Chapter 4

Viscous Flow of
Incompressible Fluids
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Dimensional analysis ☞ Laminar flow in horizontal pipes

☞ Buckingham’s p-theorem ☞ Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel
☞ Dimensionless numbers plates
☞ Flow through pipes ☞ Flow of lubricant in a journal bearing
☞ Power transmission through pipes ☞ Kinetic energy correction factor (a)
☞ Water hammer in pipes ☞ Momentum correction factor (β)
☞ Flow through syphon ☞ Boundary layer theory
☞ Turbulent flow in pipes

Dimensional Analysis For pipe flow, characteristic length is equal to the diam-
eter of the pipe (D) and hence,
It is a mathematical technique which involves the study of
dimensions for solving engineering problems. Each physical
phenomenon can be expressed by an equation which relates ρV D
Re pipe flow =
several dimensions and non-dimensional quantities. µ

BucKingham’s Π-Theorem Froude Number (Fr)

If there are n variables in a dimensionally homogenous (i.e., It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to
each additive term has the same dimensions) equation and the gravity force,
if these variables contain m fundamentals (basic or primary)
dimensions, then the variables can be arranged into (n - m) V
Fr =
dimensionless terms (or parameters) called Π-terms and the Lg
equation can be written in terms of these (n - m) Π-terms.

Dimensionless Numbers Euler Number (Eu)

Reynolds Number (Re) It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to
the pressure force.
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.

ρV L V
Re = Eu =
µ p
Where r and m are the density and viscosity of the fluid ρ
respectively. V is a characteristic velocity and L is a charac-
teristic length. Where, Dp is the pressure difference

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Weber Number (We) \ For non-circular pipes,

It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to ρVavg Dm
Re = , where
the surface tension force. µ
4A
ρV 2 L = =
Dm Hydraulic diameter of duct
We =   i.e., We = V Pw
σ σ
Here, A = Area of flow and Pw = Wetted perimeter of
ρL
duct
Where, s is the surface tension. Example: For a rectangular duct of width a and
height b shown in the figure,
Mach Number (Ma)
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force to
the elastic force.

V
Ma =
C b

Where, C is the velocity of sound in the fluid.

Average Velocity (Vavg)

It is defined as the average speed through a cross-section
and is defined as: a

Hydraulic mean diameter,

∫ ρ u( r ) d A
Vavg = A 4A 4 ab 2ab
ρA Dm = = =
Pw 2( a + b) ( a + b)

Where r is the fluid density, A is the cross-sectional area, 3. For flow over flat plate, Reynolds number is given by
u(r) is the velocity at any radius ‘r’ (referred to the pipe ρVx
centre) the distance from the pipe centerline. Re =
µ
For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R,
Where, x = distance of the point on the plate from
R where the solid surface starts (measured in the
2
R 2 O∫
Vavg = U (r) r d r direction of flow).
The Reynolds number at and below which the flow
remains laminar (i.e., all turbulences are damped
down), is called lower critical Reynolds number.
Flow Through Pipes
The Reynolds number at and above which the
Critical Reynolds Numbers flow is turbulent (i.e., flow cannot remain laminar)
1. For flow in a circular pipe, Reynolds number is is called the upper critical Reynolds number.
given by, In between these two critical values of Reynolds
number, flow is transitory.
ρ VAV D
Re = The lower critical Reynolds number and upper
µ critical Reynolds number for various types of flows
Where are tabulated below.
r = Density of fluid flowing inside the pipe
Flow Condition Laminar Transitional Turbulent
  Vavg = Average velocity of flow inside the pipe
Flow in circular Re ≤ 2000 2000 < Re Re ≥ 4000
D = Diameter of the pipe and pipes < 4000
m = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid inside the pipe. Open channel Re ≤ 500 500 < Re Re ≥ 1000
2. For flow through ducts (or non-circular cross- flow < 1000
section pipes), Reynolds number is based on the Flow over plate Re < 5 × 105 – Re > 5 ×
hydraulic mean diameter (Dm) instead of D. 105

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Entrance Region and Fully Major Energy Losses

