CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Symbols and Notations

Ac = activity of clay
e = void ratio
n = porosity
Dr = relative density
G = specific gravity of solids (2.67  0.05)
GI = group index
LI = liquidity index
LL = liquid limit
MC = moisture content
PI = plasticity index
PL = plastic limit
S = degree of saturation
V = volume of soil mass
Va = volume of air
Vs = volume of solids
Vw = volume of water
Vv = volume of voids
W = total weight of soil
Ws = weight of solids
Ww = weight of water
dry = dry unit weight
m = unit weight of soil mass
s = unit weight of solids
sat = saturated unit weight
w = unit weight of water

1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Vv
e=
1. Void Ratio, Vs
Vv
n=
2. Porosity, V

3. Relationship between e and n

e n
n= or e=
1+ e 1−n
4. Water content or moisture content, MC or w
Ww
MC or w= x 100 %
Ws
Vw
S= x 100 %
5. Degree of Saturation, Vv

S= 1 or 100% if soil is saturated.

S=0 if the soil is bone dry.

6. Relationship between G, MC, S and e

G x MC =S x e
7. Unit weight or Bulk unit weight of soil mass

2
 W G + Se
γ m= γ m= γw
V 1+ e
G +GMC
γ m= γw
1+ e
8. Dry Unit Weight, S = 0 and MC = 0
Ws G W
γ d= = γ w W s=
V 1+e 1+ MC
γm
γ d=
1+ MC
9. Saturated Unit Weight, S = 1, Vv = Vw
G+ e
γ sat = γ
1+ e w
10. Submerged or Buoyant or Effective Unit Weight
γ b or γ ' =γ sat −γ w
G−1
γ b or γ ' = γ
1+e w
11. Critical Hydraulic Gradient
γ b G−1
i cr = =
γ w 1+e
12. Other Formulas
e V
V v= V V s=
1+e 1+ e
Se Se
V w= V W w= Vγ w
1+ e 1+e
1 G +Se
W s= VG m γ w W = Vγ w
1+ e 1+ e
13. Relative Density of Granular Soils – an index that
quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest state of coarse – grained soils.

3
 emax −e
Dr = x 100
emax −e min
1 1
−

( )
γ d −γ min γ max γ min γd
Dr = =
γ max −γ min γ d 1 1
−
γ min γ max
Designation of Granular Soils
Very loose 0 – 15
Loose 15 – 35
Medium dense 35 – 70
Dense 70 – 85
Very dense 85 – 100
14. Consistency
MC−PL
PI =LL−PL LI =
PI
PI
SI =PL−SL A c=
μ
Where  = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm

Activity Classification
Ac < 0.7 Inactive clay
0.7 < Ac < 1.2 Normal Clay
Ac > 1.2 Active Clay

Liquidity Index Description

LI < 0 Semi-solid
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state
LI > 1 Liquid state

Plasticity Index Description

0 Nonplastic
1–5 Slightly plastic
5 – 10 Low plasticity
10 – 20 Medium plasticity
20 – 40 High plasticity
 40 Very high plasticity
Casagrande Cup Method:

4
Liquid Limit is the water content at which the groove cut
into the soil will close over a distance of 12.5 mm following
25 blows.

Fall Cone Method:

Using an 80-gram cone, the liquid limit is the water content
corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm. The plastic limit
is given as PL = c(2)m, where c is the water content at a
depth of penetration of 1 mm and m is the slope (taken as
positive) of the best fit line.
Using an 80-gram and a 240-g cones, the plastic limit is
2 Δ MC
PL=LL−
M2
log
M1

Cup Method:
MC 1 −MC 2
FI =
log ( N 2 / N 1 )
Flow Index,

One-Point Method:

( )
tan β
N
LL=MC N
25
Shrinkage Limit:
m1 −m2 V 1 −V 2
SL= − ρw
m2 m2

Shrinkage Ratio:
1 m2
SR=
ρw V 2

Specific Gravity of Solids:

5
 1
G=
1 SL
−
SR 100

Consistency Index
LL−MC
CI =
LL−PI
LL PI Potential
Swell
<50 <25 Low
50-60 25-35 Medium
>60 >35 High

15. Dry Unit Weight – Water Content Relationship

Proctor Compaction Test – used to determine the

maximum dry unit weight of a soil.
a) Standard Proctor Test – 9.44x 10-3 m3 volume of
mold with 2.5 kg hammer falling freely from a
height of 305 mm compacted in three layers
with 25 blows.
b) Modified Proctor Test – the hammer is 4.54 kg
and falls freely from a height of 457 mm.

Zero Air Voids Curve – taken from the moisture content –

dry unit weight curve; the curve corresponding to 100%
saturation; also known as saturation line.

