PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION

SUBJECT NOTES
II YEAR / IV SEMESTER
23EC1401-COMMUNICATION THEORY
UNIT-I
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
SYLLABUS

Amplitude Modulation – DSBSC, DSBFC, SSB, VSB - Modulation index, Spectra, Power
relations and Bandwidth – AM Generation – Square law and Switching modulator,
DSBSC Generation – Balanced and Ring Modulator, SSB Generation – Filter Method,
Phase Shift Method, VSB Generation – Filter Method, Demodulation, Envelope
Detector – Comparison of different AM techniques.
DEFINITION FOR COMMUNICATION:

 Electronic Communication System is defined as the whole mechanism of

sending and receiving as well as processing of information electronically
from source to destination through a communication medium
 Example – Radiotelephony, broadcasting, point-to-point, mobile
communications, computer communications, radar and satellite systems.

ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

The basic elements are : Source, Transmitter, Channel, Receiver and

Destination

Function of each Element

 The message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature; It

may be a voice signal, picture signal etc. Hence a transducer is required to
convert the original physical message into a time varying electrical signal.
 These signals are called as Base band signals or Message Signals or modulating
Signals.
 Transmitter comprises of electrical and electronic components that converts the
message signal into a suitable form for propagating over the communication
medium. .
 Channel provides the connection between sources and destinations. It can be of
many forms like coaxial cable, microware link, Radio leave link or Optical fiber.
 The receiver extracts the message signal from the degraded version of transmitted
signal.
 At the destination, another transducer is used to convert the electrical signal into
the appropriate message.

Base band transmission:

 Baseband signal is the information either in a digital or analog form.

 Transmission of original information whether analog or digital, directly
into transmission medium is called baseband transmission.
 Example: Intercom

MODULATION & NEED FOR MODULATION

Modulation is the process of varying the characteristics of a high frequency

carrier signal in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal or
Message Signal.
Need for modulation

1. Reduction in Antenna Height

2. Avoids Mixing of Signals
3. Multiplexing is possible
4. To Overcome Equipment Limitation
5. To reduce Noise and Interference
1. Reduction in Antenna Height:

The height of the antenna is reduced due to modulation process.

Antennas are used to transmit and receive the signals in communication
system. Usually the height of the antenna is in terms of Wavelength

 c
AntennaHeight  
2 2f

f  frequency of the signal. c  Velocity of the light.

For a low frequency signal say 1KHz.

3 *108
Antennaheight   150kms
2 *1 *103
Where as for a high frequency signal say 1 MHz

3 *108
Antennaheight   150m
2 *1 *103
Realising the antenna height of 150Km height is not practically possible but
after modulation with a carrier of 1MHz the antenna height is reduced to 150m which
is possible to achieve

2. Avoids Mixing of Signals: Audio signals have the same frequency range from
20Hz to 20KHz. So all the signals can mix with each other. If the signals are
modulated with different carriers, then the modulated signal will occupy different slots
in the frequency domain thereby avoiding mixing of signals.

3. Multiplexing is possible: Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals

can be transmitted simultaneously over the same communication Channel.
Modulation Makes Multiplexing Easier.

4. To overcome equipment limitations: Whenever we are designing the equipment,

it will be designed for fixed range of frequency. By modulation we can make any signal
to pass through the same equipment.
 5. Modulation to reduce noise and interference: It is not possible to eliminate
noise and interference in communication system. But can be minimized using
modulation technique.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION:[AM]

Definition: Amplitude modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a

relatively high frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal or message signal

Mathematical Expression of AM:

Let e m be the modulating signal and ec be the carrier signal.

em  Em Sin 2f m t .-------------- (1)
ec  Ec Sin 2f c t .-----------------(2)
Where E m is the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.
E c is the maximum amplitude of the carrier signal
f m is the frequency of the modulating signal
f c is the frequency of the carrier signal
The amplitude of the modulated wave is
E AM  Ec  em
E AM  Ec  Em Sin 2f mt
Therefore the instantaneous value of the amplitude modulated wave can be
written as
e AM  E AM Sin 2f c t
e AM  ( Ec  Em Sin 2f m t ) Sin 2f c t ---------3

MODULATION INDEX AND PERCENTAGE MODULATION:

The ratio of maximum amplitude of the modulating signal to the maximum amplitude
of carrier signal is called modulation index or co efficient of modulation or depth of
modulation.

