
energy (ATP) and accounts for the election transport chain.
 Distinguish among glycogenesis,
all constructive and
glycogeneloysis and gluconeogenesis.
degradative cellular activities.  Describe current theories of food intake
regulation.
KEY TERMS  Explain body energy balance.
 Name several factors that influence
Digestive System – Digests food, metabolic rate
absorbs nutrients, secretes
digestive enzymes, removes
waste products

Nutrition – Substance in food that

is used by the body to promote
normal growth, maintenance,
and repair.

Metabolism – chemical reactions

that are necessary to maintain
life.

[Pick the date][Edition 1, Volume 1]

 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

PART 1: Digestive System

2. PROPULSION- If foods are to be processed by

We all know that a healthy digestive system is more than one digestive organ, they must be
essential for good health because it converts food propelled from one organ to the next.
into the raw materials that build and fuel our body’s 3. DIGESTION- Is a breakdown of large organic
cells. Specifically, the digestive system takes in food molecule into smaller molecules that can be
(ingests it), breaks it down physically and chemically absorbed. Digestion occurs through mechanical
into nutrient molecules (digests it), and absorbs the and chemical means.
nutrients into the bloodstream. Then it rids the body 4. ABSORPTION- Transport of digested end products
of the indigestible remains (defecates). from the lumen of the GI tract to the blood or lymph
is absorption, and for absorption to happen, the
Digestion - process that change the food eaten into digested foods must first enter the mucosal cells by
a form that the body can readily use. Foods that active or passive transport processes.
contain carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are 5. DEFECATION- Defecation is the elimination of
changed into their simplest or soluble forms before indigestible residues from the GI tract via the anus in
they go into the bloodstream. Together with oxygen, the form of feces.
they are absorbed by the body’s cells and utilized
for different processes such as growth and repair of Task 1. Do some research and label the diagram
tissues. below.

Digestive System
The Digestive System provides the body with the
nutrients essential for health. The organs of this
system ingest, digest, and absorb food and
eliminate the undigested remains as feces.
The Digestive system consists mainly of a long
continuous tube called the digestive or alimentary
canal. When stretched out, it measures from about 6
to 9m long. The digestive process starts in the mouth,
where food enters, and ends in the anus, where the
solid wastes of the body are excreted. The other
parts of the digestive tract are the pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine.

Functions of the Digestive System

1. INGESTION- Food must be placed into the mouth
before it can be acted on; this is an active,
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voluntary process called ingestion.

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 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

TWO main groups of DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Alimentary • Palatine tonsils. At the posterior end of the oral
canal and the Accessory digestive organs. cavity are paired masses of lymphatic tissue, the
palatine tonsils.
Organs of the Alimentary Canal • Lingual tonsil. The lingual tonsils cover the base of
The alimentary canal, also called the the tongue just beyond.
GastroIntestinal (GI) tract, is a continuous, hollow
muscular tube that winds through the ventral body Pharynx
cavity and is open at both ends. Its organs include  The Pharynx (throat) is involved in both
the following: digestion and respiration. It receives food
and air from the mouth, and air from the
Mouth nasal cavities. When food enters the
The mouth is the entry point for food, but the pharynx, involuntary muscle contractions
digestive system often gets ready before the first close off the air passageways.
piece of food even enters our mouth.  A short tube of skeletal muscle lined with a
Saliva is released by the salivary glands into our oral mucous membrane, the pharynx runs from
cavity when we smell food. Once the food enters the posterior oral and nasal cavities to the
the mouth, chewing (mastication) breaks food into opening of the esophagus and larynx.
smaller particles that can be more easily attacked
by the enzymes in saliva. Three Subdivisions of Pharynx
Our teeth can perform a cutting as well as grinding 1. Nasopharynx (Nasal Pharynx) The most superior,
function to accomplish this task. this involved only in breathing and speech.
The tongue assists in mixing the food with the saliva 2. Oropharynx (Oral Pharynx)
and then the tongue and roof of the mouth (soft 3. Laryngopharynx (Hypopharynx)
palate) help move the food along to the pharynx
and esophagus. The most superior, the nasopharynx, is involved only
• Lips. The lips (labia) protect its anterior opening. in breathing and speech. The other two subdivisions,
• Cheeks. The cheeks form its lateral walls. the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx, are used
• Palate. The hard palate forms its anterior roof, and for both breathing and digestion.
the soft palate forms its posterior roof. The oropharynx begins inferior to the nasopharynx
• Uvula. The uvula is a fleshy finger-like projection of and is continuous below with the laryngopharynx.
the soft palate, which extends inferiorly from the The inferior border of the laryngopharynx connects
posterior edge of the soft palate. to the esophagus, whereas the anterior portion
• Vestibule. The space between the lips and the connects to the larynx, allowing air to flow into the
cheeks externally and the teeth and gums internally bronchial tree.
is the vestibule. Usually during swallowing, the soft palate and uvula
• Oral cavity proper. The area contained by the rise reflexively to close off the entrance to the
teeth is the oral cavity proper. nasopharynx. At the same time, the larynx is pulled
• Tongue. The muscular tongue occupies the floor of superiorly and the cartilaginous epiglottis, its most
the mouth and has several bony attachments- two superior structure, folds inferiorly, covering the glottis
of these are to the hyoid bone and the styloid (the opening to the larynx); this process effectively
processes of the skull. blocks access to the trachea and bronchi.
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When the food “goes down the wrong way,” it

