SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

1. INTRODUCTION
 What is a Signal?
• (DEF) Signal : A signal is formally
defined as a function of one or more
variables, which conveys information
on the nature of physical phenomenon.
 What is a System?
• (DEF) System : A system is formally
defined as an entity that manipulates
one or more signals to accomplish a
function, thereby yielding new signals.

input output
system
signal signal
 Some Interesting Systems
• Communication system
• Control system
• Biomedical system(biomedical signal
processing)
Some Interesting Systems
• Communication system
Some Interesting Systems
• Control systems
Some Interesting Systems

• Biomedical system(biomedical signal

processing)
 Classification of Signals
• Continuous and discrete-time signals
• Continuous and discrete-valued signals
• Even and odd signals
• Periodic signals, non-periodic signals
• Deterministic signals, random signals
• Causal and anticausal signals
• Right-handed and left-handed signals
• Finite and infinite length
 Continuous and discrete-
time signals
• Continuous signal
- It is defined for all time t : x(t)
• Discrete-time signal
- It is defined only at discrete instants of
time : x[n]=x(nT)
Continuous and Discrete valued
singals
• CV corresponds to a continuous y-
axis
• DV corresponds to a discrete y-axis

Digital signal
 Even and odd signals
• Even signals : x(-t)=x(t)
• Odd signals : x(-t)=-x(t)
• Even and odd signal decomposition
xe(t)= 1/2·(x(t)+x(-t))
xo(t)= 1/2·(x(t)-x(-t))
 Periodic signals, non-
periodic signals
• Periodic signals
- A function that satisfies the condition
x(t)=x(t+T) for all t
- Fundamental frequency : f=1/T
- Angular frequency : = 2/T

• Non-periodic signals
 Deterministic signals,
random signals
 Deterministic signals
-There is no uncertainty with respect to its value
at any time. (ex) sin(3t)

 Random signals
- There is uncertainty before its actual occurrence.
 Causal and anticausal
Signals
• Causal signals : zero for all negative time
• Anti-causal signals : zero for all positive
time
• Non-causal : no zero values in both
positive and negative time

causal Anti-causal noncausal

signal signal signal
 Right-handed and left-handed
Signals
• Right-handed and left handed-signal :
zero between a given variable and
positive or negative infinity
 Finite and infinite length
• Finite-length signal : non-zero over a
finite interval tmin< t< tmax
• Infinite-length signal : non-zero over all
real numbers
Basic Operations on Signals

• Operations performed on dependent

variable
• Operations performed on the
independent variable
 Operations performed on
dependent signals
• Amplitude scaling y(t )  cx(t )
• Addition y (t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t )

• Multiplication y (t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t )

• Differentiation y(t ) 
d
x(t )
dx
• Integration t
y (t )   x( )d

 Operations performed on
the independent signals
• Time scaling y(t )  x(at )
a>1 : compressed
0<a<1 : expanded
 Operations performed on
the independent signals
• Reflection y(t )  x(t )
 Operations performed on
the independent signals
• Time shifting y(t )  x(t  t0 )
- Precedence Rule for time shifting & time
scaling b
y(t )  x(at  b)  x(a(t  ))
a
The incorrect way of applying the precedence rule. (a) Signal x(t).
(b) Time-scaled signal v(t) = x(2t). (c) Signal y(t) obtained by
shifting
v(t) = x(2t) by 3 time units, which yields y(t) = x(2(t + 3)).

The proper order in which the operations of time scaling and time
shifting (a) Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude 1.0 and duration 2.0,
symmetric about the origin. (b) Intermediate pulse v(t), representing
a time-shifted version of x(t). (c) Desired signal y(t), resulting from
the compression of v(t) by a factor of 2.
 Elementary Signals
• Exponential signals x (t )  Xe st

• Sinusoidal signals x(t )  X cos( t   )

• Exponentially damped sinusoidal
signals x(t )  Xe t cos( t   )
Elementary Signals
 Elementary Signals
• Step function
x(t )  u(t )
 Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude A and duration of 1 s,
symmetric about the origin. Note that x(t) = x2(t) – x1(t).

 And also
 Elementary Signals
• Impulse function
x(t )   (t ) and

Narrow Pulse Approximation

(a) Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit
strength (i.e., unit impulse). (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse.
(c) Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing
the duration Δ of a rectangular pulse of area a to approach zero.
 Elementary Signals

• Ramp function x(t )  r (t )

Systems Viewed as
Interconnection of
Operations
input output
system
signal signal
 Properties of Systems

• Stability
• Memory
• Invertibility
• Time Invariance
• Linearity
 Stability(1)
• BIBO stable : A system is said to be
bounded-input bounded-output stable
iff every bounded input results in a
bounded output.

t | x(t ) | M x    t | y(t ) | M y  
 Dramatic photographs
showing the collapse of
the Tacoma Narrows
suspension bridge on
November 7, 1940. (a)
Photograph showing the
twisting motion of the
bridge’s center span just
before failure.
(b) A few minutes after
the first piece of concrete
fell, this second
photograph shows a 600-
ft section of the bridge
breaking out of the
suspension span and
turning upside down as it
crashed in Puget Sound,
Washington. Note the car
in the top right-hand
corner of the photograph.
 Stability(2)
• Example
 y[n]=1/3(x[n]+x[n-1]+x[n-2])
 y[n]=rn x[n], where r >1
1
y[n]  x[n]  x[n  1]  x[n  2]
3
1
 (| x[n] |  | x[n  1] |  | x[n  2] |)
3
1
 (M x  M x  M x )  M x
3
 Memory
• Memory system : A system is said to
possess memory if its output signal
depends on past values of the input
signal
• Memoryless system
• (example) i (t )  1 v(t )
R
t
i (t )  1
L  v( )d


y[n]  x[n]  x[n  1]

 Causality
• Causal system : A system is said to be
causal if the present value of the output
signal depends only on the present
and/or past values of the input signal.
• Non-causal system
• (example)
y[n]=x[n]+1/2x[n-1]
y[n]=x[n+1]+1/2x[n-1]
 Invertiblity(1)
• Invertible system : A system is said to
be invertible if the input of the system
can be recovered from the system
output.
• H:xy, H-1:yx
H-1{y(t)}= H-1{H{x(t)}}, H-1H=I

H H-1
x(t) y(t) x(t)
 Invertiblity(2)
• (Example)
t
d
- y (t )  1
L 

x( )d  x(t )  L y (t )
dt

- y(t )  x 2 (t )
 Time Invariance (1)
• Time invariant system : A system is
said to be time invariant if a time delay
or time advance of the input signal
leads to a identical time shift in the
output signal.
yi (t )  H {x(t  t0 )}
 H {S t 0{x(t )}}  HS t 0{x(t )}

y0 (t )  S t 0 { y (t )}
 S t 0 {H {x(t )}}  S t 0 H {x(t )}
 Time Invariance (2)
• Are following two systems equivalent?

St0 H
x(t) x(t-t0) yi(t)

H St0
x(t) y0(t)
 Linearity(1)
• Linear system : A system is said to be
linear if it satisfies the principle of
superposition.

N
x(t )   ai xi (t )
i 1
N
y (t )  H {x(t )}  H { ai xi (t )}
i 1
? N N
  ai H {xi (t )}   ai yi (t )
i 1 i 1
 Linearity(2)

a1 H a1
x1(t) x1(t)
a2 H a2
x2(t) . 
. . H x2(t) . . . 
. . . . . .
. . y(t) . . . y(t)
.
aN H aN
xN(t) xN(t)