Em
m -----------(4)
Ec

When modulation index is expressed in percentage, it is called as the

Em
percentage modulation and is denoted by M m *100
Ec

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM AND BANDWIDTH OF AM:

Consider the expression for AM wave given by the equation (3)

 e AM  ( Ec  Em Sin 2f mt ) Sin 2f c t ------------(5)

Em
We know that m *100
Ec

Em  mEc ----------(6)

Substituting (6) in (5)

e AM  ( Ec  Em Sin 2f m t ) Sin 2f c t

 Ec (1  mSin2f mt ) Sin 2f c t

 Ec Sin 2f c t  mEc Sin 2f c tSin2f mt -------------(7)

Expanding equation (7) using trignometrical relation

1
SinASinB  [Cos( A  B)  Cos( A  B)]
2
we get,

mEc mEc
e AM  Ec Sin2f c t  Cos( f c  f m )2t  Cos( f c  f m )2t ----------(8)
2 2
In equation 8 the first term is the unmodulated carrier signal

2nd term indicates the lower side band (LSB)

3rd term indicates the upper side band (USB)

Equation 8 can be further written as

mEc mEc
e AM  Ec Sin2f ct  Cos2f LSB t  Cos2fUSBt -----------------------(9)
2 2
The figure shows the frequency spectrum of Am.

 It extends from f c  f m(max) to f c  f m(max)

 The band of frequencies b/w f c and f c  f m(max) is called lower side band [LSB]
and any frequency within this band is called lower side frequency [LSF].
 The band of frequencies b/w f c and f c  f m(max) is called upper side band [VSB]
and any frequency within this and is called upper side frequency [USF]

BANDWIDTH OF AM.

The Bandwidth of AM wave is equal to the difference b/w the highest upper side
frequency and lowest lower side frequency.

BW  fUSB  f LSB

BW  [ f c  f m(max) ]  [ f c  f m(max)]

BW  2 f m

WAVEFORM FOR AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Fig
a) Message signal
b) carrier signal
c) Amplitude modulated signal.
CALCULAITON OF MODULATION INDEX FROM AM WAVE

Figure shows the AM waveform ..From the figure

E max  E min  2 E m

1
Em  ( E max  E min ) -----------(10)
2
Ec  Emax  Em
 E  Emin
Ec  Emax  ( max )
2

1
Ec  ( E max  E min )
2

1
( E max  E min )
Emax  Emin
M  2 *100 = *100
1
( E max  E min )
Emax  Emin
2
Based on the modulation index modulation can be either,
(i). Critical Modulation
(ii). Over Modulation
(iii). Under Modulation

When Em = Ec modulation goes to 100% this situation is known as critical

modulation

 Em < Ec leads to under modulation.

  Em > Ec leads to over modulation.

AM Voltage Distribution :

The carrier signal can be described as ,

Vc  Ec Sin 2f c t
Vc  Time varying voltage of carrier.

Ec  Peak carrier amplitude.

fc  Carrier frequency

 The modulated signal can be expressed as,

Vam  ( Ec  Em Sin 2f mt )Sin 2f c t
 Ec (1  mSin2f mt ) Sin 2f c t

 Ec Sin 2f c t  mEc Sin 2f c tSin2f mt

mEc mEc
e AM  Ec Sin2f c t  Cos( f c  f m )2t  Cos( f c  f m )2t
2 2

Ec Sin 2f c t  Carrier signal (volts)

mEc
Cos2 ( f c  f m )t  Upper side frequency signal (volts).
2

mEc
Cos2 ( f c  f m )t  Lower side frequency signal (volts).
2
 E E
V max  Ec  c  c  2Ec
2 2

Ec Ec
V min  Ec   2 0
2
The peak change in the amplitude of the output wave is the sum of the voltages from
the upper and lower side frequencies.
Em  Eusf  Elsf
E E  Emin
If Eusf  Elsf  m  max
2 4
POWER RELATIONS IN THE AM WAVE :

In the amplitude modulated wave the carrier component has the same
amplitude as the un modulated carrier. That is the amplitude of the carrier is
unchanged. The energy is either added or subtracted. The modulated signal has extra
energy in the two sideband component.

Em
Since the side bands depend on the modulation index , The total power in the
Ec
modulated wave will depend on the modulation index. This can be derived as follows.