goes into the trachea. When food enters the
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

trachea, the reaction is to cough, which usually When the lower esophageal sphincter does not
forces the food up and out of the trachea, and completely close, the stomach’s contents can reflux
back into the pharynx. (that is, back up into the esophagus), causing
heartburn or gastroesophageal reflux disease
(GERD).

Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the
pharynx to the stomach. It is approximately 25.4 cm
(10 in) in length, located posterior to the trachea, The Walls of the Alimentary Canal Organs from the
and remains in a collapsed form when not engaged Esophagus to the Large Intestine are made up of the
in swallowing. same four basic Tissue Layers or Tunics:
The esophagus receives food from your mouth when
you swallow. By means of a series of muscular • Mucosa. The mucosa is the innermost layer, a
contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus moist membrane that lines the cavity, or lumen, of
delivers food to your stomach. the organ; it consists primarily of a surface
epithelium, plus a small amount of connective tissue
Passage of Food through the Esophagus (lamina propria) and a scanty smooth muscle layer.
The Upper Esophageal Sphincter (UES), is a bundle of • Submucosa. The submucosa is found just beneath
muscles at the top of the esophagus. The muscles of the mucosa; it is a soft connective tissue layer
the UES are under conscious control, used when containing blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph
breathing, eating, belching, and vomiting. They nodules, and lymphatic vessels.
keep food and secretions from going down the Muscularis Externa. The muscularis externa is a
windpipe. muscle layer typically made up of an inner circular
It controls the movement of food from the pharynx layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth
into the esophagus. muscle cells.
The Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES), is a bundle of • Serosa. The serosa is the outermost layer of the wall
muscles at the low end of the esophagus, where it that consists of a single layer of flat serous fluid-
meets the stomach. When the LES is closed, it producing cells, the visceral peritoneum.
prevents acid and stomach contents from traveling • Intrinsic Nerve Plexuses. The alimentary canal wall
backwards from the stomach. The LES muscles are contains two important intrinsic nerve plexuses- the
not under voluntary control. submucosal nerve plexus and the myenteric nerve
It controls the movement of food from the plexus, both of which are networks of nerve fibers
esophagus to the stomach. that are actually part of the autonomic nervous
Sphincters are muscles that surround tubes and system and help regulate the mobility and secretory
serve as valves, closing the tube when the sphincters activity of the GI tract organs.
contract and opening it when they relax.
The lower esophageal sphincter relaxes to let food
pass into the stomach, and then contracts to Stomach
prevent stomach acids from backing up into the The stomach is a baglike organ located in the upper
esophagus. Surrounding this sphincter is the muscular part of the abdomen. It has glands that produce
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diaphragm, which helps close off the sphincter gastric juice, the chemical containing hydrochloric
when no food is being swallowed.
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

