Standard Mathematical Symbols

Symb Name
ol Read as
Explanation Examples
in
TEX
equality
x = y means x and y represent the 2=2
is equal to; same thing or value. 1+1=2
equals
inequality
x ≠ y means that x and y do not
represent the same thing or value. 2+2≠5
is not equal to;
does not equal
strict inequality
x < y means x is less than y.
3<4
is less than, 5>4
x > y means x is greater than y.
is greater than
proper subgroup
H < G means H is a proper 5Z < Z
is a proper subgroup of G. A3 < S3
subgroup of
(very) strict
inequality
x ≪ y means x is much less than y.
is much less 0.003 ≪ 1000000
x ≫ y means x is much greater than
than,
y.
is much greater
than
asymptotic
f ≪ g means the growth of f is
comparison
asymptotically bounded by g.
is of smaller x ≪ ex
(This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation.
order than,
Another notation is the Big O
is of greater
notation, which looks like f = O(g).)
order than
inequality x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to
y.
is less than or 3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
equal to, x ≥ y means x is greater than or 5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
is greater than or equal to y.
equal to
subgroup Z≤Z
H ≤ G means H is a subgroup of G.
A3 ≤ S3
is a subgroup of
If
A ≤ B means the problem A can be
reduction
reduced to the problem B.
Subscripts can be added to the ≤ to
is reducible to then
indicate what kind of reduction.

Karp reduction

is Karp reducible
L1 ≺ L2 means that the problem L1
to; If L1 ≺ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
is Karp reducible to L2.[1]
is polynomial-
time many-one
reducible to
proportionality
y ∝ x means that y = kx for some
is proportional if y = 2x, then y ∝ x.
constant k.
to;
varies as
Karp reduction[2]