The total power in the modulated wave is Pt  Pc  PUSB  PLSB

2 2
Ec2 EUSB E LSB
   (rms)----------(1)
R R R

Where all three voltages are rms values . ( 2 converted to peak) and R is the
resistance of antenna in which the power is dissipated.

E
( c )2
Therefore the carrier power Pc 
2
R

E c2
Pc  ----------------------(2)
2R
2
E SB
Also PLSB  PUSB  (Here E SB is the rms voltage of the side bands)
R
We know that

mEc mEc
e AM  Ec Sin2f c t  Cos( f c  f m )2t  Cos( f c  f m )2t
2 2
 mEc
From the above equation, the peak amplitude of both sidebands is
2
2
mEc  mEc 
 
Hence E SB = 2 There for PLSB  PUSB  2  *1
2  2  R
 
 

m 2 Ec2
PLSB  PUSB  ------------(3)
8R

Ec2 m 2 Ec2 m 2 Ec2 Ec2  m 2 m 2 

Hence the total power Pt becomes Pt     1   
2R 8R 8R 2R  4 4 

 m2 
Pt  Pc 1   ------------------------(4)
 2 

Pt m2
 1 ------------------------(5)
Pc 2

m 2 Pt P 
From equation (5)  1 & m  2 t  1 -------------------(6)
2 Pc  Pc 

AM CURRENT CALCULATIONS

The power and current in the antenna are related by P  I R

2

Where P is the antenna power,

I is the antenna current and R is the characteristic resistance of antenna.

For total power and total current in the antenna, Pt  I t2 R ----------(1)

Similarly carrier current and carrier power will be related as Pc  I c2 R ----------(2)

 m2 
Pt  Pc 1  
 2 

 m2 
I t2 R  I c2 R1  
 2 

 m2 
I t2  I c2 1   ---------------(3)
 2 
 m2
It  Ic 1 ------------------------(4)
2

I t2 m2
From equation (3)  1
I c2 2

I 2 
m 2  2 t2  1
 Ic 

I2 
m  2 t2  1 ------------------(5)
 Ic 

Equation (5) gives the modulation index in terms of current.

MODULATION BY A COMPLEX INFORMATION SIGNAL :

Let em1, em 2, em 3 ……….etc be the simultaneous modulation voltages….

em  em1  em 2  em3  ..........

em  Em1 sin 1  Em 2 sin  2  Em3 sin  3  ........

The equation for AM can be written as

E AM  Ec  Em1 Sin1t  Em 2 Sin 2 t  Em3 Sin 3t  ........Sin c t

 E E E 
 Ec 1  m1 Sin1t  m 2 Sin 2 t  m3 Sin 3t  ...............Sin c t
 Ec Ec Ec 

 Ec 1  m1 SIn1t  m2 Sin 2 t  m3 Sin 3t  ........Sin c t

 Ec Sin c t  m1 Ec SIn1tSin c t  m2 Ec Sin 2 tSin c t  m3 Ec Sin 3tSin c t  ........

Using SinA SinB= 1/2[Cos(A-B) – Cos(A+B)], the above equation becomes…

m1 Ec mE mE mE
e AM  Ec Sin c t  Cos( c  1 )t  1 c Cos( c  1 )t  2 c Cos( c   2 )t  2 c Cos( c   2 )t  .....
2 2 2 2

……………………………(1)

In the above equation first term is the un modulated carrier and the other
terms are sidebands..

Having three modulating frequencies……….

  m2 m2 m2 
Pt  Pc 1  1  2  3  ...................
 2 2 2 

The total modulation index mt is mt  m1  m2  m3  ..........

2 2 2

mt2
Total or effective voltages and current in this case Et  E c 1 
2

mt2
It  Ic 1
2

TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

PLSB  PUSB
The efficiency  of AM signal is given by  
Pt

m 2 Pc m 2 Pc
 2
 4 4  m
 m2  m2  2
Pc 1  
 2 

AM MODULATING CIRCUITS

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOW LEVEL AND HIGH LEVEL AM MODULATOR.

Low level AM modulator High level AM modulator

1. Modulation takes place prior to 1. Modulation takes place in the

the final stage of the final element of final stage.
transmitter

2. Less modulating signal power 2. More modulating signal power

is required is required.