Compaction Quality Control

a) Sand Cone Test
b) Balloon Test
c) Nuclear Density Meter

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

6
1. A sample of saturated soil weighs 588 N and has a volume
of 0.03 m3. If the void ratio of the soil is 0.75, determine the
specific gravity of the solids.
2. A clay sample has a unit weight of 21.1 kN/m3 at a
moisture content of 9.8%. When completely saturated with
water, its unit weight is 22.58 kN/m3. Determine the
porosity of the soil.
3. A hand-carved sample of soft saturated clay weighs 350
grams and has a volume of 200 cc. After oven drying, it
weighs 240 grams. Calculate the following: a) moisture
content in percent, b) specific gravity of solids, and c)
porosity in percent.
4. The moist weight of 0.2 ft3 of a soil is 23 lb. The moisture
content and the specific gravity of soil solids are
determined in the laboratory to be 11% and 2.7,
respectively. a) What is the moist unit weight? B) what is
the dry unit weight? C) what is the degree of saturation in
percent?
5. A specimen of sand has a porosity of 45% and the specific
gravity of he solids is 2.71. Compute the specific weight of
this soil in submerged state.
6. A soil sample was compacted. The result of the standard
proctor test shows that at 100% compaction, the soil
weighs 131.1 pcf with optimum moisture content of 14%.
What is the maximum dry unit weight of the soil in pcf? G =
2.67
7. A compacted clay weighing 1.62 kg weighs 0.88 kg when
immersed in water. Determine the bulk specific gravity of
the clay.
8. A soil sample has a moisture content of 30% and a degree
of saturation of 45%. The solids have specific gravity of
2.61. Determine the dry unit weight of the soil in kN/m3.
9. The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
Initial volume of the soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cc
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44 g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g
a) Determine the dry density of the soil in g/cc.
b) Determine the void ratio of the soil.

7
 c) Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.
d) Determine the shrinkage ratio.
e) Determine the specific gravity of the solids.
10. The following data were obtained from the Atterberg Limits
tests for a soil:
LL = 41.0%
PL = 21.1%
a) What is the plasticity index of the soil?
b) If the in situ moisture content of the soil is 30%, what is the
liquidity index of the soil?
c) What would be the nature of the soil?
11. The results of a Standard Proctor Test are as follows:
Water content Weight of moist soil
(%) In proctor mold (g)
10 1 485
12 1 606
14 1 696
16 1 757
18 1 741
20 1 651
The volume of the mold for this test is 1/30 cu. Ft. (946 000
cu. Mm)
a) Determine the maximum dry weight of the soil in g/cc.
b) Determine the optimum moisture content in percent.
c) Plot the zero air void lines.
12. Given the results of the Atterberg Limits Test.
a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.
b) Determine the plastic limit of the soil.
c) Determine the liquidity index.

A. Liquid Limit
Test Number 1 2 3 4
Number of blows 38 29 20 14
Wt of wet soil + 22.47 21.29 21.27 26.12
container in g
Weight of dry soil + 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
container in g
Weight of container 12.74 13.24 13.20 13.27
Weight of water, g

8
Weight of dry soil, g
Water content, %
B. Plastic limit & natural water content
Plastic limit Water content
Test Number 1 2 1 2
Weight of wet soil + 23.20 22.80 17.53 16.97
container, g
Weight of dry soil + 20.42 20.19 14.84 14.36
container, g
Weight of container 12.90 12.95 9.50 9.55
Weight of water, g
Weight of dry soil, g
Water content, %
Average, %

13. The results of a fall cone test are shown below. Determine
the a) liquid limit, b) plastic limit, c) plasticity index, and d)
liquidity index if the natural water content is 46%.

Parameter 80-gram cone

Penetration (mm) 5.5 7.8 14.8 22 32
Water Content (%) 39.0 44.8 52.5 60.3 67

14. An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.5 m in

compacted thickness is to be constructed from a sandy soil
trucked from a borrow pit. The water content of the sandy
soil in the borrow pit is 15% and its void ratio is 0.69. The
specification requires the embankment to be compacted to
a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3. Determine, for 1 km length of
embankment, the following:
a) the weight of sandy soil from the borrow pit required to
construct the embankment;
b) the number 10.0 m3 truckloads of sandy soil required
for the construction;
c) the weight of water per truckload of sandy soil; and
d) the degree of saturation of the sandy soil in situ.
15. An earth dam requires 1 million cubic meters of soil
compacted to a void ratio of 0.80. In the vicinity of the
proposed dam, three borrow pits were identified as having

9
 suitable materials. The cost of purchasing the soil and the
cost of excavation are the same in each borrow pit. The
only cost difference is transportation cost. The table below
provides the void ratio and the transportation cost for each
borrow pit. Which borrow pit is the most economical?
Borrow Pit Void Ratio Transportation Cost P/m3
1 1.8 30.00
2 0.9 50.00
3 1.5 38.00

CHAPTER II: SOIL CLASSIFICATION

A. Textural Classification (USDA)

Sand size: 2.0 – 0.05 mm in diameter
Silt size: 0.05 – 0.002 mm in diameter
Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

B. Unified Soil Classification (USCS)

This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50% passing through the No. 200
sieve. The group symbols start with prefixes G or S, G
for gravel or gravelly soils, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils with 50% or more passing through
the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with the
prefixes M, for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, and O
for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for
peat, muck and other highly organic soils.
Other symbols used:
W – well grade
P – poorly graded
L – low plasticity (LL < 50)
H – high plasticity (LL> 50)
C. AASHTO Classification System

D. Particle-size Distribution Curve (Sieve Analysis)

1. Effective size D10 – the diameter in the curve
corresponding to 10% finer; it is a good measure to

10
 estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage
through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient
D60
C u=
D10

Cu < 4 contains particles of uniform size

Cu = 1 (minimum value) indicates particles of the same

size

Cu > 4 indicates wider assortment of particle sizes

(well-graded and indicated by a flat grading curve)

3. Coefficient of gradation or coefficient of curvature
( D30 )2
C c=
D60 xD 10
4. Sorting Coefficient

So =
√ D75
D25

5. Stokes’s Law: Hydrometer Analysis

The diameter of the particle at time tD is calculated as:

D=
√
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
18 μz
( G s−1 ) γ w t D
1. The results of the sieve analysis is shown below:
a) What is the percentage of the soil retained in No. 200
sieve?
b) What is the effective grain size of the soil in mm?
c) Determine the uniformity coefficient.

