MODULE-2

TRANSFER FUNCTION REPRESENTATION

Block Diagrams
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in
the following figure to identify these elements.

VTUPulse.com
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and
H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.
Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output.
The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or
more inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also
performs the summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction
of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations
one by one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the
output, Y as sum of A and B i.e. = A + B.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output

(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign
and B is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the
difference of A and B i.e

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

VTUPulse.com
The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one
output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a
negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the
same input to one or more blocks, summing points.In the following figure, the take-off
point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

VTUPulse.com

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of
the inputs to the summing point.
Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the
block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.
Basic Connections for Blocks
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in series.

VTUPulse.com

That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all
those ‘n’ blocks.

Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected
in parallel. The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

VTUPulse.com
That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of
those two blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of
all those ‘n’ blocks.

Feedback Connection
As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive
feedback and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback
control system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions G(s)G(s) and H(s)H(s) form
a closed loop.

VTUPulse.com

Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is :

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the positive feedback, i.e.,

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting summing point after the block

 Shifting summing point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases
one by one.
Shifting the Summing Point before a Block to after a Block

VTUPulse.com
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

The output of Summing point is

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference
in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more
block G(s)G(s). It is having the input X(s)X(s) and the output of this block is given as
input to summing point instead of X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

VTUPulse.com
Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,

VTUPulse.com
The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the
second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block
1/G(s). It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to
summing point instead of X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting take-off point after the block

 Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements is to be done in the above two cases, one by one.
Shifting a Take-off Point form a Position before a Block to a position after the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off
point is present before the block.
When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But,
there is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require
one more block 1/G(s). It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s) this block
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Shifting Take-off Point from a Position after a Block to a position before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

VTUPulse.com
When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But,
there is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one
more block G(s) It is having the input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is
shown in the following figure.
The concepts discussed in the previous chapter are helpful for reducing (simplifying) the block
diagrams.
Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.
 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

VTUPulse.com
 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.
Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.
Example
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.
VTUPulse.com
 VTUPulse.com
Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block
diagram having multiple inputs.
 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at
a time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.
The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems
because; we have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So,
to overcome this drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).

Block Diagram Reduction- Summary

VTUPulse.com
VTUPulse.com
 VTUPulse.com
Example-1:
 VTUPulse.com
Example-2:
 VTUPulse.com

Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations. In this chapter,

let us discuss the basic concepts related signal flow graph and also learn how to draw
signal flow graphs.
Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph
Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal
flow graph. Node
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes
— input node, output node and mixed node.
 Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
 Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
 Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

Branch

VTUPulse.com
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For
example, there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches
have gains of a, b, c and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations −
VTUPulse.com
 VTUPulse.com

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.
 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.
 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.
 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram asgains of
the branches in signal flow graph.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram. If there is connection between
two nodes (but there is no block in between), then represent the gain of the
branch as one. For example, between summing points, between summing
point and takeoff point, between input and summing point, between take-off
point and output.
Example
Let us convert the following block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

VTUPulse.com
Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block diagram as input node
R(s) and output node C(s) of signal flow graph.
Just for reference, the remaining nodes (y1 to y9) are labelled in the block diagram.
There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. That is four nodes for four
summing points, four nodes for four take-off points and one node for the variable
between blocks G1and G2.

The following figure shows the equivalent signal flow graph.

Let us now discuss the Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in
a signal flow graph. The gain between the input and the output nodes of a signal flow
graph is nothing but the transfer function of the system. It can be calculated by using
Mason’s gain formula.
Mason’s gain formula is

VTUPulse.com
Where,
 C(s) is the output node

 R(s) is the input node

 T is the transfer function or gain between R(s) and C(s)
th
 Pi is the i forward path gain

Δ=1−(sum of all individual loop gains) +(sum of gain products of all possible
two nontouching loops)−(sum of gain products of all possible three
nontouching loops) +….
Δi is obtained from Δ by removing the loops which are touching the i th forward path.

Consider the following signal flow graph in order to understand the basic terminology
involved here.
 VTUPulse.com
Loop
The path that starts from one node and ends at the same node is known as a loop.
Hence, it is a closed path.
Calculation of Transfer Function using
Mason’s Gain Formula
Let us consider the same signal flow graph for finding transfer function.

 Number of forward paths, N = 2.

 First forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
 First forward path gain, p1=abcde
 Second forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y5→y6
 Second forward path gain, p2=abge
 Number of individual loops, L = 5.

VTUPulse.com
 Number of two non-touching loops = 2.

 First non-touching loops pair is - y2→y3→y2, y4→y5→y4.

 Gain product of first non-touching loops pair l1l4=bjdi
 y2→y3→y2, y5→y5.
Second non-touching loops pair is -
 Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is l1l5=bjf
Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal
flow graph.We know,
VTUPulse.com
 VTUPulse.com

Example-1:
 VTUPulse.com
Example-2:
VTUPulse.com
Example-3:

VTUPulse.com