is Karp reducible A ∝ B means the problem A can be

to; polynomially reduced to the If L1 ∝ L2 and L2 ∈ P, then L1 ∈ P.
is polynomial- problem B.
time many-one
reducible to
addition
4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9
plus;
add
disjoint union
A = {3, 4, 5, 6} ∧ A2 = {7, 8, 9, 10} ⇒
A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of 1
the disjoint A1 + A2 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (6,1), (7,2),
sets A1 and A2.
union of ... and (8,2), (9,2), (10,2)}
...
subtraction
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4
minus; 8−3=5
from 9.
take;
subtract
negative sign
−3 means the negative of the
−(−5) = 5
negative; number 3.
minus;
 the opposite of
set-theoretic A − B means the set that contains all
complement the elements of A that are not in B.
{1,2,4} − {1,3,4} = {2}
minus; (∖ can also be used for set-theoretic
without complement as described below.)
plus-minus
The equation x = 5 ± √4, has two
6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 − 3.
solutions, x = 7 and x = 3.
plus or minus
plus-minus 10 ± 2 or equivalently 10 ± 20%
If a = 100 ± 1 mm, then a ≥ 99 mm and
means the range from 10 − 2 to 10 +
a ≤ 101 mm.
plus or minus 2.
minus-plus
6 ± (3 ∓ 5) means both 6 + (3 − 5)
cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y).
and 6 − (3 + 5).
minus or plus
multiplication
3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3
7 × 8 = 56
times; by 4.
multiplied by
Cartesian
product
X×Y means the set of all ordered
the Cartesian
pairs with the first element of each
product of ... and {1,2} × {3,4} = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}
pair selected from X and the second
...;
element selected from Y.
the direct
product of ... and
...
cross product
u × v means the cross product of (1,2,5) × (3,4,−1) =
vectors u and v (−22, 16, − 2)
cross
R× consists of the set of units of the
group of units ring R, along with the operation of
multiplication.
the group of
units of This may also be written R* as
described below, or U(R).
a * b means the product of a and b.
multiplication
4 * 3 means the product of 4 and 3, or
(Multiplication can also be denoted
times; 12.
with × or ⋅, or even simple
multiplied by
juxtaposition.
convolution
f * g means the convolution of f and
g. .
convolution;
convolved with
z* means the complex conjugate of
complex
z.
conjugate
.
( can also be used for the
conjugate
conjugate of z, as described below.)
R* consists of the set of units of the
group of units ring R, along with the operation of
multiplication.
the group of
units of This may also be written R× as
described above, or U(R).
hyperreal
numbers *R means the set of hyperreal
numbers. Other sets can be used in *N is the hypernatural numbers.
the (set of) place of R.
hyperreals
*v means the Hodge dual of a
Hodge dual
vector v. If v is a k-vector within an
If are the standard basis vectors of
n-dimensional oriented inner
Hodge dual; ,
product space, then *v is an (n−k)-
Hodge star
vector.
multiplication
3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3
7 · 8 = 56
times; by 4.
multiplied by
dot product
u · v means the dot product of
(1,2,5) · (3,4,−1) = 6
vectors u and v
dot
placeholder
A · means a placeholder for an
argument of a function.
(silent)
tensor product, means the tensor product of
tensor product of V and U.
{1, 2, 3, 4} ⊗ {1, 1, 2} =
modules
{{1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, {2, 4, 6, 8}}
means the tensor product
tensor product of of modules V and U over the ring R.
division
(Obelus) 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5
6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of
6 by 3.
divided by; 12 ⁄ 4 = 3
over
quotient group
G / H means the quotient of group {0, a, 2a, b, b+a, b+2a} / {0, b} = {{0,
G modulo its subgroup H. b}, {a, b+a}, {2a, b+2a}}
mod
quotient set If we define ~ by x ~ y ⇔ x − y ∈ ℤ,
A/~ means the set of all ~
then
equivalence classes in A.
mod ℝ/~ = { {x + n : n ∈ ℤ } : x ∈ [0,1) }
square root
means the nonnegative number
the (principal) whose square is .
square root of
complex square if is represented
root in polar coordinates with
, then
the (complex)
square root of .
mean
(often read as “x bar”) is the mean
overbar; (average value of ). .
… bar
complex means the complex conjugate of z.
conjugate
(z* can also be used for the .
conjugate conjugate of z, as described above.)
algebraic closure The field of algebraic numbers is
is the algebraic closure of the sometimes denoted as because it is the
algebraic closure field F. algebraic closure of the rational numbers
of .
topological is the topological closure of the
closure set S. In the space of the real numbers,
(the rational numbers are dense in the
(topological) This may also be denoted as cl(S) or real numbers).
closure of Cl(S).
|3| = 3
absolute value;
modulus |x| means the distance along the real |–5| = |5| = 5
line (or across the complex plane)
absolute value between x and zero. |i|=1
of; modulus of
| 3 + 4i | = 5
Euclidean norm
or Euclidean
length or
|x| means the (Euclidean) length of For x = (3,-4)
magnitude
vector x.
Euclidean norm
of
determinant
|A| means the determinant of the
matrix A
determinant of
cardinality |X| means the cardinality of the set
X.
cardinality of; |{3, 5, 7, 9}| = 4.
size of; (# may be used instead as described
order of below.)
norm
|| x || means the norm of the element
|| x + y || ≤ || x || + || y ||
norm of; x of a normed vector space.
length of
nearest integer ||x|| means the nearest integer to x.
function ||1|| = 1, ||1.6|| = 2, ||−2.4|| = −2, ||3.49|| =
(This may also be written [x], ⌊x⌉, 3
nearest integer to nint(x) or Round(x).)
divisor, divides
a|b means a divides b. Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that 3|15 and
a∤b means a does not divide b. 5|15.
divides
conditional
P(A|B) means the probability of the
probability if X is a uniformly random day of the
event a occurring given that b
year P(X is May 25 | X is in May) = 1/31
occurs.
given
restriction