LOW LEVEL AND HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

Depending on the location of modulation in transmitter Circuit, Modulation can be

classified as low level and high level modulation

LOW LEVEL MODULATION

 Modulation is done at low power level that is at the beginning and then
amplified. Modulation is done at any place other than collector/ plate. The generated
AM signal is amplified Using a series of Linear Amplifiers

Advantages: 1. Less Modulating power is required

Disadvantages:1. The signal is modulated and then amplified hence the amplifier
stages should handle the carrier, USB and LSB

2.Amplifiers must be capable of handling all the amplitude variations carried by

modulation and must have sufficient bandwidth for sidebands

HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

The Carrier signal and message signal are amplified first and then modulated.

Advatages: 1. More efficient RF amplifications with simple circuit design

2. Efficiency is High

Disadvantages: 1.Distortion is high

2. Large audio power is required to produce modulation
GENERATION OF AM WAVES

The Circuit that is used to generate AM waves is called as AM Modulator circuits. Two
such Circuits are 1. Square Law Modulator
2. Switching Modulator
Both of them use a non linear Device such as diode. A non linear device is a device
which does not have linear relation between current and voltage.
SQUARE LAW MODULATOR

The Square law modulator consists of the following 1. Non linear Device 2. Band Pass
Filter 3. Modulating Signal and Carrier Signal

The Message signal and the carrier signal are connected in series as shown in the
figure and their sum is V1(t). This is applied to the input of the Non linear Device.

em  Em Sin 2f m t  Em Sin m t ---------------Message Signal

ec  Ec Sin 2f c t  Ec Sinc t .-----------------Carrier Signal
We Know that V1 (t )  Em Sin m t  Ec Sinc t

The Input and output relationship for any non linear device is given by
V2 (t )  aV1 (t )  bV12 (t ) where a and b are constants

V2 (t )  aEm Sinm t  Ec Sinc t   bEm Sinmt  Ec Sinc t 

2

V2 (t )  aEm Sin m t  aEc Sinc t  bEm2 Sin 2 m t  bEc2 Sin 2c t  2bEm Sin m tEc Sinc t

2bEc Em
V2 (t )  aEm Sin m t  aEc Sinc t  bEm2 Sin 2m t  bEc2 Sin 2c t  Cosc  m t  Cosc  m t 
2
In the above equation the first term represents the Message signal, the second term
represents the Carrier signal and the Third term represents the AM with only side
bands. This output V2(t) is passed through the Band Pass filter Tuned to allow ωc- ωm
to ωc+ ωm

The Filtered output is

2bEc E m
V2 (t )  aEc Sin c t  bE m2 Sin 2 m t  bEc2 Sin 2c t  Cosc   m t  Cosc   m t 
2

SWITCHING MODULATOR

The Switching modulator consists of a diode and the diode acts as a switch
The Modulating Signal x(t) and The sinusoidal carrier c(t) are connected in series with
each other and is applied as input to the diode.

V1 (t )  x(t )  Ec Cosc t

Assumptions made: 1. Ec>>x(t)

2. C(t) decides whether the diode is ON or OFF
3. Diode is an ideal switch
During the Positive half cycle of the carrier signal c(t) , the Diode is forward biased and
the output voltage V2(t)= V1(t).
During the Negative half cycle of the Carrier signal C(t), the Diode is reverse biased
and the output V2(t)=0. V2(t) can be approximated as
V2 (t )  V1 (t ).g p (t )
Where gp(t) is the periodic pulse train with time period of T
The Fourier series approximation of this periodic pulse is
1 2   1n1
g p (t )    Cos2f c t 2n  1
2  n1 2n  1
g p (t )   Cos2f c t   Cos6f c t ................
1 2 2
2  3
Using the value of gp(t) in V2(t) we get
1 2 
V2 (t )  x(t )  E c Cos2f c t   Cos2f c t   Cos6f c t ................ 
2
2  3 
x(t ) Ec Cos2f c t 2
 x(t )Cos2f c t   Ec Cos 2 2f c t .......................
2
V2 (t )  
2 2  
In the above equation the first term indicates the modulating signal
Second and third term indicates the AM wave and the next term indicates the squared
carrier.
Ec Cos2f c t 2 E  4 
V2 (t )   x(t )Cos2f c t   c 1  Cos2f c t
2  2  Ec 
4
m
E c
AM DETECTOR CIRCUITS :

Demodulation is the process of recovering the modulating signal from the modulated
signal.