acid, mucus and enzymes that help digest the food the duodenum. The smooth muscle pyloric
it receives. sphincter is located at this latter point of connection
Enzymes are substances that hasten biological and controls stomach emptying.
processes. The enzymes in the stomach include
pepsin and rennin. Different regions of the stomach have been named,
The churning of the food for three to four hours in the and they include the following:
stomach turns the food into chyme, a soupy into the • Location. The C-shaped stomach is on the left side
small intestine. of the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver
• Location. The C-shaped stomach is on the left side and the diaphragm.
of the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver • Function. The stomach acts as a temporary
and the diaphragm. “storage tank” for food as well as a site for food
•Function. The stomach acts as a temporary breakdown.
“storage tank” for food as well as a site for food • Cardiac region. The cardiac region surrounds the
breakdown. cardioesophageal sphincter, through which food
• Size. The stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm in enters the stomach from the esophagus.
length, but its diameter and volume depend on how • Fundus. The fundus is the expanded part of the
much food it contains; when it is full, it can hold stomach lateral to the cardiac region.
about 4 liters (1 gallon) of food, but when it is empty • Body. The body is the midportion, and as it narrows
it collapses inward on itself. inferiorly, it becomes the pyloric antrum, and then
The empty stomach is only about the size of your fist, the funnel-shaped pylorus.
but can stretch to hold as much as 4 liters of food • Pylorus. The pylorus is the terminal part of the
and fluid, or more than 75 times its empty volume, stomach and it is continuous with the small intestine
and then return to its resting size when empty. through the pyloric sphincter or valve.
Although you might think that the size of a person’s • Size. The stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm in
stomach is related to how much food that individual length, but its diameter and volume depend on how
consumes, body weight does not correlate with much food it contains; when it is full, it can hold
stomach size. Rather, when you eat greater about 4 liters (1 gallon) of food, but when it is empty
quantities of food—such as at holiday dinner—you it collapses inward on itself.
stretch the stomach more than when you eat less. • Rugae. The mucosa of the stomach is thrown into
There are Four Main Regions in the Stomach and large folds called rugae when it is empty.
they are the following: • Greater curvature. The convex lateral surface of
1. Cardiac region. The cardia (or cardiac region) is the stomach is the greater curvature.
the point where the esophagus connects to the • Lesser curvature. The concave medial surface is
stomach and through which food passes into the the lesser curvature.
stomach. • Lesser omentum. The lesser omentum, a double
2. Fundus. The fundus is the expanded part of the layer of peritoneum, extends from the liver to the
stomach lateral to the cardiac region. greater curvature.
3. Body. The body is the main part of the stomach. • Greater omentum. The greater omentum, another
4. Pylorus. The pylorus is a funnel-shaped that extension of the peritoneum, drapes downward and
connects the stomach to the duodenum. covers the abdominal organs like a lacy apron
The wider end of the funnel, the pyloric antrum, before attaching to the posterior body wall, and is
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connects to the body of the stomach. The narrower riddled with fat, which helps to insulate, cushion, and
end is called the pyloric canal, which connects to protect the abdominal organs.
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

• Stomach mucosa. The mucosa of the stomach is a • Brunners’s Glands. Are compound tubular
simple columnar epithelium composed entirely of submucosal glands is to produced in the
mucous cells that produce a protective layer of duodenum.
bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that clings to the • Intestinal Villi. Each villius is approximately 0.5-1.6
stomach mucosa and protects the stomach wall mm in length.
from being damaged by acid and digested by • Peyer’s patches. In contrast, local collections of
enzymes. lymphatic tissue found in the submucosa increase in
• Gastric glands. This otherwise smooth lining is number toward the end of the small intestine.
dotted with millions of deep gastric pits, which lead
into gastric glands that secrete the solution called Large Intestine
gastric juice.
• Intrinsic factor. Some stomach cells produce Undigested food goes to the large intestine and is
intrinsic factor, a substance needed for the temporarily stored there. The large intestine is a
absorption of vitamin b12 from the small intestine. digestive tube that is approximately 1.5 to 1.8m long
• Chief cells. The chief cells produce protein- and forms an inverted U shape around the coil of
digesting enzymes, mostly pepsinogens. the small intestine. In the large intestine, water is
Parietal cells. The parietal cells produce corrosive absorbed and flows back to the bloodstream, while
hydrochloric acid, which makes the stomach solid waste is transported to its terminal part called
contents acidic and activates the enzymes. rectum and another segment of the digestive tract
• Enteroendocrine cells. The enteroendocrine cells called anal canal.
produce local hormones such as gastrin, that are The solid waste leaves the body through the
important to the digestive activities of the stomach. opening called anus. Apart of the large intestine is a
• Chyme. After food has been processed, it small, finger-shaped sac of tissue called the
resembles heavy cream and is called chyme. appendix, a bodily structure that may play a role in
fighting infection.
Small Intestine
The large intestine is much larger in diameter than
The absorption of digested food occurs in the small the small intestine but shorter in length.
intestine, a narrow coiled tube that is about 2 m long
and located in the lower part of the abdomen. The • Size. About 1.5 m (5 feet) long, it extends from the
food stays in the small intestine for about eight hours. ileocecal valve to the anus.
The upper part of the small intestine is where most of • Functions. Its major functions are to dry out
the chemical digestion takes place. indigestible food residue by absorbing water and to
eliminate these residues from the body as feces.
In chemical digestion, the digestive juices obtained • Subdivisions. It frames the small intestines on three
from nearby glands induce chemical reactions that sides and has the following subdivisions: cecum,
break the food into even simpler substances that appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
can be absorbed into the bloodstream. • Cecum. The saclike cecum is the first part of the
On the walls of the small intestine, tiny, fingerlike large intestine.
structures called Villi allow the absorption of nutrients • Appendix. Hanging from the cecum is the
into the bloodstream. These Villi have smaller wormlike appendix, a potential trouble spot
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structure called microvilli that enhance the function because it is an ideal location for bacteria to
of absorbing nutrients. accumulate and multiply.
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