f|A means the function f restricted to
the set A, that is, it is the function The function f : R → R defined by f(x) =
restriction of …
with domain A ∩ dom(f) that agrees x2 is not injective, but f|R+ is injective.
to …;
with f.
restricted to
such that
S = {(x,y) | 0 < y < f(x)}
| means “such that”, see ":"
The set of (x,y) such that y is greater
such that; (described below).
than 0 and less than f(x).
so that
parallel
x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.
is parallel to
incomparability
x || y means x is incomparable to y. {1,2} || {2,3} under set containment.
is incomparable
to
exact divisibility
pa || n means pa exactly divides n
23 || 360.
(i.e. pa divides n but pa+1 does not).
exactly divides
cardinality #X means the cardinality of the set
#{4, 6, 8} = 3
X.
 cardinality of;
size of; (|…| may be used instead as
order of described above.)
connected sum
A#B is the connected sum of the
connected sum manifolds A and B. If A and B are
A#Sm is homeomorphic to A, for any
of; knots, then this denotes the knot
manifold A, and the sphere Sm.
knot sum of; sum, which has a slightly stronger
knot condition.
composition of
primorial
n# is product of all prime numbers
12# = 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 11 = 2310
less than or equal to n.
primorial
aleph number ℵα represents an infinite cardinality
(specifically, the α-th one, where α |ℕ| = ℵ0, which is called aleph-null.
aleph is an ordinal).
ℶα represents an infinite cardinality
beth number
(similar to ℵ, but ℶ does not
necessarily index all of the numbers
beth
indexed by ℵ. ).
cardinality of the
continuum
The cardinality of is denoted by
cardinality of the
continuum; or by the symbol (a lowercase
c; Fraktur letter C).
cardinality of the
real numbers
such that
: means “such that”, and is used in
proofs and the set-builder notation ∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
such that;
(described below).
so that
field extension K : F means the field K extends the
field F.
ℝ:ℚ
extends;
over This may also be written as K ≥ F.
A : B means the Frobenius inner
product of the matrices A and B.
inner product of
The general inner product is
matrices
denoted by ⟨u, v⟩, ⟨u | v⟩ or (u | v),
as described below. For spatial
inner product of
vectors, the dot product notation,
x·y is common. See also Bra-ket
notation.
index of a
The index of a subgroup H in a
subgroup
group G is the "relative size" of H
in G: equivalently, the number of
index of
"copies" (cosets) of H that fill up G
subgroup
factorial
n! means the product 1 × 2 × ... × n. 4! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24
factorial
The statement !A is true if and only
logical negation
if A is false.
!(!A) ⇔ A
not
A slash placed through another x ≠ y ⇔ !(x = y)
operator is the same as "!" placed in
front.
probability
distribution X ~ D, means the random variable X X ~ N(0,1), the standard normal
has the probability distribution D. distribution
has distribution
row equivalence
A~B means that B can be generated
by using a series of elementary row
is row equivalent
operations on A
to
m ~ n means the quantities m and n
same order of
have the same order of magnitude, 2 ~ 5
magnitude
or general size.
8 × 9 ~ 100
roughly similar;
(Note that ~ is used for an
poorly
approximation that is poor, but π2 ≈ 10
approximates
otherwise use ≈ .)
asymptotically
equivalent
x ~ x+1
f ~ g means .
is asymptotically
equivalent to
equivalence
relation
a ~ b means (and equivalently
1 ~ 5 mod 4
are in the same ).
equivalence
class
approximately x ≈ y means x is approximately
equal equal to y.
π ≈ 3.14159
is approximately This may also be written ≃, ≅, ~, ♎
equal to (Libra Symbol), or ≒.
isomorphism G ≈ H means that group G is Q / {1, −1} ≈ V,
isomorphic (structurally identical) where Q is the quaternion group and V is
is isomorphic to to group H. the Klein four-group.
wreath product A ≀ H means the wreath product of
is isomorphic to the
the group A by the group H.
automorphism group of the complete
wreath product
bipartite graph on (n,n) vertices.
of … by … This may also be written A wr H.
normal subgroup
N ◅ G means that N is a normal
Z(G) ◅ G
is a normal subgroup of group G.
subgroup of
ideal
I ◅ R means that I is an ideal of ring
(2) ◅ Z
R.
is an ideal of
R ▻ S means the antijoin of the
antijoin relations R and S, the tuples in R for
which there is not a tuple in S that is R S = R - R S
the antijoin of equal on their common attribute
names.
semidirect N ⋊φ H is the semidirect product of
product N (a normal subgroup) and H (a
subgroup), with respect to φ. Also,
the semidirect if G = N ⋊φ H, then G is said to
product of split over N.
semijoin R ⋉ S is the semijoin of the
relations R and S, the set of all
the semijoin of tuples in R for which there is a tuple R S = a1,..,an(R S)
in S that is equal on their common
attribute names.
R ⋈ S is the natural join of the
natural join
relations R and S, the set of all
combinations of tuples in R and S
the natural join
that are equal on their common
of
attribute names.
therefore
Sometimes used in proofs before All humans are mortal. Socrates is a
therefore;
logical consequences. human. ∴ Socrates is mortal.
so;
hence
because
Sometimes used in proofs before 3331 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer
because; reasoning. factors other than itself and one.
since
end of proof Used to mark the end of a proof.
 QED; (May also be written Q.E.D.)
tombstone;
Halmos symbol
It is the generalisation of the
D'Alembertian Laplace operator in the sense that it
is the differential operator which is
non-Euclidean invariant under the isometry group
Laplacian of the underlying space and it
reduces to the Laplace operator if
restricted to time independent
functions.
A ⇒ B means if A is true then B is
also true; if A is false then nothing
material is said about B.
implication
(→ may mean the same as ⇒, or it x = 2 ⇒ x2 = 4 is true, but x2 = 4 ⇒ x
implies; may have the meaning for functions = 2 is in general false (since x could be
if … then given below.) −2).