It is the reverse process of modulation. The recovered signal should contain the same
frequencies as the original signal and should have the same amplitude characteristics.
The most commonly used AM detector is diode detector also known as Envelope
Detector which is shown in the figure. The Envelope detector produces an output
signal that follows the Envelope of the input AM signal. The AM signal at fixed IF is
applied to the transformer primary. The signal at secondary is half wave rectified by
the diode D. This diode is the detector diode.
The resistor R is load resistance to rectifier and C is the filter capacitor. The capacitor
reconstructs the original modulating signal.
In the positive half cycle of AM signal, diode is forward biased. The capacitor C2
connected across the load resistance R is charged to the peak value of the input
voltage. As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stops
conducting. The capacitor still discharge through R between the positive peaks. The
discharging takes place until the next positive half of the input signal.

Thus the capacitor charges to the peak of one cycle to another peak and discharge if
the peak is smaller than Vc. The output waveform resembles the shape of the input
envelope. Hence the name shape detector.
Thus the circuit provides the envelope of the message by considering only their peaks.
The unwanted spikes or DC signal which may be introduced due to discharging can be
controlled by the time constant RC. The selection of time constant can be in the range
1 1
 RC 
fc fm
DISTORTION IN ENVELOPE DETECTOR

Two types of Distortion can occur 1. Negative peak clipping. 2. Diagonal clipping

NEGATIVE PEAK CLIPPING IN DIODE DETECTOR.

This is the distortion that occurs in the output of diode detector because of
unequal ac and dc load impedances of the diode. The modulation index is defined as
Em I E E
. Therefore it can be defined as m with I m  m and I c  c ..
Ec Ic Zm Rc
Here Zm is the audio diode load impedance and R c is the dc diode resistance. The
audio load resistance of the diode is smaller than the dc resistance. Hence the AF
current Im is larger, in proportion to dc current. This makes the modulation index in
the demodulated wave relatively higher than that of the modulated wave applied at the
detector input. The negative peak of the detected signal takes place because of over
modulation taking place at the detector.

a) Transmitted modulated wave b) Received modulated

wave
Negative clipping

DIAGONAL CLIPPING IN DIODE DETECTOR:

As the modulating frequency is increased, the diode ac load impedance Zm does
not remain purely resistive.
 At high modulation depths, the current changes so fast that the time constant
of the load does not follow the changes. Hence the current decays slowly as shown in
the figure.
The output voltage follows the discharge law of RC circuit. This introduces
distortion in the detected signal and it is called diagonal clipping.

ADVANTAGES OF AM
1.Carrier power is 2/3rd of the total power transmitted, but the carier does not
Contain any information
2.Both the sidebands are identical and transmitting both is not necessary
3.Bandwidth inefficient.

APPLICATIONS:
1. Radio Broadcasting
2. Picture transmission in TV system.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION CLASSIFICATION:

 Double side band full Carrier (DSBFC)

 Double side Band suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
 Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)
 Vestigial side Band (VSB)
 In the frequency spectrum, the carrier frequency is not carrying any information
hence can be suppressed and is called Double side band with suppressed carrier
( DSBSC) or simply Double side Band(DSB)
 Both the sidebands are carrying the same information hence only one sideband is
sufficient to convey the message. So we can suppress one sideband and transmit
the other - Called as the Single side band with suppressed carrier (SSBSC) or
single side band (SSB).
 In some cases only a portion (vestige) of the modulated signal will be carrying the
information hence we can transmit only that portion and suppress the rest and
this type is called as vestigial side band (VSB).
DSBSC SYSTEM:

mEc mEc
eDSBC  Cos( f c  f m )2t  Cos( f c  f m )2t
2 2

It is a technique where it is transmitting both the sidebands without the carrier

(carrier is being suppressed/cut)

Characteristics:

 Power content less

 Same bandwidth
Disadvantages - receiver is complex and expensive

GENERATION AND DEMODULATION OF DSBSC :

A circuit that produces a double sideband suppressed carrier signal is balanced

modulator. DSBSC can be generated using 1. Balanced Modulator 2. Ring Modulator

BALANCED MODULATOR / BALANCED MODULATOR USING FET.