Developed Flow These are energy losses due to friction and the loss of head
When a fluid enters a circular pipe at a nearly uniform due to friction (hL) is calculated using Darcy–Weisbach
velocity, a velocity gradient develops along the pipe. A equation given earlier.
boundary layer (flow region in which effects of the viscous In terms of the flow and resistance R, hL can be written
shearing forces caused by the fluid viscosity are significant) as
is produced which grows in thickness to completely fill the hL = R Q 2
pipe. At a point further downstream, the velocity becomes
fully developed and the region from the pipe inlet to this Flow through pipes with side tappings: Consider the
point is called the entrance region whose length is called the flow through a pipe when a fluid is withdrawn from closely
entrance length ‘Le’. spaced side tappings along the length of the pipe as shown
The region beyond the entrance region in which the in the following figure.
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged Let the fluid be removed at a uniform rate q per unit
in the flow direction is called the ‘fully developed region’. length of the pipe. Let the volume flow rate into the pipe be
Boundary Q0 and let L and D be the length and diameter of the pipe. If
Developing Vavg
Vavg layer region f is the friction factor assumed to be constant over the length
velocity profile
of the pipe, then

8 Q0 2 f L  q L 1 q 2 L2 
hf = 1 − + 
π 2 D 5 g  Q0 3 Q0 2 

X If the entire flow is drained off over the length L, then

Irrotational Hypothetical Fully
(core) flow boundary developed
region surface velocity profile 1 L 2 1
hf = f V0
3 D 2g
Fully
Entrance region
developed
region Q0
Where, V0 = . The above equation indicates that the
π 2
⋅

At the irrotational (core) flow region, viscous effects are D

negligible and velocity remains essentially constant in the 4
radial direction. This region is separated from the boundary loss of head due to friction over a length L of a pipe, where
layer region by a hypothetical boundary surface. the entire flow is drained off uniformly from the side tap-
The effect of the entrance region is to increase the aver- pings, becomes one third of that in a pipe of same length
age friction factor for the entire pipe, the increase being sig- and diameter but without side tappings.
nificant for short pipes but negligible for long pipes.
Minor Energy Loses
Entrance Length The minor energy losses include the following cases

Le 1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement (he):

In laminar flow, ≈ 0.06 Re ⋅

D
2
Le 1
In turbulent flow, ≈ 4.4 Re1/ 6 ⋅

D
Le
is sometimes referred to as the dimensionless
D V1 V2
entrance length.
Entrance length for turbulent flow is much shorter than
for laminar flow 2
1
Loss of Energy (or Head) in Pipes
When a fluid flows in a pipe, its motion experiences some (V1 −V2 ) 2
resistance due to which the available head reduces. This loss he =
2g
of energy or head is classified as:

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2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction (hc): Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in the pipe and
K is the value of the coefficient that depends on the
1 C 2 type of pipe fitting.
These losses (hb and hfittings) are sometimes expressed
in terms of an equivalent length (Le) of an unobstructed
straight pipe in which an equal loss would occur for
the same average flow velocity.
Ac A2, V2
DK
Le =
f
1 C 2 NOTE
For a sudden expansion in a pipe flow, if D1 and D2 are the
2 diameter of the pipe before and after the expansion respec-
V2 2  1  D 1
hc =  − 1 tively, the pressure rise is maximum when 1 = and
2 g  Cc  D2 2
0.5 ρ gV12
A the maximum pressure rise would be .
Where, Cc = c is the coefficient of contraction. If 2g
A2
the value of Cc is not known, then loss of head due to
V2 Equivalent Pipe
contraction may be taken as 0.5 2 .
2g An equivalent pipe is defined as the pipe of uniform diam-
3. Loss of head due to obstruction in pipe (hobs): eter having loss of head and discharge equal to the loss of
head and discharge of a compound pipe (pipe in series) con-
2 sisting of several pipes of different lengths and diameters.
 A  V2
hobs =   The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is known as
 Cc ( A − a )  2 g equivalent diameter of the pipes in series.
Where, A is the area of the pipe, a is the maximum Consider n pipes in series where the length, diameter and
area of obstruction and V is the velocity of liquid in friction factor associated with the ith pipe are Li, Di and fi
the pipe. respectively. If L, D and f are the length, diameter and fric-
tion factor associated with the equivalent pipe, then neglect-
4. Loss of head at the entrance to pipe (hi):
ing minor losses we have,
V2
hi = 0.5 f L n fi Li
2g =∑
D 5 i =1 Di 5
Where, V is the velocity of liquid in pipe.
5. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe (h0): If the friction factor fi is equal to f, then

V2 L n
Li
ho =
2g D 5
= ∑ 5
i =1 Di

Where, V is the velocity at outlet of pipe.