(⊃ may mean the same as ⇒ or it

may have the meaning for superset
given below.)
material
equivalence
A ⇔ B means A is true if B is true
x+5=y+2 ⇔ x+3=y
and A is false if B is false.
if and only if;
iff
The statement ¬A is true if and only
logical negation
if A is false.
¬(¬A) ⇔ A
not
A slash placed through another x ≠ y ⇔ ¬(x = y)
operator is the same as "¬" placed
in front.
logical
conjunction
The statement A ∧ B is true if A and
B are both true; else it is false.
or meet in a
n < 4 ∧ n >2 ⇔ n = 3 when n is a
lattice
For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∧ natural number.
B(x) is used to mean min(A(x),
and;
B(x)).
min;
meet
wedge product u ∧ v means the wedge product of
vectors u and v. This generalizes
wedge product; the cross product to higher
exterior product dimensions.
 (For vectors in R3, × can also be
used.)
exponentiation
a ^ b means a raised to the power of
2^3 = 23 = 8
… (raised) to the b
power of …
logical The statement A ∨ B is true if A or B
disjunction or (or both) are true; if both are false,
join in a lattice the statement is false.
n ≥ 4 ∨ n ≤ 2 ⇔ n ≠ 3 when n is a
natural number.
or; For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) ∨
max; B(x) is used to mean max(A(x),
join B(x)).
exclusive or The statement A ⊕ B is true when
(¬A) ⊕ A is always true, A ⊕ A is
either A or B, but not both, are true.
always false.
xor A ⊻ B means the same.
Most commonly, for vector spaces U, V,
direct sum The direct sum is a special way of and W, the following consequence is
combining several objects into one used:
direct sum of general object. U = V ⊕ W ⇔ (U = V + W) ∧ (V ∩ W =
{0})
universal
quantification
∀ x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all
∀ n ∈ ℕ: n2 ≥ n.
for all; x.
for any;
for each
existential
quantification
∃ x: P(x) means there is at least one
∃ n ∈ ℕ: n is even.
there exists; x such that P(x) is true.
there is;
there are
uniqueness
quantification
∃! x: P(x) means there is exactly
∃! n ∈ ℕ: n + 5 = 2n.
one x such that P(x) is true.
there exists
exactly one
x := y, y =: x or x ≡ y means x is
definition
defined to be another name for y,
under certain assumptions taken in
is defined as;
context.
is equal by
definition to
(Some writers use ≡ to mean
 congruence).

P :⇔ Q means P is defined to be
logically equivalent to Q.

congruence △ABC ≅ △DEF means triangle

ABC is congruent to (has the same
is congruent to measurements as) triangle DEF.
isomorphic G ≅ H means that group G is
isomorphic (structurally identical) .
is isomorphic to to group H.
congruence
relation
a ≡ b (mod n) means a − b is
5 ≡ 2 (mod 3)
divisible by n
... is congruent
to ... modulo ...
set brackets
{a,b,c} means the set consisting of
ℕ = { 1, 2, 3, …}
a, b, and c.[6]
the set of …
set builder
notation {x : P(x)} means the set of all x for
which P(x) is true.[6] {x | P(x)} is {n ∈ ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
the set of … the same as {x : P(x)}.
such that

