CHAPTER 2

Discrete-Time Signals and

Systems
 Engr. Zeeshan Habib
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering

HITEC University Taxila Cantt

Contents

1. Classification of Signals
2. Block Diagram Representation of Systems
3. Classification of DT Systems
4. DT Convolution and Properties
5. DT Correlation Functions
Classification of Discrete-Time Signals

 Even & Odd Signals

 Energy &Power Signals
 Periodic & Non-Periodic Signals
Even or Symmetric Signal

x ( n)  x (  n)

x(n)

n
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Odd or Asymmetric Signal

x (  n)   x ( n)
x(n)
4
3
2
1
0
n
-4 -3 -2 -1 -10 1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
Energy Signal

 2
E  x(n)
n

The energy of a signal can be finite or infinite. If ‘E’

is finite (i.e. 0<E<), then x(n) is called an Energy
Signal.
Power Signal

Clearly, if E is finite, P = O. On the other hand, if E is

infinite, the average power P may be either finite or
infinite.
If P is finite (and nonzero), the signal is
called a power signal.

1 N 2
P  Lim  x ( n)
N  2 N  1 n N
Example:
Determine the power and energy of the unit step sequence.
Solution:

N 2
P  Lim 1  U (n)
N  2N 1 nN
P  Lim N 1
N  2N 1
1 1
P  Lim N  1/ 2
N  2  N
1
Consequently, the unit step sequence is a power
signal. Its energy is infinite
Periodic & Aperiodic Signals:

If x(n  N )  x(n) for all values of n

 a signal x(n) is periodic with period N(N > 0) if and

only if
x(n + N) = x(n) for all n Eq
(2.1.20)
 The smallest value of N for which (2.1.20) holds is
called the (fundamental) period.
If there is no value of N that satisfies (2.1.20), the
signal is called nonperiodic or aperiodic.
Periodicity:

 N  2k
0
f k
0 N

where k & N are integers

Example:

x(n) sin(n /9)

f  k / N  / 2   /9 / 2 1/18






0 0  

N 18
After 18 samples the signal will repeat itself. Hence the
signal is a Periodic Signal.
Example:
x(n)  sin N  sin( 2n)
0
f  k / N  / 2  2 / 2
0 0
 / 2 || Irrational
ThereforeAperiodic Signal
Energy of a Periodic signal

The energy of a periodic signal x(n) over a single period,

say, over the interval 0< n < N - 1, is finite if x(n) takes
on finite values over the period. However, the energy of
the periodic signal for  < n <  is infinite.
On the other hand, the average power of the periodic
signal is finite and it is equal to the average power over a
single period. Thus if x(n) is a periodic signal with
fundamental period N and takes on finite values, its
power is given by

Consequently, periodic signals are power signals.

Simple Manipulations of Discrete-Time
Signals

Transformation of the independent variable (time).

 A signal x(n) may be shifted in time by replacing the
independent variable n by (n – k), where k is an
integer.
 If k is a positive integer, the time shift results in a
delay of the signal by k units of time.
 If k is a negative integer, the time shift results in an
advance of the signal by |k| units in time.
 EXAMPLE

A signal x(n) is graphically illustrated in Fig. 2.1.9(a). Show a graphical

representation of the signals x(n - 3) and x(n+2).
 Folding and Shifting:

Another useful modification of the time base is to replace the

independent variable ‘n’ by ‘–n’. The result of this operation is a
folding or a reflection of the signal about the time origin n = 0
Folding and Shifting:
 Down-sampling:
A third modification of the independent variable involves replacing n by
µn,
where µ is an integer. We refer to this time-base modification as time
scaling or down-sampling.
Amplitude Modification: (Addition, multiplication,
and scaling of sequences)

 Amplitude scaling of a signal by a constant A is accomplished by

multiplying the value of every signal sample by A. Consequently,
we obtain
y(n) = Ax(n), - < n < 

 The sum of two signals Xl (n) and X2 (n) is a signal y(n), whose
value at any instant is equal to the sum of the values of these two
signals at that instant, that is,
y(n) = Xl (n) + X2(n), -  < n < 

 The product of two signals is similarly defined on a sample-to-

sample basis as
y(n) = Xl (n) X2(n), -  < n < 
Transformation of the independent variable (n)

Delay x(n-2)
Advance x(n+1)
Compressed Signal x(2n)
Expanded Signal x(n/2)
Reverse-Time x(-n)
x(n)