The above equation is called the Dupit’s equation.
6. Loss of head due to bend in the pipe (hb):

KV 2
hb =
2g SOLVED EXAMPLES

Where, V is the mean velocity of flow of liquid and K Example 1

is the coefficient of bend. A piping system consists of a pipe of length L which can
7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings (hfittings) be replaced by an equivalent pipe of length Le, diameter De
and friction factor fe. The length of the pipe is increased by
KV 2 amount DL. The new pipe can be replaced by an equivalent
hfittings =
2g pipe of length Le, diameter 0.5 De and friction factor 0.5 fe.

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If the increase in length has led to the friction factor of the Velocity of flow in the 500 mm diameter pipe
new pipe being a quadruple of the old pipe, then DL is equal 2
to  0.25 
=  × 4 = 1 m/s
(A) 15L (B) 3L  0.5 
(C) 4L (D) 7L Head loss due to expansion,
(V1 −V2 ) 2 ( 4 − 1) 2
Solution hL = =
2g 2 × 9.81
Let D and f be the diameter and friction factor of the old
pipe. = 0.4587 m

L f Le f e Let Le3 be the equivalent length for the sudden expansion.

\ = (1) Le3
D 5 De5 V2 2
Then, fe × = hL
For the new pipe, De 2g

( L + ∆ L) × 4 f Le × 0.5 f e 0.5
= That is, Le3 = 0.4587 × 2 × 9.81×
D5 (0.5 De )5 0.02 × (1) 2
= 225 m
L f
= 16 e 5e (2) Equivalent length for the 500 mm diameter pipe of length
De 40 m.
Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (2), we have Le4 = 40 m
( L + ∆ L) × 4 f Lf Total equivalent length
5
= 16 × 5
D D = Le1 + Le2 + Le3 + Le4
L + DL = 4L
= 800 + 25 + 225 + 40 = 1090 m.
DL = 3L Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

Example 2 Pipes in Parallel

A piping system consists of a series of pipes in which a For the parallel pipe system shown below, the rate of dis-
20 m long pipe of diameter 250 m (  f = 0.025), containing charge in the main line is equal to the sum of the discharge
a value (K = 1.0), suddenly expands to a 500 mm diameter in the pipes.
pipe (f = 0.02) of length 40 m. If the velocity of flow in That is,
the 250 mm diameter pipe is 4 m/s, then the length of an
equivalent pipe (f = 0.02) of diameter 500 mm for the piping Q = Q1 + Q2
system would be
(A) 1090 m (B) 865 m
(C) 1065 m (D) 1050 m D1, L1, V1 Pipe 1

Q1
Solution
Mainline
Equivalent length for the 250 mm diameter pipe,
Q
f L D5 Q
he1 = 2 52 × e
D2 fe Q2
D2, L2, V2
= 0.025 × 20 × (0.5) = 800 m
5

(0.25)5 0.02 When pipes are arranged in parallel the head loss in each
Equivalent length for the value, pipe is the same.
That is,
KD 1.0 × 0.5
he2 = = = 25 m Loss of head in pipe 1 = Loss of head in pipe 2
f 0.02

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Pipe Network Power Transmission

A B
through Pipes

Reservoir

C H Pipeline

Turbine

The pipe structure shown above can be converted into a pipe In the above system, hydraulic power is transmitted by a
network (or hydraulic circuit) with nodes (or junctions) and pipeline (through conveyance of the liquid) to a turbine.
links. Here Q denotes the flow rate and R denotes the flow Here, the hydrostatic head of the liquid is transmitted by
resistance. the pipeline.
Potential head of liquid in the reservoir = H (difference
Q1 A Q2, R2 B Q5, R5 in the liquid level in the reservoir and the turbine center).
Head available at pipe exit (or the turbine entry) = H - hL
Q4, R4 (neglecting minor losses), where hL is loss of head in the
Q3, R3 pipeline due to friction.
C Power transmitted by the pipeline (or available of the exit
of the pipeline),
Q6, R6
P = rgQ(H - hf)