empty set
∅ means the set with no elements.[6]
{n ∈ ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
{ } means the same.
the empty set

set membership
a ∈ S means a is an element of the (1/2)−1 ∈ ℕ
is an element of; set S;[6] a ∉ S means a is not an
is not an element element of S.[6] 2−1 ∉ ℕ
of
(subset) A ⊆ B means every element
of A is also an element of B.[7]
(A ∩ B) ⊆ A
subset
(proper subset) A ⊂ B means A ⊆ B
ℕ⊂ℚ
but A ≠ B.
is a subset of
ℚ⊂ℝ
(Some writers use the symbol ⊂ as
if it were the same as ⊆.)
 A ⊇ B means every element of B is
also an element of A.
superset (A ∪ B) ⊇ B
A ⊃ B means A ⊇ B but A ≠ B.
is a superset of ℝ⊃ℚ
(Some writers use the symbol ⊃ as
if it were the same as ⊇.)
set-theoretic
union
A ∪ B means the set of those
elements which are either in A, or in A ⊆ B ⇔ (A ∪ B) = B
the union of …
B, or in both.
or …;
union
set-theoretic
intersection A ∩ B means the set that contains
all those elements that A and B have {x ∈ ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
intersected with; in common.
intersect
symmetric A ∆ B means the set of elements in
difference exactly one of A or B.
{1,5,6,8} ∆ {2,5,8} = {1,2,6}
symmetric (Not to be confused with delta, Δ,
difference described below.)
set-theoretic
complement A ∖ B means the set that contains all
those elements of A that are not in {1,2,3,4} ∖ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2}
minus; B.[7]
without
function arrow
f: X → Y means the function f maps Let f: ℤ → ℕ∪{0} be defined by f(x) :=
the set X into the set Y. x2.
from … to
function arrow
f: a ↦ b means the function f maps
Let f: x ↦ x+1 (the successor function).
the element a to the element b.
maps to
function
composition f∘g is the function, such that (f∘g)(x) if f(x) := 2x, and g(x) := x + 3, then
= f(g(x)).[8] (f∘g)(x) = 2(x + 3).
composed with
natural numbers
N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or
N; ℕ = {|a| : a ∈ ℤ} or ℕ = {|a| > 0: a ∈ ℤ}
{ 1, 2, 3, ...}.
the (set of)
natural numbers
integers
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ℤ = {p, −p : p ∈ ℕ ∪ {0}}
 Z; ...}.
the (set of)
integers ℤ+ or ℤ> means {1, 2, 3, ...} . ℤ* or
ℤ≥ means {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .
integers mod n
ℤn means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n−1]}
Zn;
with addition and multiplication ℤ3 = {[0], [1], [2]}
the (set of)
modulo n.
integers modulo
n
p-adic integers

the (set of) p- Note that any letter may be used

adic integers instead of p, such as n or l.
projective space

P;
the projective
ℙ means a space with a point at
space; ,
infinity.
the projective
line;
the projective
plane
ℙ(X) means the probability of the
probability
event X occurring.
If a fair coin is flipped, ℙ(Heads) =
the probability ℙ(Tails) = 0.5.
This may also be written as P(X),
of
Pr(X), P[X] or Pr[X].
rational numbers