The balanced modulator is used to suppress the carrier from the AM signal. The
inputs to the balanced modulator are carrier and modulating signal. The output of the
balanced modulator is upper and lower sidebands with suppressed carrier.

The Carrier signal is applied to the centre tapped of the transformer T2 and the
message signal is applied to the T1

Case (i): When Modulating Signal is not applied

The carrier is Fed tot eh circuit in such a way that it is applied simultaneously and in
phase to the gates of both the FET amplifier. The carrier produces current in both top
and bottom halves of output transformer that are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction hence they cancel each other and no carrier component appear at the output
wave

Case (ii): When Modulating Signal is applied

The modulating signal is appled to the circuit in such a way that it is applied
simultaneously to the gates of the two FET that is 180degrees out of phase. The
Modulating signal causes an increase in the draincurrent in one FET and decrease in
drain current of the other FET
V gs  ec (t )  em (t )  E c Sin c t  E m Sin m t

em (t )  em' (t )

Vgs'  ec (t )  em' m (t )  Ec Sinc t  Em Sinm t We know that

id  a1Vgs  b1Vgs2 & id'  a1V ' gs b1Vgs'2

 
V0  k id  id' ……………….(1)

id  a1 Ec Sinc t  Em Sinm t   b1 Ec Sinc t  Em Sinm t 

2

id  a1 Ec Sinc t  a1 Em Sin m t  b1 Ec2 Sin 2c t  b1 Em2 Sin 2 m t  2b1 Ec Sinc tEm Sin m t ………..(2)

id'  a1 E c Sin c t  E m Sin m t   b1 Ec Sin c t  E m Sin m t 

2

id'  a1 Ec Sinc t  a1 Em Sin m t  b1 Ec2 Sin 2c t  b1 Em2 Sin 2m t  2b1 Ec Sinc tEm Sin m t ………(3)

Using (2) and (3) in (1) we get

 2b 
V0 (t )  2ka1 Em Sin m t  4kb1 Ec Em Sinc tSin m t  2ka1 Em Sin m t 1  1 Ec Sinc t  ……(4)
 a1 
From Equation (4) we can see that carrier is suppressed and we have only the two side
bands at the output of Balanced Modulator. The output transformer operates at
carrier frequency hence it rejects the audio frequency and allows only the USB and
LSB
BALANCED RING MODULATOR USING DIODES/LATTICE MODULATOR

Figure shows the balanced modulator using diodes. It is also called lattice type
balanced modulator. The diode bridge is shown in two different ways. The modulator
consists of input transformer T1 output transformer T2 and four diodes.

The modulating signal is applied to the input of transformer T1, and the carrier signal
is applied to center taps of T1 and T2. The DSB output is collected at the secondary of
T2.

Assumption: Amplitude of the Carier >> Amplitude of the Modulating Signal

Case (i) Carrier is applided without Message Signal

When the modulating signal is zero and the carrier signal is applied for the positive
half cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 are
reversed biased as shown in Figure below

The current divides equally in the upper and lower portions of primary winding of T 2.
This produces a magnetic field which is equal in magnitude field which is equal in
magnitude but in opposite direction with the magnetic field produced by the current in
the lower half of the secondary, hence they cancel each other producing no output at
the secondary of T2. Thus carrier is suppressed.
In the negative half cycle of the carrier D1 and D2 are reverse biased and D3 and D4 are
forward biased as shown in figure below

Here also magnetic fields in primary winding of T2 are equal and opposite canceling
each other thus the carrier is suppressed.

Case (ii) Carrier is applided with Message Signal

When the modulating signal is applied to the primary of T1, it will appear across the
secondary of T1.

In the positive half cycle, the diodes D 1 and D2 are forward biased and they will
connect the secondary of T1 to the primary of T2. As a result the modulating signal at
the secondary of T1 is applied to primary of T2 through diodes D1 and D2.

In the negative half cycle diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and they will connect
the secondary of T1 to the primary of T2with reverse connections. This inverts the
polarity of modulating signal when it is applied to primary or T2. This is shown in the
figure below

.
 Figure © shows the DSB signal at the primary of T2. Thus when D3 and D4
conducts the polarity of the signal is opposite to that of modulating
signal.(180degree phase reversal) . (d) shows the DSB output at the secondary of
T2 with carrier totally suppressed

DEMODULATION OF DSB-SC (or) DSB-SC DETECTION:

Coherent detection of DSBSC Signal:

Principle: The synchronous or coherent detector uses locally generated carrier for
detection. This technique uses the carrier which is in phase coherence with that of
transmitter.