• Ascending colon. The ascending colon travels up • Permanent teeth. As the second set of teeth, the
the right side of the abdominal cavity and makes a deeper permanent teeth, enlarge and develop, the
turn, the right colic (or hepatic) flexure, to travel roots of the milk teeth are reabsorbed, and between
across the abdominal cavity. the ages of 6 to 12 years they loosen and fall out.
Transverse colon. The ascending colon makes a turn • Incisors. The chisel-shaped incisors are adapted for
and continuous to be the transverse colon as it cutting.
travels across the abdominal cavity. • Canines. The fanglike canines are for tearing and
Descending colon. It then turns again at the left piercing.
colic (or splenic) flexure, and continues down the • Root. The outer surface of the root is covered by a
left side as the descending colon. substance called cementum, which attaches the
• Sigmoid colon. The intestine then enters the pelvis, tooth to the periodontal membrane (ligament).
where it becomes the S-shaped sigmoid colon. • Dentin. Dentin, a bonelike material, underlies the
• Anal canal. The anal canal ends at the anus which enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth.
opens to the exterior. • Pulp cavity. It surrounds a central pulp cavity,
• Sigmoid colon. The intestine then enters the pelvis, which contains a number of structures (connective
where it becomes the S-shaped sigmoid colon. tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers) collectively
• Anal canal. The anal canal ends at the anus which called the pulp.
opens to the exterior. • Root canal. Where the pulp cavity extends into the
• External anal sphincter. The anal canal has an root, it becomes the root canal, which provides a
external voluntary sphincter, the external anal route for blood vessels, nerves, and other pulp
sphincter, composed of skeletal muscle. structures to enter the pulp cavity of the tooth.
• Internal involuntary sphincter. The internal
involuntary sphincter is formed by smooth muscles. Salivary Glands

Three pairs of salivary glands empty their secretions

Accessory Digestive Organs into the mouth.

Other than the intestines and the stomach, the • Parotid glands. The large parotid glands lie anterior
following are also part of the digestive system: to the ears and empty their secretions into the
mouth.
The role the teeth play in food processing needs little • Submandibular and sublingual glands. The
introduction; we masticate, or chew, by opening submandibular and sublingual glands empty their
and closing our jaws and moving them from side to secretions into the floor of the mouth through tiny
side while continuously using our tongue to move ducts.
the food between our teeth. • Saliva. The product of the salivary glands, saliva, is
• Function. The teeth tear and grind the food, a mixture of mucus and serous fluids.
breaking it down into smaller fragments. • Salivary amylase. The clear serous portion contains
• Deciduous teeth. The first set of teeth is the an enzyme, salivary amylase, in a bicarbonate-rich
deciduous teeth, also called baby teeth or milk juice that begins the process of starch digestion in
teeth, and they begin to erupt around 6 months, the mouth.
and a baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age of 2
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years.
Pancreas
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

Only the pancreas produces enzymes that break • Cystic duct. When food digestion is not occurring,
down all categories of digestible foods. bile backs up the cystic duct and enters the
Location. The pancreas is a soft, pink triangular gallbladder to be stored.
gland that extends across the abdomen from the
spleen to the duodenum; but most of the pancreas Physiology of the Digestive System
lies posterior to the parietal peritoneum, hence its Specifically, the digestive system takes in food
location is referred to as retroperitoneal. (ingests it), breaks it down physically and
Pancreatic enzymes. The pancreatic enzymes are chemically into nutrient molecules (digests it), and
secreted into the duodenum in an alkaline fluid that absorbs the nutrients into the bloodstream, then, it
neutralizes the acidic chyme coming in from the rids the body of indigestible remains (defecates).
stomach.
Endocrine function. The pancreas also has an Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and
endocrine function; it produces hormones insulin Esophagus
and glucagon The activities that occur in the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus are food ingestion, food breakdown,
Liver and food propulsion.