Q; 3.14000... ∈ ℚ
the (set of) ℚ means {p/q : p ∈ ℤ, q ∈ ℕ}.
rational π∉ℚ
numbers;
the rationals
real numbers
π∈ℝ
R;
ℝ means the set of real numbers.
the (set of) real
√(−1) ∉ ℝ
numbers;
the reals
complex
numbers
ℂ means {a + b i : a,b ∈ ℝ}. i = √(−1) ∈ ℂ
C;
the (set of)
 complex
numbers
quaternions or
Hamiltonian
quaternions
ℍ means {a + b i + c j + d k :
a,b,c,d ∈ ℝ}.
H;
the (set of)
quaternions
The Big O notation describes the
Big O notation If f(x) = 6x4 − 2x3 + 5 and g(x) = x4 ,
limiting behavior of a function,
when the argument tends towards a then
big-oh of
particular value or infinity.
∞ is an element of the extended
infinity
number line that is greater than all
real numbers; it often occurs in
infinity
limits.
⌊x⌋ means the floor of x, i.e. the
floor
largest integer less than or equal to
x.
floor; ⌊4⌋ = 4, ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊2.9⌋ = 2, ⌊−2.6⌋ = −3
greatest integer;
(This may also be written [x],
entier
floor(x) or int(x).)
⌈x⌉ means the ceiling of x, i.e. the
smallest integer greater than or
ceiling
equal to x.
⌈4⌉ = 4, ⌈2.1⌉ = 3, ⌈2.9⌉ = 3, ⌈−2.6⌉ = −2
ceiling
(This may also be written ceil(x) or
ceiling(x).)
nearest integer ⌊x⌉ means the nearest integer to x.
function
⌊2⌉ = 2, ⌊2.6⌉ = 3, ⌊-3.4⌉ = -3, ⌊4.49⌉ = 4
(This may also be written [x], ||x||,
nearest integer to nint(x) or Round(x).)
[ℚ(√2) : ℚ] = 2
degree of a field
extension [K : F] means the degree of the
[ℂ : ℝ] = 2
extension K : F.
the degree of
[ℝ : ℚ] = ∞
[a] means the equivalence class of
equivalence
a, i.e. {x : x ~ a}, where ~ is an
class Let a ~ b be true iff a ≡ b (mod 5).
equivalence relation.
the equivalence Then [2] = {…, −8, −3, 2, 7, …}.
[a]R means the same, but with R as
class of
the equivalence relation.
floor
[x] means the floor of x, i.e. the
floor; largest integer less than or equal to [3] = 3, [3.5] = 3, [3.99] = 3, [−3.7] = −4
greatest integer; x.
entier
nearest integer
function
[x] means the nearest integer to x. [2] = 2, [2.6] = 3, [-3.4] = -3, [4.49] = 4
nearest integer to
Iverson bracket
[S] maps a true statement S to 1 and [0=5]=0, [7>0]=1, [2 ∈ {2,3,4}]=1,
1 if true, 0 a false statement S to 0. [5 ∈ {2,3,4}]=0
otherwise
f[X] means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the
image of the function f under the set
X ⊆ dom(f).
image
(This may also be written as f(X) if
image of … there is no risk of confusing the
under … image of f under X with the function
application f of X. Another notation
is Im f, the image of f under its
domain.)
closed interval
0 and 1/2 are in the interval [0,1].
.
closed interval
[g, h] = g−1h−1gh (or ghg−1h−1), if g, y
commutator x = x[x, y] (group theory).
h ∈ G (a group).
the commutator [AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B (ring
[a, b] = ab − ba, if a, b ∈ R (a ring
of theory).
or commutative algebra).
triple scalar
product
[a, b, c] = a × b · c, the scalar
[a, b, c] = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b].
product of a × b with c.
the triple scalar
product of
function
application f(x) means the value of the function
If f(x) := x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
f at the element x.
of
image
f(X) means { f(x) : x ∈ X }, the
image of the function f under the set
image of …
X ⊆ dom(f).
under …
combinations
means the number of
(from) n choose combinations of r elements drawn
r from a set of n elements.
precedence
grouping Perform the operations inside the
(8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1, but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.
parentheses first.
parentheses
tuple
(a, b) is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
tuple; n-tuple; An ordered list (or sequence, or
ordered horizontal vector, or row vector) of (a, b, c) is an ordered triple
(or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc; values. ( ) is the empty tuple (or 0-
row vector; tuple).
sequence
highest common
factor (a, b) means the highest common
factor of a and b.
(3, 7) = 1 (they are coprime); (15, 25) =
highest common
5.
factor; (This may also be written hcf(a, b)
greatest common or gcd(a, b).)
divisor; hcf; gcd
4 is not in the interval (4, 18).
open interval
(0, +∞) equals the set of positive real
open interval
numbers.
multichoose
means n multichoose x.
multichoose
left-open
interval

half-open (−1, 7] and (−∞, −1]

interval;
left-open
interval
right-open
interval

half-open [4, 18) and [1, +∞)

interval;
right-open
interval
inner product ⟨u,v⟩ means the inner product of u The standard inner product between two
and v, where u and v are members vectors x = (2, 3) and y = (−1, 5) is:
inner product of of an inner product space. ⟨x, y⟩ = 2 × −1 + 3 × 5 = 13
for a time series :g(t) (t = 1, 2,...)
average let S be a subset of N for example,
we can define the structure functions Sq(
represents the average of all the ):
average of element in S.