11
 Diameter Mass
Sieve No.
(mm) retained (g)
4 4.76 25
8 2.38 80
10 2.00 110
20 0.84 160
40 0.42 180
60 0.25 220
80 0.180 380
100 0.149 590
200 0.074 110
pan 85

2. A soil has the following particle-size distribution:

Gravel = 20%
Sand = 10%
Silt = 30%
Clay = 40%
Classify the soil according to USDA Textural Classification
System.
3. Classify the following soils by AASHTO classification
system.
Description Soil A Soil B Soil C
% finer than #10 sieve 83 100 48
% finer than #40 sieve 48 92 28
% finer than #200 sieve 20 86 6
Liquid limit 20 70 -
Plasticity index 5 32 nonplastic

4. The table below shows he laboratory results of the sieve

analysis of a sample. The soil has a liquid limit of 35% and
plasticity index of 26%. Classify the soil according to a)
USCS b) USDA and c) AASHTO.
Size (mm) Weight retained (g)
0.25 18.96
0.149 33.18
0.074 45.03

12
 0.052 54.51
0.02 42.66
0.01 11.85
0.004 4.74
0.001 4.74
Pan 21.33

CHAPTER III: FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

A. Darcy’s Law
v=ki
v
seepage velocity, v s=
n
i = H/L = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity, m/s
or m/day
n = porosity

The flow of water is Q = kiA

B. Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

1. Constant head Test
VL
k=
tAh
V = volume of water collected in time t
h = constant head
A = cross sectional area of the soil
L = length of soil sample
t = duration of water collection

2. Falling head Test

( )
aL h
k= ln 1
A ( t 2 −t 1 ) h2

a = cross sectional area of the stand pipe

13
 h1 = head at time t1
h2 = head at time t2

C. Effect of Water Temperature on k

kT μ T γ wT
1
= 1 1

kT μ T γ wT
2 2 2

k T ,k T 2
1 = hydraulic conductivities at temperature T1 and T2,
respectively
μT , μT 2
1 = viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively
γ wT , γ wT 2
1 = unit weights of water at temperature T1 and T2,
respectively

NOTE: The viscosity of fluid, which is a function of

temperature, influences the value of k. the
experimental value kToC is corrected to a baseline
temperature of 20oC using:
μ To C
k 20o C =k T o C =k T o C R T
μ 20o C
RT =2. 42−0 . 475 ln(T )

D. Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivity

1. Hazen: For fairly uniform sand
k (cm /sec )=cD 210
Where c = a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5
D10 = the effective size in mm
2. Casagrande: For fine to medium clean sand
k =1. 4 e 2 k 0 . 85
Where k = hydraulic conductivity at void ratio e
k0.85 = k at void ratio of 0.85

14
3. Kozeny-Carman: For sandy soils
e3
k =C1
1+e
Where C1 = a constant
4. Samarasinghe, Huang & Drnevich
en
k =C 2
1+e
Where C2 and n are constants to be determined
experimentally.

5. Taylor
γ W C 1 e3
k =D250
μ 1+ e

E. Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soils

1. Parallel Flow
1
H ( H1 1 H2 2
k H (eq )= k H +k H +⋯+k H H n )
n

2. Normal Flow
H
k V ( eq)=
H1 H2 H
+ +⋯+ n
k v kv2 kvn
1
3. Flow parallel and normal to soil layers
k eq= √ k H ( eq) k V ( eq)

F. Hydraulic of Wells
1. Gravity Wells
πk ( h 2 −h 2 )
2 1
Q=
ln ( R2 / R 1 )
2. Artesian Well
2 π kt ( h 2−h1 )
Q=
ln ( R2 / R 1 )

15
 G. Two-Dimensional Flow of Water Through Soils: Flow Nets
1. Isotropic Flow
Nf
q=kH
Nd
2. Anisotropic Flow
Nf
q=H
Nd
√kx kz
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. The results of a constant head permeability test for a fine
sand sample having a diameter of 150 mm and a length of
300 mm are as follows:
Constant head difference = 500 mm
Time collection of water = 5 min
Volume of water collected = 350 cc
Temperature of water = 24oC
Find the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

2. Find the rate of flow of water through the permeable layer

shown:

4m

Direction of flow
Impervious Layer
8m
k = 0.08 cm/sec
3m
Impervious Layer
50
m
3. For a variable head permeability test, the following values
are given: length of specimen = 380 mm, area of specimen
= 19.4 cm2, and k = 2.92 x 10-3 cm/sec. What should be the

16
 area of the standpipe for the head to drop from 640 to 320
mm in 8 minutes?
4. A soil sample, 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m
long. A constant supply of water is allowed to flow into one
end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a
beaker as shown in the figure. The average amount of
water collected is 1 cc for every 10 seconds. The tube is
inclined as shown.
a) Determine the average velocity of flow through the soil
in cm/s.
b) Determine the seepage velocity in cm/s.
c) Determine the coefficient of permeability of soil in cm/s.
5. A falling head permeability test was run on a soil sample
9.6 cm in diameter and 10 cm long. The head at the start of
the test was 90 cm. The coefficient of permeability of the
soil was found to be 5 x 10-6 cm/s. The diameter of the
stand pipe was 1 cm.
a) Determine the flow at the start of the test in cm3/hr.
b) Determine how much head was lost during the first 30
minutes.
c) Determine the flow after 30 minutes in cm3/hr.
6. A test is set up as shown in the figure. A cylindrical mold 4”
in diameter is filled with silt to a height H1 = 0.2 ft, whose
coefficient of permeability k1 =3.6 x 10-4 ft/min. A second
coaxial mold is placed on top of the first mold whose inside
diameter is d = 1.5” and whose height H2 = 0.30 ft. Its
thickness is negligible. The inside of this second mold is
filled with the same silt, but the annular ring outside the
small tube and outer tube is filled with sand whose
coefficient of permeability k2 = 2.7 x 10-3 ft/min. The test set
up is a permeameter of constant head. Water is placed in
the mold and maintained at a level h = 1.25 ft above the
level of the outlet.
a) What is the total flow water in ft3/min?
b) What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability, kv, in
ft/min?
c) What is the total amount of water that percolated after
55 minutes?