The liver is the largest gland in the body. Food Ingestion and Breakdown. Once food is
• Location. Located under the diaphragm, more to placed in the mouth, both mechanical and
the right side of the body, it overlies and almost chemical digestion begin.
completely covers the stomach. Physical breakdown. First, the food is physically
Falciform ligament. The liver has four lobes and is broken down into smaller particles by chewing.
suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall • Chemical breakdown. Then, as the food is mixed
by a delicate mesentery cord, the falciform with saliva, salivary amylase begins the chemical
ligament. digestion of starch, breaking it down into maltose.
Function. The liver’s digestive function is to produce • Stimulation of saliva. When food enters the mouth,
bile. much larger amounts of saliva pour out; however,
• Bile. Bile is a yellow-to-green, watery solution the simple pressure of anything put into the mouth
containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and chewed will also stimulate the release of saliva.
phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes. • Passageways. The pharynx and the esophagus
• Bile salts. Bile does not contain enzymes but its bile have no digestive function; they simply provide
salts emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat passageways to carry food to the next processing
globules into smaller ones, thus providing more site, the stomach.
surface area for the fat-digesting enzymes to work Food Propulsion – Swallowing and Peristalsis
on. For food to be sent on its way to the mouth, it must
first be swallowed.
Gallbladder • Deglutition. Deglutition, or swallowing, is a complex
process that involves the coordinated activity of
While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the several structures (tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and
removal of water. esophagus).
• Location. The gallbladder is a small, thin-walled • Buccal phase of deglutition. The first phase, the
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green sac that snuggles in a shallow fossa in the voluntary buccal phase, occurs in the mouth; once
inferior surface of the liver. the food has been chewed and well mixed with
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

saliva, the bolus (food mass) is forced into the pyloric sphincter barely opens, each contraction of
pharynx by the tongue. the stomach muscle squirts 3 ml or less of chyme into
• Pharyngeal-esophageal phase. The second the small intestine.
phase, the involuntary pharyngeal-esophageal • Enterogastric reflex. When the duodenum is filled
phase, transports food through the pharynx and with chyme and its wall is stretched, a nervous reflex,
esophagus; the parasympathetic division of the the enterogastric reflex, occurs; this reflex “puts the
autonomic nervous system controls this phase and brakes on” gastric activity and slows the emptying of
promotes the mobility of the digestive organs from the stomach by inhibiting the vagus nerves and
this point on. tightening the pyloric sphincter, thus allowing time
• Food routes. All routes that the food may take, for intestinal processing to catch up.
except the desired route distal into the digestive
tract, are blocked off; the tongue blocks off the Activities of the Large Intestine
mouth; the soft palate closes off the nasal passages;
the larynx rises so that its opening is covered by the The activities of the large intestine are food
flaplike epiglottis. breakdown and absorption and defecation.
• Stomach entrance. Once food reaches the distal Food Breakdown and Absorption. What is finally
end of the esophagus, it presses against the delivered to the large intestine contains few
cardioesophageal sphincter, causing it to open, nutrients, but that residue still has 12 to 24 hours more
and food enters the stomach. to spend there.
• Metabolism. The “resident” bacteria that live in its
Activities of the Stomach lumen metabolize some of the remaining nutrients,
releasing gases (methane and hydrogen sulfide)
The activities of the stomach involve food that contribute to the odor of feces
breakdown and food propulsion.
Food Breakdown.The sight, smell, and taste of food Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation
stimulate parasympathetic nervous system reflexes,
which increase the secretion of gastric juice by the When presented with residue, the colon becomes
stomach glands mobile, but its contractions are sluggish or short-
• Gastric juice. Secretion of gastric juice is regulated lived.
by both neural and hormonal factors. • Mass movements. Mass movements are long, slow-
moving, but powerful contractile waves that move
Food Propulsion over large areas of the colon three or four times
daily and force the contents toward the rectum.
Peristalsis is responsible for the movement of food • Rectum. The rectum is generally empty, but when
towards the digestive site until the intestines. feces are forced into it by mass movements and its
• Peristalsis. Once the food has been well mixed, a wall is stretched, the defecation reflex is initiated.
rippling peristalsis begins in the upper half of the • Defecation reflex. The defecation reflex is a spinal
stomach, and the contractions increase in force as (sacral region) reflex that causes the walls of the
the food approaches the pyloric valve. sigmoid colon and the rectum to contract and anal
• Pyloric passage. The pylorus of the stomach, which sphincters to relax.
holds about 30 ml of chyme, acts like a meter that • Impulses. As the feces is forced into the anal
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allows only liquids and very small particles to pass canal, messages reach the brain giving us time to
through the pyloric sphincter; and because the make a decision as to whether the external
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

voluntary sphincter should remain open or be

constricted to stop passage of feces.
• Relaxation. Within a few seconds, the reflex
contractions end and rectal walls relax; with the
next mass movement, the defecation reflex is
initiated again.