⟨S⟩ means the span of S ⊆ V. That

is, it is the intersection of all
linear span subspaces of V which contain S.
⟨u1, u2, …⟩is shorthand for
(linear) span of; ⟨{u1, u2, …}⟩. .
linear hull of
The span of S may also be written
as Sp(S).
subgroup means the smallest subgroup of
generated by a G (where S ⊆ G, a group)
set In S3, and
containing every element of S.
the subgroup is shorthand for .
generated by .
tuple
An ordered list (or sequence, or is an ordered pair (or 2-tuple).
horizontal vector, or row vector) of
tuple; n-tuple;
values.
ordered is an ordered triple (or 3-tuple).
pair/triple/etc;
(The notation (a,b) is often used as
row vector; is the empty tuple (or 0-tuple).
well.)
sequence
⟨u | v⟩ means the inner product of u
inner product
and v, where u and v are members
of an inner product space.[9] (u | v)
inner product of
means the same.
ket vector
A qubit's state can be represented as
|φ⟩ means the vector with label φ,
α|0⟩+ β|1⟩, where α and β are complex
the ket …; which is in a Hilbert space.
numbers s.t. |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.
the vector …
bra vector
⟨φ| means the dual of the vector |φ⟩,
a linear functional which maps a ket
the bra …;
|ψ⟩ onto the inner product ⟨φ|ψ⟩.
the dual of …