17
7. The hydraulic conductivity of sand at a void ratio of 0.8 is
0.047 cm/sec. Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of this
sand at a void ratio of 0.5. Use Casagrande and Kozeny-
Carman equations.
8. The void ratio and hydraulic conductivity relation for a
normally consolidated clay are given below:
Void Ratio k (cm/sec)
1.2 0.6 x 10-7
1.52 1.519 x 10-7
Estimate the value of k for the same clay with a void ratio
of 1.4.
9. Consider the stratified soil deposit shown in the figure,
where:
a) hydraulic gradients are equal for all layers
b) quantity of flow in each layer is added to make the total
flow q.
Consider 1 unit width, (a) if there are four layers, 3 m thick
each, kH1 = 2 x 10-3, kH2 = 1 x 10-5, kH3 = 2 x 10-4, kH4 = 1 x
10-3 in cm/sec, determine the equivalent coefficient of
permeability in the horizontal direction. (b) if i = 0.70,
determine the total q in cm3/sec.

10. A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in the

figure. Assume flow takes place laterally and vertically
through the sides of the canal and vertically below the
canal. The values of k = kx = kz in each layer are given.
a. What is the equivalent permeability in the horizontal
direction through the sides of the canal, in cm/day.

18
 b. What is the equivalent permeability in the vertical
directions through the sides of the canal, in cm/day.
c. Determine the equivalent permeability in the vertical
directions below the bottom of the canal, in cm/day.

1.0 m k = 2.3x10-5cm/sec
1.5 m k=5.2x10-6 cm/sec 3m
2.0 m -6
k=2x10 cm/sec
1.2 m k=0.3x10-4 cm/sec
3.0 m k=0.3x10-3 cm/sec

CHAPTER IV: STRESSES IN SOILS

A. Total Stress
- Stress due to weight of the soil and the water
B. Pore water pressure (Neutral Stress)
- Stress due to weight of the soil
C. Effective Stress
- Total stress – pore water pressure
TOTAL STRESS = NEUTRAL STRESS + EFFECTIVE
STRESS

D. Effect of capillary rise to soil stress

4 T cosθ
h2 =
dγ w
where T = surface tension = 0.073 N/m (for water)
=0
1 C
h2 α =
d eD 10
Hazen:

E. Effects of Seepage

19
 a) If seepage stresses are in the same direction as the
gravitational effective stress
σ z =γ '+iz γ w
b) If seepage stresses are in the opposite direction to the
gravitational effective stress
σ z =γ '+iz γ w

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A clay layer 4 m thick rests beneath a deposit of
submerged sand 8 m thick. The top of the sand is located
3m below the surface of a lake. The saturated unit weight
of the sand is 25 kN/ cu. M and of clay is 20 kN/cu.m.
Determine the total vertical pressure at mid height of the
clay layer.
2. A clay layer 25 feet thick is overlain with 50 feet thick sand
(G = 2.71). The water table is 20 feet below the sand
(ground) surface. The saturated unit weight of clay is 141
pcf. The sand below the water table has a unit weight of
128 pcf. The sand above the water table has average
moisture content of 20%. After drying, the sand was found
to have a dry unit weight of 92 pcf. Determine the effective
stress at mid-height of the clay layer.
3. The soil shown has a void ratio of 0.50 and G = 2.70, h1 =
1.5 m,h2 = 3 m.
a) What is the effective unit weight of the sand?
b) What is the effective stress at point A in kPa?
c) What is the critical hydraulic gradient of sand (for quick
condition)?

Water h1

h2
A
Sand

20
4. A soil deposit is shown in the figure. The ground water
table, initially at the ground surface, was lowered to a
depth of 25 ft below the ground. After such lowering, the
degree of saturation of the sand above the water table was
lowered to 20%.
a) What is the vertical effective pressure at the midheight
of the clay layer before lowering of the water table?
b) What is the vertical effective pressure at the mid height
of the clay layer after lowering of the water table?
c) What is the vertical effective pressure when there is no
water in the sand layer?

Sand: sat = 135pcf

d = 116 pcf 50 ft

Clay: sat = 120 25 ft

pcf

5. A dense silt layer has the following properties: void ratio =

0.40, effective diameter, D10 = 10 m, capillary constant =
0.20 cm2. Free ground water level is 8.0 m below the
ground surface.
a) Find the height of capillary rise in the silt.
b) Find the effective vertical stress at 5 m depth. Assume
unit weight of solids = 26.5 kN/m3 and that the soil
between the capillary action rise and ground surface is
partially saturated at 50%.
c) Find the vertical effective stress at 10 m depth. Assume
unit weight of solids = 26.5 kN/m3 and that the soil
between the capillary action rise and ground surface is
partially saturated at 50%.
6. Consider the upward flow of water through a layer of sand
in a tank as shown in the figure. For the sand, the following
properties are given: e = 0.40, G = 2.67.