-n n

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Discrete-time (DT) System:

A Discrete-time (DT) system is a device or algorithm that

operates on a discrete-time signal, called the input or
excitation, according to some well-defined rule, to produce
another discrete-time signal called the output or response of
the system.
 EXAMPLE:

Determine the response of the following systems to the input

signal

The output of this system at any time is the mean value of the present, the
immediate past, and the immediate future samples. For example, the output
at time n = 0 is
Y(0) = 1/3[x(-1) +x(0) +x(1)] = 1/3[1 + 0 + 1] = 2/3
Repeating this computation for every value of n, we obtain the output signal

y(n) = {... , 0,1, 5/3, 2, I, 2/3, 1, 2, 5/3,1,0, ...}

Discrete-Time Systems
Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Signals

Unit Delay:

Unit Advance:
Adder:

A constant Multiplier:
A Signal Multiplier:
Example:

y (n)  2 x(n  1)  x(n)

Example:

y (n)  2 x(n)  3 y (n  1)  5 x(n  1)

Example:

sketch the block diagram representation of the discrete-

time system described by the input-output relation where
x(n) is the input and y(n) is the output of the system.
 Classification of Systems

Causal & Non-Causal:

A system is said to be Causal if the output of the system
at any time n [i.e. y(n)] depends only on present and/or
past inputs i.e. [x(n), x(n-1), x(n-2)]
Examples:

(i ) y ( n)  x ( n)  x ( n  1)
n
(ii ) y ( n)   x(k )
k  
(iii ) y ( n)  ax ( n)
(iv ) y ( n)  x ( n)  3 x ( n  4)
(v ) y ( n )  x ( n 2 )
(vi ) y ( n)  x ( 2n)
(vii) y ( n)  x (  n)
Linear & Non-linear:
A system which follows the principle of Superposition
is said to be Linear.
[a x (n)  a x (n)]  a x (n)  a x (n)
11 2 2 11 2 2
Where x1(n), x2(n) and a1, a2 are arbitrary inputs and
constants respectively.
Example:

Determine whether the system is Linear or Non-Linear:

y (n)  nx(n)
Solution:
For two inputs sequences x1(n) & x2(n), the
corresponding outputs are y (n)  nx (n)
1 1
y (n)  nx (n)
2 2
A linear combination of two inputs sequences result in
the output
y (n)  a x (n) a x (n)  n[a x (n) a x (n)]
3 11 22 11 22
y (n)  na x (n)  na x (n) (1)
3 11 22
Similarly, a linear combination of the outputs yields
a y (n)  a y (n)  na x (n)  na x (n)
11 2 2 11 2 2
a y (n)  a y (n)  na x (n)  na x (n)  (2)
11 2 2 11 11

Comparing Eqn. (1) & (2), both are same

The system is a linear system.

Example:
y(n)  x2(n )
Solution:
2 2
y ( n)  x ( n) , y ( n)  x ( n)
1 1 2 2
A linear combination of two inputs

y (n)  [a x (n)  a x (n)] 2

3 11 2 2
2 2 2 2
y (n)  a x (n)  2a a x (n) x (n)  a x (n)  (1)
3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2
Similarly, a linear combination of the outputs

2 2
a y (n)  a y (n)  na x (n)  na x (n)  (2)
1 1 2 2 11 2 2

Comparing Eqn. (1) & (2), both are not equal.

System is a non-linear.
Example: x ( n)
y ( n)  e
a x ( n) a x ( n)
y ( n)  e 1 , y ( n)  e 2
1 2

 
a x ( n)  a x ( n)




y ( n)  e 1 2 

3
a x ( n) a x ( n)
y ( n)  a y ( n)  a y ( n)  a e 1 a e 2
4 1 1 2 2 1 2
Since, y ( n)  y ( n)
3 4
 Non  Linear
Static & Dynamic System (Memoryless or System
with memory)

y ( n)  x ( n)  3
y (n)  x(n  1)  4
y ( n )  x ( n )  x ( n  4)
y ( n)  2 x ( n)
Time-invariant & Time-variant:
If the characteristics of a system are unchanged with the
change in time, then the system is Time-invariant.