summation
= 12 + 22 + 32 + 42
sum over … means a1 + a2 + … + an.
from … to … of
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
product
= (1+2)(2+2)(3+2)(4+2)
product over … means a1a2···an.
from … to … of
= 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 360
Cartesian
product
means the set of all (n+1)-
the Cartesian tuples
product of;
the direct (y0, …, yn).
product of
A general construction which
subsumes the disjoint union of sets
coproduct and of topological spaces, the free
product of groups, and the direct
coproduct over sum of modules and vector spaces.
… from … to … The coproduct of a family of objects
of is essentially the "least specific"
object to which each object in the
family admits a morphism.
Δx means a (non-infinitesimal)
change in x.
delta
(If the change becomes
delta; infinitesimal, δ and even d are used is the gradient of a straight line
change in instead. Not to be confused with the
symmetric difference, written ∆,
above.)
Laplacian The Laplace operator is a second If ƒ is a twice-differentiable real-valued
order differential operator in n- function, then the Laplacian of ƒ is
Laplace operator dimensional Euclidean space defined by
Dirac delta
function
δ(x)
Dirac delta of
Kronecker delta
δij
Kronecker delta
of
partial derivative
∂f/∂xi means the partial derivative of
partial;
f with respect to xi, where f is a If f(x,y) := x2y, then ∂f/∂x = 2xy
d
function on (x1, …, xn).
calculus
boundary
∂M means the boundary of M ∂{x : ||x|| ≤ 2} = {x : ||x|| = 2}
boundary of
degree of a ∂f means the degree of the
polynomial polynomial f.
∂(x2 − 1) = 2
degree of (This may also be written deg f.)
gradient
∇f (x1, …, xn) is the vector of partial If f (x,y,z) := 3xy + z², then ∇f = (3y, 3x,
del;
derivatives (∂f / ∂x1, …, ∂f / ∂xn). 2z)
nabla;
gradient of
divergence
If , then
del dot; .
divergence of
curl
If , then
curl of
.
vector calculus
derivative
f ′(x) means the derivative of the
function f at the point x, i.e., the If f(x) := x2, then f ′(x) = 2x
… prime;
slope of the tangent to f at x.
derivative of
derivative
means the derivative of x with
respect to time. That is
… dot; If x(t) := t2, then .
time derivative
.
of
indefinite
integral or
antiderivative
∫ f(x) dx means a function whose
∫x2 dx = x3/3 + C
indefinite derivative is f.
integral of
the
antiderivative of
definite integral
∫ab f(x) dx means the signed area
between the x-axis and the graph of b 2
integral from … ∫ x dx = b3/3 − a3/3;
the function f between x = a and x = a
to … of … with
b.
respect to
line integral ∫C f ds means the integral of f along
the curve C, ,
line/ path/ curve/ where r is a parametrization of C.
integral of…
along… (If the curve is closed, the symbol ∮
may be used instead, as described
below.)
Similar to the integral, but used to
denote a single integration over a
closed curve or loop. It is
sometimes used in physics texts
involving equations regarding
Gauss's Law, and while these
formulas involve a closed surface
integral, the representations
describe only the first integration of
the volume over the enclosing
surface. Instances where the latter
Contour integral;
requires simultaneous double
closed line
integration, the symbol ∯ would be If C is a Jordan curve about 0, then
integral
more appropriate. A third related
symbol is the closed volume .
contour integral
integral, denoted by the symbol ∰.
of
The contour integral can also
frequently be found with a subscript
capital letter C, ∮C, denoting that a
closed loop integral is, in fact,
around a contour C, or sometimes
dually appropriately, a circle C. In
representations of Gauss's Law, a
subscript capital S, ∮S, is used to
denote that the integration is over a
closed surface.
projection
restricts to the
Projection of attribute set.
Used in various formulas involving
circles; π is equivalent to the
Pi
amount of area a circle would take
up in a square of equal width with
pi; A=πR2=314.16→R=10
an area of 4 square units, roughly
3.1415926;
3.14/4. It is also the ratio of the
≈22÷7
circumference to the diameter of a
circle.
selection The selection selects all
those tuples in for which holds
Selection of between the and the attribute.
 The selection selects all
those tuples in for which holds
between the attribute and the
value .
cover
{1, 8} <• {1, 3, 8} among the subsets of
is covered by x <• y means that x is covered by y.
{1, 2, …, 10} ordered by containment.
order theory
subtype
T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype If S <: T and T <: U then S <: U
of T2. (transitivity).
is a subtype of
conjugate
transpose
A† means the transpose of the
conjugate complex conjugate of A.[10]
transpose; If A = (aij) then A† = (aji).
adjoint; This may also be written A*T, AT*,
Hermitian A*, AT or AT.
adjoint/conjugat
e/transpose
AT means A, but with its rows
transpose swapped for columns.
If A = (aij) then AT = (aji).
transpose This may also be written A', At or
Atr.
top element
⊤ means the largest element of a
∀x : x ∨ ⊤ = ⊤
lattice.
the top element
top type ⊤ means the top or universal type;
every type in the type system of ∀ types T, T <: ⊤
the top type; top interest is a subtype of top.
perpendicular
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y;
If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n in the plane, then
or more generally x is orthogonal to
is perpendicular l || n.
y.
to
orthogonal
complement W⊥ means the orthogonal
complement of W (where W is a
orthogonal/ subspace of the inner product space Within , .
perpendicular V), the set of all vectors in V
complement of; orthogonal to every vector in W.
perp
coprime x ⊥ y means x has no factor greater
34 ⊥ 55.
than 1 in common with y.
 is coprime to
independent A ⊥ B means A is an event whose
probability is independent of event If A ⊥ B, then P(A|B) = P(A).
is independent of B.
bottom element
⊥ means the smallest element of a
∀x : x ∧ ⊥ = ⊥
the bottom lattice.
element
bottom type ⊥ means the bottom type (a.k.a. the
zero type or empty type); bottom is
∀ types T, ⊥ <: T
the bottom type; the subtype of every type in the type
bot system.
comparability
x ⊥ y means that x is comparable to {e, π} ⊥ {1, 2, e, 3, π} under set
y. containment.
is comparable to
A ⊧ B means the sentence A entails
entailment
the sentence B, that is in every
A ⊧ A ∨ ¬A
model in which A is true, B is also
entails
true.
inference
x ⊢ y means y is derivable from x. A → B ⊢ ¬B → ¬A.
infers;
is derived from
partition
p ⊢ n means that p is a partition of
is a partition of
n. (4,3,1,1) ⊢ 9, .
For two matrices (or vectors) of the
same dimensions the
Hadamard product is a matrix of the
Hadamard
same dimensions with
product
elements given by
. This is
entrywise
often used in matrix based
product
programming such as MATLAB
where the operation is done by
A.*B

Note: Notations marked with a are supposed to be known at the beginning of the engineering programs!