21
 a) Calculate the effective stress at point A.
b) Calculate the effective stress at point B.
c) Calculate the upward seepage force per unit volume of
soil
7. Consider the downward flow of water through the layer of
sand in a tank shown. For the sand, the following
properties are given: e =0.48, G = 2.70.
a) Determine the saturated unit weight of the sand.
b) Determine the effective stress at point A.
c) Determine the effective stress at point B.
Overflow 1.5 m

0.70

1m
Sand
2.0 A

inflow

inflow

0.60
1.2 m
0.80
Sand
2.5 A

outflow
22
 8. For the stressed soil element shown:
a) Calculate the major principal stress.
b) Calculate the minor principal stress.
c) Calculate the normal and shear stress on the plane AC.

150 psi
60 psi

90 psi

60 psi

CHAPTER V: ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION

SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS

Consolidation – the time-dependent settlement of soils resulting

from expulsion of water from the soil pores
Primary Consolidation – the change in volume of a fine-grained
soil caused by expulsion of water from voids and the
transfer of load from the excess porewater pressure to the
soil particles
Secondary Compression – the change in volume of fine-grained
soil caused by the adjustment of the soil fabric (internal
structure) after primary consolidation has been completed.
Excess Porewater Pressure – is the porewater pressure in excess
of the current equilibrium porewater pressure
Drainage Path – the longest vertical path that a water particle will
take to reach the drainage surface

23
Preconsolidation Stress – or past maximum effective stress – the
maximum vertical effective stress that the soil was
subjected to in the past
Normally Consolidated Soil – is one that has never experienced
vertical effective stress greater than its current vertical
effective stress
Overconsolidated Soil – one that has experienced vertical effective
stress greater than its current vertical effective stress
Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR) - the ratio by which the current
vertical effective stress was exceeded in the past
OCR = Preconsolidation Stress/Current Effective Stress
A. Void Ratio and Settlement Changes Under a Constant
Load
Δe
ΔH =H o
1+e o
ΔH
e=eo −
H o (1+e o )
where e = void ratio at the end of the consolidation
eo = initial void ratio of the soil
Ho = initial height of the soil
H = primary consolidation settlement

B. Primary Consolidation Parameters

Coefficient of Compression or Compression Index
e 2−e1
C c=−
( σ ' z)2
log
( σ ' z)1
Skempton:
For remolded clay
Cc = 0.007(LL-7%)
For undisturbed clay:
Cc = 0.009(LL-10%)
Rendon-Herreo:

( )
2. 38
1. 2 1+e o
C c=0. 141 G
G
Nishida: All clays

24
 Cc = 1.15(eo – 0.27)

Recompression Index or Swell Index:

Cs or Cr = (1/5 to 1/10)Cc
Nagaraj and Murty:
LL %
C s =0 . 0463 xG
100
Modulus of Volume Compressibility
eo −e
mv =
Δσ ( 1+ eave )

Hydraulic Conductivity: k = CVmvw

C. Primary Consolidation Settlement
Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils
Ho σ 'f
ΔH = Cc log
1+e o σ 'o
Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils
H σ'
ΔH = Cr log f ; for σ ' f <σ ' c
1+e o σ 'o
’c = preconsolidation stress

( )
H σ' σ'
ΔH = C r log c +C c log f ; for σ ' f >σ ' c
1+e o σ 'o σ 'c

D. One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory

Time Factor:
CV t
T v=
H 2dr

25
 T v= ( )
π U 2
4 100
for U <60 %

T v =1. 781−0 . 933 log(100−U ) for U ≥60 %

where U = average degree of consolidation at any time
Hdr = drainage path
= ½ thickness of the layer for two-way drainage
= thickness of layer for one-way drainage

Time Rate of Consolidation

( H dr ) 2
t =T v
Cv
Coefficient of Consolidation
Root Time Method
0 .848 H 2dr
CV=
t 90
t90 = time for 90% consolidation

Log Time Method

0 .197 H 2dr
CV=
t 50
t50 = time for 50% consolidation

Relationship between Laboratory and Field Consolidation

t field ( H dr ) field
2
=
t lab ( H 2dr )lab
E. Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

()
t2
ΔH =C ' α H log
t1

26
 Cα
C 'α=
1+ e f
Δe
Cα=
log t 2 −logt 1
PROBLEMS:
1. A 2.60-m of dry fill (Gs = 2.62) has relative density of 22%
and 86% before and after compaction, respectively. The
void ratios corresponding to the loosest and densest
conditions are 0.89 and 0.51, respectively.
a. What is the decrease in height of the soil after
compaction?
b. If 0.204 m3 of water is added per cubic meter of soil
after compaction, what is the degree of saturation
at this condition?
c. What is the amount of water required per cubic
meter of soil to fully saturate the compacted soil?
2. The soil profile shown is loaded with a surcharge of 80 kPa
applied at ground level. the clay is normally consolidated.
For the 5 m sand layer overlying the clay, Gs = 2.65 and e
= 0.70.
a. What is the effective pressure at the bottom of the
clay layer before the surcharge is applied?
b. What is the void ratio of the clay after the surcharge
is applied?
c. What is the settlement due to primary consolidation
of the clay layer?
3. Soil investigation on the site gives the following
information. Top soil up to a depth of 10.60 m is fine sand,
and below this lies a layer of soft clay 7.60 m thick. The
water table is at 4.60m below the ground surface. The
submerged unit weight of sand is 10.40 kN/m3 and the
wet unit weight above the water table is 17.60 kN/m3. The
water content of the clay is 40% and its liquid limit is 45%.
Specific gravity of the clay particles is 2.78. The proposed
construction will transmit a net stress of 120 kPa.
a. What is the average consolidation settlement of the
clay layer assuming it is normally consolidated?