The baseband signal (modulating signal) m(t) can be recovered from a DSB-SC signal
S(t) by first multiplying s(t) with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and then low pass
filtering the wave as shown in the figure above.

It is assumed that the local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or synchronized in

both frequency and phase with the carrier wave c(t) used in the balanced modulator or
product modulator to generate DSB-SC s(t).

This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous

detection.Let the local oscillator signal has the same frequency but arbitrary phase
difference  measured with respect to the carrier wave c(t) in the transmitter or
'
modulator.In the above figure the output of the local oscillator is Ac Cos(2f c t   )
'
Hence the product modulator output is V (t )  Ac Cos(2f c t   ) s (t )

Where s(t )  Ac m(t )Cos(2f c t )

'
Therefore V (t )  Ac Ac Cos(2f c t )Cos(2f c t   )m(t )

1 1
 Ac Ac' Cos(4f c t   )m(t )  Ac Ac' Cosm(t )
2 2

 The first term in the above equation is the DSB-SC modulated signal with a
carrier frequency 2 f c
  The 2nd term is proportional to the modulating signal m(t).

 1st term is removed by the low pass filter provided the cutoff frequency of
this filter is greater than W but less than 2 f c  W

1
The filter output is V0  Ac Ac' Cosm(t )
2

The demodulated signal V0 (t ) is proportional to m(t) when the phase error  is a

constant. The amplitude of this demodulated signal is maximum when   0 and it is
 
minimum when    The zero demodulated signal, which occurs for   
2 2
represents the quadrature null effect of the coherent detector.The constant  the
detector provides undistorted message signal m(t).

Costas loop detection for DSBSC modulated wave:

One method of obtaining a practical synchronous receiver system suitable for
demodulating DSB-SC waves is to use COSTAS receiver. It consists of two coherent
detectors with same input(DSB-SC)The local oscillator signals for individual detectors
will be in phase quadrature with respect to each other.

The local oscillator is adjusted to the carrier frequency. The detector in the upper path
is known as in-phase coherent detector or I-channel. The detector in the lower path is
known as quadrature – phase coherent detector or Q-channel.
The two detectors are coupled together to form negative feed back system(to maintain
local oscillator in synchronous with the carrier wave)If the local oscillator signal is
same as that of the carrier, I-channel output contain the desired demodulated output
and Q-channel output is zero.Else Q-channel contains the output.
Assume that the local oscillator drifts in phase by a small value  radians , the output
of I-channel will remain same . both the Q-channel will produce a small voltage as its
output, which is proportional to Sin   The output of I and Q channel are combined
in the phase discriminator, which is a multiplier followed by a low pass filter.
The phase discriminator produces a DC voltage proportional to the error  . The DC
voltage is applied to the input of the VCO to correct the frequency and phase of the
VCO automated to reduce the phase.

SSB SYSTEM-SINGLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER

Since both the sidebands in DSB-SC are carrying the same information, it is
sufficient to transmit only one sideband .such a transmission is called as single side
band transmission.

In SSB-SC modulation, one side band either USB or LSB and the carrier are
suppressed.

Advantages:

 Since only single sideband is transmitted the bandwidth of the transmitter

and channel is only fm. This is half of the BW of DSBFC system.
 The power of the suppressed sideband is saved.
 The effect of noise at the receiver is reduced.
 Fading effect which arises because of the interference of carrier and two
sidebands is removed in SSB.
Disadvantages: Complex circuits for frequency stability

Applications : 1. Land and air mobile communication 2. Navigation 3. AM amateur

Radio

Generation of SSB: The various Methods are

1.Filter Method or Frequency Discriminator
2. Phase Shift Method or Hartley Method
3. Modified Phase shift Method or Weavers Method
1. Filter method:
The balanced modulator produces DSB output. This DSB signal contains both the
sidebands.This is given to sideband suppression filter to remove unwanted sidebands.
The filter must have a flat pass band and extremely high attenuation outside the pass
band. The frequency of the SSB signal generated at the output of the filter is very low
as compared to the transmitter frequency. The frequency is boosted up to the
transmitted frequency by the balanced mixer and crystal oscillator.The SSB signal is
then amplified by the linear amplifiers.
2. Phase shift method to generate SSB :

Figure shows the block diagram of phase shift method to generate SSB.It
consists of 2 balanced modulators M1 and M2.