In the above network, the algebraic sum of the flow rates at Efficiency of power transmission,
any node must be zero, i.e., the total mass flow rate towards
the junction must be equal to the total mass flow rate away H − hf
from it. η= ×100
At a node, H

S Qin = S Qout
H
Power transmitted will be maximum when hf =
Example: At node A, Q1 = Q2 + Q3 3
Also in the above network, the algebraic sum of the prod-
ucts of the flux(Q2) and the flow resistance (the sense being
Maximum power transmission efficiency (or effi-
determined by the direction of flow) must be zero in any
ciency of transmission at the condition of maximum
closed loop or hydraulic circuit.
In a closed loop, 200
power delivered) is % or 66.67 %
3
∑ Ri Qi Qi = 0 (1)

Example: Considering the loop ABC, we can write Water Hammer in Pipes
In a long pipe, when the flow velocity of water is suddenly
R2(Q2)2 - R4(Q4)2 - R3(Q3)2 = 0 brought to zero (by closing a valve), there will be a sud-
The term R4 | Q4 | Q4 gets converted to the negative quantity den rise in pressure due to the momentum of water being
destroyed. A pressure wave is transmitted along the pipe.
-R4(Q4)2 because in the link BC, the considered loop direc-
tion (from B to C) is opposite to the flow direction (from C A sudden pressure rise brings about the effect of a ham-
mering action on the walls of the pipe. This phenomenon
to B). Eq. (1) is referred to as the pressure equation of the
circuit. Since, hL = RQ2, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as: of sudden rise in pressure is known as water hammer or
hammer blow.
The magnitude of pressure rise depends on:
∑ hL i
=0
1. Speed at which valve is closed
Where the correct sign values are assigned to the hL value. 2. Velocity of flow

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3. Length of pipe and

4. Elastic properties of the pipe material as well as that (2)
h
of the flowing fluid. (1)

Let, D = Diameter of pipe

A = Area of cross-section of pipe
T = Thickness of pipe

(Z1 − Z3)
L = Length of pipe
Time taken by the pressure wave to travel from tank to valve
RA (3)
2L
and valve to tank is given by, T =
C
Where, C is velocity of pressure wave
For gradual closure of valve T > 2L/C RB
For sudden closure of valve T < 2L/C
Gradual closure: Atmospheric pressure, pa = 10.3 m of water column. Hence
P LV theoretically, for water flow, the pressure at summit p2 can be
= −10.3 m of water but practically it must be between −7.6 m
ρ g gT and −8.0 m. Hence the vertical height difference (h) between
Sudden closure and rigid pipe: (2) and (1) must be restricted to (10.3 − 8.0 = 2.3) to (10.3
P VC − 7.6 = 2.7) m, so that the pressure at summit (p2) is in the
= , where P is pressure developed. range of 2.3 m to 2.7 m absolute. If the pressure at summit
ρg g
becomes less than this value, dissolved air and gases will
Sudden closure and elastic pipe: come out of water and accumulate at the summit, hindering
the flow of water.
P VC 1 If r is the density of liquid, V1 = velocity of flow at (1),
=
ρg g DK V3 = velocity of flow at (3), then by applying Bernoulli’s
1+
Et equation between points (1) and (3), we get
Where
p1 V12 p V2
D = Diameter of pipe + + Z1 = 3 + 3 + Z3 + h f
K = Bulk modulus of pipe material ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
E = Youngs modulus of pipe material
t = Thickness of pipe 4 fLV 2
Here, hf = head loss due to friction in syphon =
2 gd
Where
Flow Through Syphon L = Length of syphon pipe
When two reservoirs, one at a higher level and another at d = Diameter of siphon pipe,
a lower level are separated by a high level ground or hill, V = Average velocity of flow in the syphon pipe.
a long bend pipe which is used to transfer liquid from the F = Friction coefficient for syphon pipe
higher altitude reservoir to the lower altitude reservoir is
We have, p1 = p3 = pa and V1 = V2 = 0. (\RA and RB are
called a syphon.
large tanks)
Syphons are also used to:
1. Empty a channel not provided with any outlet orifice 4 fLV 2
Hence, ( Z1 − Z3 ) = h f = (1)
2. To take out liquid from a tank not provided with any 2 gd
outlet.
If (Z1 - Z3) is known, d and L are known, then V2 can be
A syphon used for transferring liquid from a high altitude calculated.
reservoir RA to a low altitude reservoir RB is shown in the π
Once V is known, discharge Q = d 2V will give the
figure. The highest point of the syphon (2) is called the sum- discharge through the syphon. 4
mit, while (1) and (3) are the free liquid surface in reservoir It must be noted that in the above calculation, we have
RA and RB respectively. The height difference between (1) considered all minor losses as negligible.
and (3) is (Z1 - Z3). Since (1) and (3) are open to atmos- Now by applying Bernoulli’s equation between points (1)
phere, the corresponding pressures are p1 = p3 = pa, where and (2), we get
pa = atmospheric pressure.
Since (2) at a higher level than (1), pressure at (2) (i.e., p1 V12 p V2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + h1f
p2) is less than p1, i.e., p2 < p1 (p1 = pa). ρ g 2g ρ g 2g