27
 b. What is the average consolidation settlement of the
clay layer if the preconsolidation pressure is 310
kPa? Assume the recompression index to be 1/5 of
the compression index.
c. What is the average consolidation settlement of the
clay layer if the preconsolidation pressure is 210
kPa?
4. A normally consolidated clay layer,3mthick, has the
following properties:
Initial Void Ratio = 0.80
Compression index = 0.25
Average effective pressure = 125 kPa
Expected Pressure Increase = 45 kPa
Secondary Compression Index = 0.02
Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5
years
What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after
the completion of the primary consolidation settlement?
5. A surcharge of 120 kPa is applied on the ground surface
of the soil profile shown.
a. How high will the water rise in the piezometer
immediately after the application of the load?
b. What is the degree of consolidation at point D when
h = 6 m?
c. Find h when the degree of consolidation at D is
80%.
6. A 3.2m thick layer of saturated clay under a surcharge
loading underwent 90% primary consolidation in 80 days
with double drainage.
a. Determine the coefficient of consolidation for the
pressure range.
b. For a 10-cm thick specimen of the said clay, how
long will it take to undergo 90% consolidation in the
laboratory for a similar pressure range?
7. Under normal loading condition, a 3.6m thick clay (normally
consolidated) has an initial vertical effective stress of 190
kPa and a void ratio of 1.22. A surcharge of 190 kPa
reduces its void ratio to 0.98. The hydraulic conductivity of
the clay for the loading range is 6.1 x 10-5 m/day.

28
 a. What is the coefficient of volume compressibility of
the clay?
b. What is the coefficient of consolidation of the clay?
c. How long will it take for this clay layer to reach 60%
consolidation if it is drained on one side only?

CHAPTER VI: SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

A. Mohr – Coulomb Failure Criteria

τ =c +σ 'tan φ

B. Laboratory Tests to determine Shear Strength Parameters

1. Shear Box or Direct Shear Tests
Normal Force
σ=
Cross-sectional Area of Specimen
Shear Force
τ=
Cross-sectional Area of Specimen
2. Triaxial Shear test
Axial Stress - 1
Cell Confining Presure - 3
Deviator Stress = 1 - 3
Undrained Condition: Use total stresses
Drained Condition: Remove Porewater Pressure
3. Unconfined Compression Test
Confining Pressure, 3 = 0

PROBLEMS:
1. The results of four drained direct shear tests on an
overconsolidated clay are as follows:
Normal Shear
Test No.
Force, N Force, N
1 120 114
2 220 179
3 320 239
4 420 286
Size of the specimen: 50 mm x 50 mm

29
 Height of the specimen: 25 mm
Determine the cohesion and angle of internal friction.
2. A direct shear test is performed on a specimen of dry sand.
The shear box is circular in cross section with a diameter of
50 mm. The normal force imposed on the specimen is 250
N. The specimen failed at a shear force of 150 N.
Determine the angle of internal friction of this sand.
3. In a triaxial test, a specimen of saturated (normally
consolidated) clay was on a consolidated under a chamber
confining pressure of 90 kPa. The axial stress on the
specimen is then increased allowing drainage from the
specimen. The specimen fails when the deviator stress is
60 kPa. The pore water pressure at that time was 40 kPa.
What is the consolidated (a) undrained, and (b) drained
friction angle.
4. A triaxial test on a saturated soil has the following results:
Cell Pressure Deviator Stress Pore Pressure
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
200 119 142.5
400 143 275.5
600 178 396
a) Determine the drained angle of internal friction.
b) Determine the cohesion of the soil in drained condition.

CHAPTER VII: LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

A. Earth Pressure at Rest

σh
K o= =1−sin φ
σv
For dense sand backfill:

( )
γd
K o =( 1+sin φ ) + −1 5. 5
γ d min
For fine-grained normally consolidated soils:

K o =0. 44 +0 . 42 (100
PI %
)
For Overconsolidated Clays:

30
 K o (overconsolidated )=K o( normallyconsolidated ) √OCR

B. Rankine’s Theory
Coefficient of active Pressure

cos i−√ cos2 i−cos2 φ

K a= cos i
cos i+ √cos 2 i−cos 2 φ

Coefficient of Passive Pressure

cos i+ √cos 2 i−cos 2 φ
K a= cos i
cos i−√ cos2 i−cos2 φ
C. Coulomb’s Theory
Coefficient of Active Pressure

cos 2 ( φ−β )
K a=

[ √ ]
2
2 sin ( φ+ δ ) sin ( φ−i )
cos β cos ( β+ δ ) 1+
cos ( β +δ ) cos ( β−i )
Coefficient of Passive Pressure
cos 2 ( φ+ β )
K a=

[ √ ]
2
sin ( φ+δ ) sin ( φ+i )
cos 2 β cos ( β−δ ) 1+
cos ( β−δ ) cos ( β−i )

where  = angle of friction

 = inclination of wall
 = coefficient of friction between wall and soil
i = angle of inclination of backfill