The carrier signal is shifted by 90° and applied to the balanced modulator M1.
The modulating signal is directly applied to this modulator.

The carrier signal is directly applied to the balanced modulator M2. The
modulating signal is shifted by 90° and applied to this modulator.

Both M1 & M2 produce an output consisting of only side bands. Balanced

modulator M1 generates USB & LSB but each one is shifted by +90°.

Similarly M2 produces USB and LSB but USB is shifted by +90°and LSB by -90°.The
outputs of the balanced modulators are added by the summing amplifier.
Since the USB of both the modulators are shifted by +90°, they are in phase and add
to produce double amplitude signal. But LSB of both M1 and M2 are 180° out of phase
and hence cancel each other.
Thus the output of summing amplifier contains only upper sideband signal. The
carrier is already suppressed by the modulators.
It can be shown mathematically how the sidebands add and cancel each other
because of phase shifts.
Input to M1 are Sin  m t and Sin ( c t  90  )  Cos c t
Hence the output of M1 is
1
Sin[( c   m )t ]  Sin[( c  m )t ]----------------------------(1)
M 1  Sin  m t * Cos c t 
2
Inputs to M2 are Sin ( m t  90  )  Cos m t and Sin  c t
Hence the output of M2 is
M 2  Sin c t * Cos m t 
1
Sin(c   m )t  Sin(c   m )t  ----------(2)
2
The output of the Summing amplifier

V0 (t ) 
1
Sin(c   m )t  Sin (c   m )t   1 Sin(c   m )t  Sin(c   m )t 
2 2

V0 (t )  Sin (c   m )t

Advantages: No Need of Sharp cut off filters

Disadvantages: 1. Phase shift networking must provide exact 90degree phase shift
2.Balanced modulator must have equal sensitivity to the baseband signal
Vestigial Sideband ,Transmission:

Definition : One of the sideband is partially suppressed and vestige (portion) of the
other sideband is transmitted, This vestige (portion) compensates the suppression of
the sideband. It is called vestigial sideband transmission.

Generation and demodulation of VSB:

Figure shows the generation of VSB. The product modulator generators DSB-SC signal
from the message and carrier. The bandpass filter is designed in such a way that. it
suppresses one side band partially and passes a portion (vestige) of other sideband.
The output of the bandpass filter is VSB signal.
Magnitude Response of VSB Filter

Figure shows the magnitude response of VSB filter.

Here observe that fc to fc+W is USB. It's portion from fc to fc +fv is suppressed
partially. fc to fc - W is LSB. It's portion from fc -fv to fc is transmitted as vestige.
Observe that H(fc)=1/2. And the frequency response fc-fv<=H(f) <= fc+fv exhibits odd
symmetry.
The sum of any two frequency components in, the range. Is f c  f v  f  f c  f m equal
to unity. i.e H(f-fc) + H(f+fc) = 1 & Phase response is linear.

Transmission bandwidth

From figure the transmission bandwidth of VSB modulation is,

Br = fc +W
Applications and Advantages of VSB
Advantages:
1. Low frequencies, near fc are, transmitted without any attenuation.
2. Bandwidth is reduced compared to DSB.
Applications:
VSB is mainly used for TV transmission, since low frequencies near fc represent
significant picture details. They are unaffected due toVSB.

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENCT AM TECHNIQUES

Parameter AM/DSBFC DSBSC SSB VSB
Method Carrier and Only both Any one Side One sideband
both sidebands Sidebands, band is completely and
(LSB and USB) Carrier is transmitted Vestige of other
suppressed sideband
Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm <BW<2fm
Power  m2  m2 m2 PtSSB<PtVSB<PtDSB
Transmitted Pt  Pc 1   Pt  Pc Pt  Pc
 2  2 2
Transmission 33.3% 100% 100% 33.33%<η<100%
Efficiency
Generation Easy Easy Complex Complex
Heavy More distortion Least Received Signal
Selective distortion compared to Distortion is Distorted
Fading SSB
Applications AM Carrier Wireless Television
Broadcasting Telephony Broadcasting