Task 2
Make a simple line drawing of the organs of the
alimentary tube, and label each organ.
Add three labels to your drawing – salivary glands,
liver and pancreas – and use arrows to show where
each of these organs empties its secretion into the
alimentary tube.

Task 3
Name two regions of the digestive tract where
mechanical food breakdown occurs, and explain
how it is accomplished in those regions.

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 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

PART 2 NUTRITION AND METABOLISM milk. The polysaccharide starch is found in grains,
legumes, and root vegetables the polysaccharide
Although it’s seems at times that people can be cellulose, which is plentiful in most vegetables, is not
divided into two camps – those who live to eat and digested by humans, but it provides roughage, or
those who eat to live – we all recognize the vital fiber, which increases the bulk of the stool and aids
importance of food for life. It has been said that defecation.
“you are what you eat,” and this is true in that part
of the food we eat is converted to our living flesh. In Lipids
other words, a certain fraction of nutrients is used to Although we also ingest cholesterol and
build cellular molecules and structures and to phospholipids, most dietary lipids are triglycerides.
replace worn-out parts. However, most foods are We eat saturated fats in animal products such as
used as metabolic fuels. That is they are oxidized meat and dairy foods ad in a few plant products,
and transformed into ATP, the chemical energy form such as coconut. Unsaturated fats are present in
needed by the body cells to drive their many seeds, nuts, and most vegetable oils. Major souces
activities. The energy value of foods is measured in of cholesterol are egg yolk, meats, and milk
units called kilocalories (kcal), or Calories, the units products.
conscientiously counted by dieters.
We have just considered how foods are digested Proteins
and absorbed. But what happens to these foods Animal products contain the highest-quality proteins
once they enter the blood? Why do we need Molecules that are basically amino acid polymers.
bread, meat, and fresh vegetables? Why does Eggs, milk and most meat proteins are complete
everything we eat seem to turn to fat? We will try to proteins that meet all of the body’s amino acid
answer these questions in this section. requirements for tissue maintenance and growth.
Legumes (beans and peas), nuts and cereals are
Nutrition also protein-rich, but their proteins are nutritionally
A nutrient is a substance in food that is used by the incomplete because they are low in one or more of
body to promote normal growth, maintenance, and the essential amino acids. As you can see, strict
repair. The nutrients divide neatly into six categories. vegetarians must carefully plan their diets to obtain
The major nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and all the essential amino acids and prevent protein
proteins – make up the bulk of what we eat. malnutrition. Cereal grains and legumes when
Vitamins and minerals, while equally crucial for ingested together provide all the essential amino
health, are required in minute amounts. Water, acids, and some variety of this combination is found
which accounts for about 60 percent of the volume in the diets of all cultures.
of the food we eat, is also considered to be a major
nutrient. Vitamins
Are organic nutrients of various forms that the body
Dietary sources of the major nutrients requires in small amounts. Although vitamins are
found in all major food groups, no one food contains
Carbohydrates all the required vitamins. Thus, a balance diet is the
Except for milk sugar (lactose) and small amounts of best way to ensure a full vitamin complement,
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glycogen in meats, all the carbohydrates – sugars particularly since certain vitamins (a, c, and e)
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and starches – we ingest are derived from plants. appear to have anticancer effects. Diets rich in
Sugars come mainly from fruits, sugar cane, and broccoli, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts (all good
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