PROBLEMS

31
1. A 5-m tall cantilever retaining wall retains soil having the
following properties: c = 0;  = 19.8 kN/m3 and  = 30o. The
ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3
horizontal to 1 vertical, and the wall has moved sufficiently
to develop the active condition. Use Rankine’s Theory and
consider 1 m length of wall.
a) Determine the coefficient of active pressure.
b) Determine the total active force.
c) Determine the overturning moment on the wall.
2. A 3-m high vertical retaining wall is shown in the figure.
a) What is the effective vertical stress at the base of the
wall?
b) What is the total active force acting on the wall?
c) What is the total overturning moment in the wall?
3. A retaining wall 8 m high supports a cohesionless soil
having a dry density of 1600 kg/m3, angle of shearing
resistance is 33o and void ratio of 0.68. The surface of the
soil is horizontal and level with the top of the wall. Neglect
wall friction and use Rankine’s Formula for active pressure
of a cohesionless soil.
a) Determine the total earth thrust on the wall in kN per
linear meter if the soil is dry.
b) Dtermine the thrust on the wall in kN per lineal meter if
owing to inadequate drainage, it is water clogged to a
level 3.5 m below the surface.
c) Determine the height above the base of the wall where
the thrust acts during the water clogged condition.
4. A frictionless retaining wall is shown in the figure. Consider
1 m length of the wall.
a) Determine the total horizontal passive pressure on the
backfill at the bottom of the wall.
b) Determine the passive resistance on the backfill.
c) Determine the location of the resultant passive force
from the bottom of the wall.
5. A retaining wall is shown in the figure.
a) Determine the total active pressure before tensile crack
occurs.
b) Determine the total active pressure after the tensile
crack occurs.

32
 6. Analyze the stability of the frictionless wall shown.
7. A solid concrete retaining wall is shown in the figure. The
fill behind the wall has a unit weight of 110 pcf whose
active soil pressure may be assumed equivalent to a fluid
pressure of 30 psf per foot. The passive pressures may be
assumed equivalent to a fluid pressure of 300 psf per foot.
The live load surcharge behind the wall is equivalent to an
additional 2 ft of fill. Assume unit weight of concrete is 150
pcf. Consider 1 ft length of wall.
a) Determine the total active pressure acting on the wall in
lbs.
b) Determine the overturning moment about the toe in ft –
lb.
c) Determine the factor of safety against overturning.
8. A sheet pile is shown in the figure.
a) Determine the minimum value of embedment depth d
for stability, in meters.
b) Using the minimum value of d, determine the tension in
the tie rod per meter length of pile.

CHAPTER VIII: BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS

Foundation – a structure that transmits loads to the underlying

soils
Footing – a foundation consisting of a small slab for transmitting
the structural load to the underlying soil. Footings can be
individual slabs supporting single columns or combined to
support two or more columns, or be a long strip of concrete
slab supporting a load bearing wall, or a mat.
Embedment depth – depth below the ground surface where the
base of the foundation rests.
Shallow foundation – one in which the ratio embedment depth to
the minimum plan dimension is less than or equal to 2.5
Ultimate bearing capacity – the maximum pressure that the soil
can support
Ultimate net bearing capacity, qu’ – the maximum pressure that
the soil can support above its current overburden pressure

33
Ultimate gross baring capacity, qu – the sum of the ultimate net
bearing capacity and the overburden pressure above the
footing base.
Allowable bearing capacity or safe bearing capacity – the
working pressure that would ensure a margin of safety
against collapse of the structure from shear failure.
Factor of safety or safety factor – ratio of the ultimate net
bearing capacity to the allowable net bearing capacity or to
the applied maximum net vertical stress
Ultimate limit state – defines a limiting stress or force that should
not be exceeded by any conceivable or anticipated loading
during the design lie of a foundation or any geotechnical
system
Serviceability limit state – defines a limiting deformation or
settlement of the foundation, which, if exceeded, will impair
the function of the structure that it supports

Failure Mechanisms of Footings:

1. Dense soils fail suddenly along well-defined slip planes
resulting to a general shear failure.
2. Loose soils do not fail suddenly and the slip planes are not
well-defined, resulting in a local shear failure.
3. Very loose soils can fail by punching shear.
4. More settlement is expected in loose soils than in dense
soils.
5. The expected failure surface for general shear failure
consists of a rigid wedge of soil trapped beneath the
footing bordering radial shear zones under Rankin passive
zones.

Bearing Capacity Equations:

A. Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Equations:
Assumptions:
1. Depth of foundation is less than or equal to its width.
2. No sliding occurs between the foundation and the soil.
3. Soil beneath the foundation is homogenous, semi-
infinite mass.
4. Mohr-Coulomb model for soil.
5. General shear failure mode is the governing mode.

34
 6. No soil consolidation occurs.
7. Foundation is very rigid relative to the soil.
8. Soil above bottom of foundation has no shear strength;
is only a surcharge load against overturning.
9. Applied load is compressive and applied vertically to
the centroid of the foundation.
10. No applied moments present.

Long Footings:
q u =cN c +σ D N q +0. 5 γ ' BN γ
Square Footings:
q u =1. 3 cN c +σ D N q +0. 4 γ ' BN γ
Circular Footings:
q u =cN c +σ D N q +0. 5 γ ' BN γ

NOTE: For local shear failure, it may be assumed that

2
c̄= c
3 ¿
2
tan { φ̄= tan φ
3
B. Meyerhof’s Equation:
q u =cN c s c d c ic +σN q s q d q iq +0. 5 N γ s γ d γ iγ
Bearing Capacity Factors;

(
N q =e π tan φ tan 2 45o +
φ
2 )
N c =( N q−1 ) cot φ
N γ =( N q −1 ) tan ( 1. 4 φ )
Shape, and Depth Factors
For  = 0

35
 B
sc =1+0 . 2
L
sq =s γ =1 . 0
Df
d c =1+0 . 2
B
d q =d γ =1 . 0
For   10o
B
sc =1+0 . 2 K p
L
B
sq =s γ =1 . 0+0 .10 K p
L
Df
d c =1+0 . 2 √ K a
B
Df
d q =d γ =1 . 0+0 .10 √ K p
B
Load Inclination Factors:
2

(
i c= iq = 1−
α
90 o )
where
(
K p =tan2 45 o +
φ
2 )
 = angle of resultant load measure from the
vertical axis.