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Here, V2 = V (as calculated earlier) Q = Discharge = Area × Velocity

4 fL1V 2 π 2 π
h1f = , where L1 = length of syphon pipe from = d V = × ( 25 × 10 −3 ) 2 × 2.96
2 gd 4 4
tank RA to summit (2).
= 1.453 × 10-3 m3/s
NOTE = 1.453 lit/s (Q 10-3 m3 = 1 litre)
L1 \ Volume flow rate through the syphon is 1.453 lit/s
h1f = h f ×
L
Also p1 = pa = 0, V1 = 0 Given, (Z2 - Z1) = 2 m

p2 V 2 4 fL1V 2 L1 = length of pipe from inlet to summit = 2.5 m

⇒ + + + ( Z 2 − Z1 ) = 0
ρ g 2g 2 gd
4 fL1V 2
\ h f1 =
p2 4V2 fL1V 2 2 gd
i.e., + + + h = 0 (QZ2 − Z1 = h)
ρ g 2g 2 gd
4 × 0.007 × 2.5 × ( 2.96) 2
= = 1.25 m
From the above equation, minimum pressure at summit p2 2 × 9.81× 25 × 10 −3
can be calculated. If minimum pressure p2 is known, the Applying Bernoulli’s equation between inlet (1) and summit
maximum height h can be calculated. (2), we get

Example 3 p1 v12 p v2
+ + Z1 = 2 + + Z 2 + h1f
A large water tank empties by gravity through a syphon. ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
The difference in levels of the high altitude and low alti- But p1 = 0 (Q atmospheric pressure)
tude tanks is 3 m and the highest point of the siphon is 2 m
above the free surface of water in the high altitude tank. The V1 = 0 (Q large tank)
length of syphon pipe is 6 m and its bore is 25 mm. Also
the length of syphon pipe from inlet to the highest point is p2 v 2
⇒ + + h1f + ( Z 2 − Z1 ) = 0
2.5 m. The friction coefficient for the pipe is 0.007 and all ρ g 2g
other losses are negligible. Calculate the volume flow rate
of water through the syphon and the pressure head at the p2 v2
⇒ = −( Z 2 − Z1 ) − h f1 −
highest point in the pipe. ρg 2g