sources of vitamins A and C) appear to reduce cells. Essentially, glucose is broken apart piece by
cancer risk. However, controversy abounds piece, and some of the chemical energy released
concerning the ability of vitamins to work wonders. when its bonds are broken is captured and used to
Most vitamins function as coenzymes (or parts of bind phosphate to ADP molecules to make ATP.
coenzymes); that is, they act with an enzyme to
accomplish a particular type of catalysis. Basically, the carbon atoms released leave the cells
as carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen atoms
Minerals removed (which contain energy-rich electrons) are
The body also requires adequate supplies of seven eventually combined with oxygen to form water.
minerals and trace amounts of about a dozen These oxygen-using events are referred to
others. collectively as cellular respiration. The events of the
Fats and sugars have practically no minerals, and three main metabolic pathways that are involved in
cereals and grains are poor sources. The most cellular respiration:
mineral-rich foods are vegetables, legumes, milk, 1. Glycolysis – also energizes each glucose
and some meats. molecule so that it can be split into two pyruvic acid
molecules and yields a small amount of ATP in the
METABOLISM process
A broad term referring to all chemical reactions that 2. Krebs cycle – produces virtually all the carbon
are necessary to maintain life. It involves: dioxide and water that results during cell respiration.
Catabolism –substances are broken down to simpler Like glycolysis, it yields a small amount of ATP by
substances. transferring high energy phosphate groups directly
Anabolism –larger molecules or structures are built from phosphorylated substances to ADP. Free
from smaller ones. oxygen is not involved.
During catabolism, energy is released and captured 3. Electron transport chain – is where the action is for
to make ATP, the energy-rich molecule used to ATP production. The hydrogen atoms removed
energize all cellular activities, including catabolic during the first two metabolic phases are loaded
reactions. with energy. These hydrogens are delivered by the
coenzymes to the protein carriers of the electron
transport chain, which form part of the
mitochondrial cristae membranes.
Oxidation via the removal of hydrogen atoms
CARBOHYDRATE, FAT AND PROTEIN METABOLISM IN (which are temporarily passed to vitamin-containing
BODY CELLS coenzymes) is a major role of glycolysis and the
krebs cycle.
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Just as an oil furnace uses oil (its fuel) to produce FAT METABOLISM
heat, the cells of the body use carbohydrates as The liver handles most lipid, or fat, metabolism that
their preferred fuel to produce cellular energy (ATP). goes on in the body. The liver cells use some fats to
Glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the major make ATP for their own use; some to synthesize
breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion. lipoproteins, thromboplastin (a clotting protein), and
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Glucose is also the major fuel used for making ATP in cholesterol; and then release the rest to the blood in
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most body cells. The liver is an exception; it routinely the form of relatively small, fat-breakdown products.
uses fats as well, thus saving glucose for other body Body cells remove the fat products and cholesterol
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

from the blood and build them into their membranes GENERAL METABOLIC FUNCTIONS
or steroid hormones as needed. Fats are also used to The liver is vitally important in helping to maintain
form myelin sheaths of neurons and fatty cushions blood glucose levels within normal range (around
around body organs. 100mg glucose/100ml of blood). After a
When there is not enough glucose to fuel the needs carbohydrate-rich meal, thousands of glucose
of the cells for energy, larger amounts of fats are molecules are removed from the blood and
used to produce ATP. Under such conditions, fat combined to form the large polysaccharide
oxidation is fast but incomplete, and some of the molecules called glycogen, which are then stored in
intermediate products such as acetoacetic acid the liver. This process is glycogenesis
and acetone begin to accumulate in the blood.
CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM AND TRANSPORT
PROTEIN METABOLISM Although it’s a very important lipid in the diet,
Proteins make up the bulk of cellular structures, and CHOLESTEROL is not used as an energy fuel. Instead,
they are carefully conserved by body cells. Ingested it serves as the structural basis of steroid hormones
proteins are broken down to amino acids. Once the and vitamin D and is a major building block of
liver has finished processing the blood draining the plasma membranes. Because we hear so much
digestive tract and has taken its “fill” of amino acids, about “cutting down our cholesterol intake” in the
the remaining amino acids circulate to the body media, it is always suprising to learn that only about
cells. The cells remove amino acids, the remaining 15 percent of blood cholesterol comes from the diet.
amino acids from the blood and use them to build The other 85 percent or so is made by the liver.
proteins, both for their own use (enzymes, Cholesterol is lost from the body when it is broken
membranes, mitotic spindle proteins, muscle down and secreted in bile salts, which eventually
proteins) and for export (mucus, hormones and leave the body in feces.
others.)
BODY ENERGY BALANCE
THE CENTRAL ROLE OF THE LIVER IN METABOLISM When any fuel is burned, it consumes oxygen and
The liver is one of the most versatile and complex liberates heat. The burning of food fuels by body
organs in the body. Without it we would die within 24 cells is no exception. Energy cannot be created or
hours. Its role in digestion (that is, the manufacture of destroyed – it can only be converted from one form
bile) is important to the digestive process to be sure, to another. If we apply this principle to cellular
but it is only one of the many functions of liver cells. metabolism, it means that a dynamic balance exists
The liver cells detoxify drugs and alcohol, degrade between the body’s energy intake and its energy
hormones, make many substances vital to the body output:
as a whole (cholesterol, blood proteins such as
albumin and clotting proteins, and lipoproteins), and Energy intake = total energy output
play a central role in metabolism as they process (heat + work + energy storage)
nearly every class of nutrients. Because of the liver’s
key roles, nature has provided us with a surplus of Energy intake is the energy liberated during food
liver tissues. We have much more than we need, oxidation – that is, during the reactions of glycolysis,
and even if part of it is damaged or removed, it is the kerb cycle, and the electron transport chain.
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one of the few body organs that can regenerate Energy output includes the energy we immediately
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rapidly and easily. lose as heat (about 60 percent of the total), plus
that used to do work (driven by ATP), glycogen.
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

Energy storage is important only during periods of above and beyond the energy required to maintain
growth and during net fat deposit. the body in the basal state.