PROBLEMS:
1. A footing 6 m square carries a total load, including its own
weight, of 10,000 kN. The base of the footing is at a depth
of 3 m below the ground surface. The soil strata at the site
consist of a layer of stiff saturated clay 27.5 m thick
overlying dense sand. The average bulk density of the clay
is 1 920 kg/m3 and its average shear strength determined
from undrained triaxial shear test is 130 kN/m2 and  = 0.
Use Terzaghi’s equation:
a. Determine the gross foundation pressure in kPa.

36
 b. Determine the net foundation pressure.
c. Calculate the factor of safety of the foundation
against complete shear failure under the undrained
condition (both gross and net) Side cohesion of the
foundation may be neglected.
2. A soil has the following properties:
Unit weight,  = 19.2 kN/m3
Cohesion, c = 50 kPa
Angle of friction,  = 10o
Assume local shear failure and using Terzaghi’s equation:
a. Calculate the net bearing capacity for the strip
footing of width 1.25 m at a depth of 4.5 m.
b. Considering shear failure only, calculate the safe
bearing pressure on a footing 6 m long by 1.25 m
wide using a load factor of 2.5.
c. What is the safe total load of the footing?

CHAPTER IX: PILES AND DEEP FOUNDATION

Displacement pile – a pile that displaces a large volume of soil;

driven piles with solid sections are displacement piles.
Nondisplacement pile – a pile that displaces only a small volume
of soil relative to its external volume; steel H-piles,and
open ended pipe piles are nondisplacement piles
Pile – a slender, structural member consisting of steel, concrete or
timber
Skin friction stress or shaft friction stress or adhesive stress,
fs – the frictional or adhesive stress on the shaft of the pile
End bearing stress or point resistance stress, f b – the stress at
the base or tip of a pile
Ultimate load capacity – the maximum load that a pile can
sustain before soil failure occurs
Ultimate group load capacity – the maximum load that a group
of piles can sustain before soil failure occurs
Skin friction or shaft friction or side shear, Q f – the frictional
force generated on the shaft of a pile
End bearing or point resistance, Q b – the resistance generated
at the base or tip of a pile

37
End bearing or point bearing pile – one that transfers almost all
the structural load to the soil at the bottom end of the pile
Friction pile – one that transfers almost all the structural load to
the soil by skin friction along a substantial length of the pile
Floating pile – a friction pile in which the end bearing resistance
is neglected

A. Load Capacity of a Single Pile

Q ult =Q f +Q b
Q ult
Qa=
FS
Methods of Determining Load Capacity
1. Pile Load Test
a) Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) Test
The load is applied at a constant rate of penetration of
0.75 mm/min in fine-grained soils and 1.5 mm/min in
coarse – grained soils.
b) Quick Maintained Load (QML)
Increments of load, about 15% of the design load, are
applied at intervals of about 2.5 m. At the end of each
load increment, the load and settlement are recorded.
2. Methods of Statics
a)  - Method
j
Q f =∑ ( α u ) i ( s u )i x( Perimeter ) x ( Length )
i=1
su
α u =0 .55 for ≤1. 5
pa

( )
su s
α u =0 .55−0 .1 −1 .5 for 1. 5< u ≤2. 5
pa pa
where pa = atmospheric pressure

Qb =f b A b =N c ( su )b A b
where Nc = 9 for driven piles
su is the undrained shear strength of the soil
at the base of the pile (within 2 pile diameters below

38
 the tip of the pile; if su < 25 kPa, the value of Nc must be
reduced by one-third.

3.  - Method
j
Q f =∑ β i ( σ z ) i x( Perimeter ) x ( Length )
i=1
β=( 1−sin φ 'cs ) ( OCR )0. 5 tan φ'i

β=0.11(OCR )+0.24 ; PI=20 %, β≤2

β=0.13(OCR)+0.17 ; PI=60 % β≤2

Qb =N q ( σ ' z )b A b
2
N q =( tan φ ' + √1+tan2 φ' ) exp ( 2ψ p tan φ ' )
π
ψ p≤ for soft, fine-grained soils to
3
ψ p ≤0.58 π for dense, coarse-grained soils and over
consolidated fine-grained soils
PROBLEMS:
1. A 0.36-m square prestressed concrete pile I to be driven in
a clayey soil with the following properties:
Undrained shear strength = 111 kPa
Unit weight = 18.5 kN/m3
a) Compute the end bearing capacity of the pile if Nc = 9.
b) Compute the skin friction expected to develop along
the shaft of the pile.
c) Compute the length of the pile if frictional constant  =
0.76.

39
2. The pile group consists of as piles, each 0.40 m in
diameter, arranged in a 3 x 4 matrix. The pile penetrates a
soft clay (L1 = 2 m, su1 = 20 kPa), a medium dense clay (L2
= 6 m, su2 = 60 kPa), and a stiff clay (L3 = 4 m, su3 = 95
kPa). Assume Nc = 9 and use  = 1 for soft and medium
dense clay,  = 0.50 for stiff clay.
a) Determine the capacity of the pile group based on
single pile failure mode.
b) Determine the capacity of the pile group based on
block failure mode.
c) Compute the maximum center to center spacing of the
piles for 100% efficiency .

40