x ( n)  y ( n)
x(n  k )  y ( x  k )
Test :
y (n, k )  x(n  k )
y (n  k )
if y (n, k )  y (n  k ) then Time  in var iant
 Examples:-
y[n] = x[n] - x[n-1]
Since,
y[n, k] = x[n - k]

y[n – k] = y[n , k]
therefore,
y(n , k) = x[n - k] – x[n – k - 1]-------------(1)
Now, y[n] = x[n] – x[n-1]
y[n-k] = x[n-k] – x[n-k-1]---------------------(2)
Equation 1 & 2 are equal, “Time is invariant”.

y[n , k] = y[n-k]
 Example 2:

y[n] = nx[n]
Since,
Delay in input
y[n, k] = nx[n - k]

Now, Delay in output

y[n] = nx[n]
y[n-k] = [n-k] x[n-k]
y[n , k] = y[n-k]

“Time variant”.
 Time-Domain Analysis

• Discrete-time Convolution
d(n+1) d(n)
3

d(n-1)
1

0 n
-1 0 1


x(n)   x(k )d (n  k )

 x(1)d (n 1)  x(0)d (n)  x(1)d (n 1)
 3d (n 1)  2d (n) d (n 1)
 4

0
-2 -1 0 1 2
-1

-2 n


x(n)   x(k )d (n  k )

 x(2)d (n  2)  x(1)d (n 1)  x(0)d (n)  x(1)d (n 1)
x(2)d (n  2)
 d (n  2) d (n 1) 3d (n) d (n 1) d (n  2)
When the input of a system is a Unit Impulse then the
output of the system is called Impulse Response.

No. of o/p samples =No. of impulse response samples

+
No. of i/p samples
Discrete-time Convolution


y(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 
1. Folding
2. Shifting
3. Multiplication
4. Summation
Example:
x ( n)  1,2,2

h( n)  2,1
 Properties of Convolution
1. Commutative Property of Convolution

y(n)   x(k )h(n  k )
k 

 h(k )x(n  k )
k 
2. Associative Property of Convolution
3. Distributive Property of Convolution
 
y ( n)   x ( k ) h( n  k )
k 

y ( n)   h( k ) x ( n  k ) || IIR
k 
M 1
y ( n)   h( k ) x ( n  k ) || FIR
k 
When there are finite no. of samples, the system o/p
is said to be Finite Impulse Response(FIR).
When there are infinite no. of samples, the system
o/p is said to be Infinite Impulse Response(IIR).
 Recursive & Non-recursive DTS
N M
 a k y ( n  k )   bk x ( n  k )
k  k 
(1) y (n)  x(n)  x(n  1)
(2) y (n)  x(n)  y (n  1)

Those system which depend only on i/p in other

words there is no feedback, that system is Non-recursive.

N M
y ( n)    a y ( n  k )   b x ( n  k )
k  k k  k
 Those system which depend only on i/p in other
words there is no feedback, that system is Non-recursive.
M
y ( n)   b x ( n  k )
k  k
LTI System characterized by constant
co-efficient

y (n)  ay (n  1)  x(n)
y (0)  ay (1)  x(0)
y (0)  ay (0)  x(1)  a 2 y (1)  ax(0)  x(1)
y (0)  ay (1)  x(2)  a 3 y (1)  a 2 (0)  ax(1)  x(2)

y ( n)  a n 1 n n 1
y (1)  a x(0)  a x(1)   ax(n  1)  x(n)
n 1 n k
 y ( n)  a y (1)   a x(n  k ) , n0
k 0
i. If the System is initially relaxed at time n=0 then
its memory should be zero. Hence y(-1)=0. Thus
a recursive system is relaxed if it starts with zero
initial conditions.
 n k
y   a x(n  k )
zs k 0

It is called Zero-State or forced response.

ii. y(-1)0 and x(n)=0 for all n.

It is called Zero-input response or natural response.

y (n)  a n1 y(1) , n0

zi
 Correlation Functions
y (n)  x(n  D)   (n)
=attenuation factor
(n)=unwanted signal or additive noise
x(n-D)=The amplitude of Rx & Tx is different
 If there is no target then
y(n)=(n)

1) Cross Correlation
The crosscorelation of x(n) and y(n) is a sequence
xy(l)
 
 xy (l )   x(n) y (n  l ) , l  0,1,2 
n
or

 xy (l )   x(n  l ) y (n) , l  0,1,2 
n

If we reverse the role of x(n) & y(n)


 yx (l )   y (n) x(n  l )
n
or

 yx (l )   y (n  l ) x(n)
n
  xy (l )   yx (l )
2) Auto Correlation
y ( n)  x ( n)

y ( n)   x ( n) x ( n  l )
n