Regulation of Food Intake Body Temperature Regulation

Although we have been emphasizing that foods are
When energy intake and energy outflow are “burned” to produce ATP, remember that ATP is not
balanced, body weight remains table. When they the only product of cell catabolism. Most of is not
are not, weight is either gained or lost. Since body the only product of cell catabolism. Most of the
weight in most people is surprisingly stable, energy released as foods are oxidized escapes as
mechanisms that control food intake or heat heat. Less than 40 percent of available food energy
production or both must exist. is actually captured to form ATP. The heat released
warms the tissues and, more importantly, the blood,
Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production which circulates to all body tissues, keeping them at
Basal Metabolic Rate homoeostatic temperatures, which allows
When nutrients are broken down to produce cellular metabolism to occur efficiently.
energy (ATP), they yield different amounts of energy.
The energy value of foods is measured in a unit Heat-Promoting Mechanisms
called the kilocalorie (kcal). When the environment temperature is cold (or the
The amount of energy used by the body is also temperature of circulating blood falls), body heat
measured in kilocalories. The basal metabolic rate must be conserved (increased). Short-term means of
(BMR) is the amount of heat produced by the body accomplishing this are vasoconstriction of blood
per unit of time when it is under basal conditions – vessels of the skin and shivering.
that is, at rest. It reflects the energy supply a person’s
body needs just to perform essential life activities Heat-Loss Mechanisms
such as breathing, maintaining the heartbeat, and Just as the body must be protected from from
kidney function. becoming too cold, it must also be protected from
The amount of thyroxime produced by the thyroid excessively high temperatures. Most heat loss occurs
gland is probably the most important factor in through the skin via radiation or evaporation. When
determining a person’s BMR; hence, thyroxine has body temperature increases above what is
been dubbed the “metabolic hormone.” The more desirable, the blood vessels serving the skin dilate
thyroxime produced, the higher the oxygen and capillary beds in the skin become flushed with
consumption and ATP use, and the higher the warm blood. As a result, heat radiates from the skin
metabolic rate. In the past, most BMR tests were surface.
done to determine whether sufficient thyroxime was
being made. Today, thyroid activity is more easily
assessed by blood tests.

Total metabolic Rate

When we are active, more glucose must be oxidized
to provide energy for the additional activities.
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Digesting food and even modest physical activity

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increase the body’s caloric requirements

dramatically. These additional fuel requirements are
 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

Task 4 Task 5
Calculate your Basal Metabolic Rate
a. What food group is most important as a fuel
How much energy does your body need just to source (that is, for ATP production)? Which is most
perform essential life activities? You can calculate important for building cell structures?
your BMR as follows:
b. Name two ways in which heat is lost from the
1. Calculate your weight in kilograms: body. Name two ways in which heat is retained or
Divide the number of pounds by 2.2 = __________ generated.

2. if you are male:

Multiply your weight x 1.0 = ______________

3. If you are female:

Multiply your weight x 0.9 = ______________

4. This number approximates the number of

kilocalories your body consumes per hour. To
estimate how many kilocalories you need each day
to support basic metabolic functions, multiply this
number by 24 =

For example:
A 200-pound man (91 kg) has a BMR of 91 Kcal/hour;
his metabolic activities consume approximately 2,
184 kilocalories per day. A 130-pound woman (59kg)
has a BMR of 53 kcal/hour, and her metabolic
activities consume only 1, 272 kilocalories per day.
Of course, other factors besides gender and body
weight can influence BMR.

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course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

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 course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism

Check out this list of references for more

information to broaden your knowledge!

Anatomy and Physiology by Elaine N. Marieb

Get Fit and Stay Well by Janet L. Hopson et.al.
Physical Education 1st edition by Dave Carnell,
et.al.
www.profesordaveexplains.com

CONGRATULATIONS!!!
YOU REACHED GREAT AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE
TO BECOMING A FIT AND WELLNESS EXPERT.
The End of Module Part 4.

mary lynn o. espina-verano, phd. e.d.

course title: digestive system, nutrition and body metabolism
university of eastern Philippines
lexie_cooks@yahoo.com

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