Solution 2.96 2
= −(2) − (1.25) −
Given Z1 - Z3 = 3 m 2 × 9.81
L=6m = −2 − 1.25 − 0.45

d = 25 mm = 25 × 10-3 m = −3.70 m of water

f = 0.007 \ Pressure head at the highest point in the syphon is -3.70
m of water (i.e., 3.7 m of water absolute).
4 fLV 2
We have (Z1 − Z3) =
2 gd Relationship between Shear Stress
and Pressure Gradient
2( Z1 − Z3 ) gd
⇒ V2 = Let us consider a fluid element whose velocity distribution
4 fL is shown in the following figure, where the shear stresses (t)
acting on the two fluid layers are also shown.
( Z1 − Z3 ) gd The motion of the fluid element will be resisted by
⇒V=
2 fL shearing or frictional forces which must be overcome by
maintaining a pressure gradient in the direction of flow.
3 × 9.81× 25 × 10 −3 Here,
=
2 × 0.007 × 6
= 2.96 m/s ∂τ ∂P
=
Hence, speed of flow of water in syphon is 2.96 m/s ∂ y ∂x

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Y (c) Shear stress varies linearly across the flow section

with a value of zero at the centre of the pipe (r = 0)
⎛ ∂τ ⎛ Velocity profile  −∂ p R ∆ p R 
⎜τ + ∂ y δ y⎜ and with a maximum value  = = 
⎝ ⎝
at the pipe wall.  ∂x 2 L 2

⎛ ∂T ⎛ The shear stress at the pipe wall is called the wall shear
⎜τ + ∂ y δ y⎜ stress tw.
δy ⎝ ⎝
∆p R
τ τω =
L 2
τ
τω r
X τ=
R
∂ p The wall shear stress is highest at the pipe inlet and
That is, the pressure gradient   in the direction of flow
∂x  it decreases gradually to the fully developed value.
 ∂τ  In a steady fully developed flow, wall shear stress
(steady and uniform) is equal to the shear gradient  
∂y remains constant. The above four equation are valid
for turbulent flow also.
in the direction normal to the direction of flow. The above
equation holds for all flow conditions and geometries. The equations stated in the following section rests
on the following two assumptions:
(a) Fluid is Newtonian
Laminar Flow in (b) No slip of fluid particles occurs at the boundary
Horizontal Pipes (no-slip condition), i.e., fluid particles adjacent to
The following discussion is based on the steady laminar the pipe will have zero velocity.
incompressible flow of a fluid with constant properties in 2. Velocity profile (u(r)): In a fully developed laminar
the fully developed region of a straight circular pipe unless flow, there is no motion in the radial direction and
stated otherwise. thus the velocity component in the direction normal
to the pipe axis is everywhere zero.
1. A fully developed laminar pipe flow is merely a
balance between pressure and viscous forces. For the For a steady fully developed pipe flow,
steady fully developed laminar flow of a fluid through ∂u
(a)  ( r , x ) = 0 ⇒ u = u ( r ). Velocity contains only
a horizontal circular pipe of radius R, the shear stress ∂x
distribution is given by an axial component, which is a function of only the
radial component.
−∂ p r (b)  Acceleration experienced by the fluid is zero.
τ = ⋅  (1) Local acceleration is zero as the flow is steady and
∂x 2
convective acceleration is zero as the flow is fully
Here, x is the distance along the pipe. The pressure developed.
∂p The velocity profile is given by,
gradient in the x-direction, is larger in the
∂x
R 2  ∆p    r  
2
entrance region than in the fully developed region u (r) =    1 −   (2)
4 µ  L    R  
∂ p −∆ p
where it is a constant, = , where Dp is the
∂x L
pressure drop over a flow section of length L. Velocity profile of a fully developed laminar flow
in a pipe is parabolic while for a fully developed

turbulent flow, it is much flatter.
∆p r
τ=
The velocity profile has a maximum value
L 2
 R2  ∆ p  
 umax =  at the pipe centerline and a
Few highlighting points that can be deciphered from  4 µ  L  
Eq. (1) are: minimum value (= zero) at the pipe wall.
(a) Flow will occur only if a pressure gradient exists in
the flow.   r 2 
u ( r ) = umax 1 −   
(b) Pressure decreases in the direction of flow due to  R 
 
viscous effects.

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In a fully developed laminar pipe flow, the average For a fully developed laminar flow Darcy’s friction
velocity is one half of the maximum velocity i.e., 64
factor f = and hence the friction factor for the
umax = 2Vavg Re
flow is a function of only Reynolds number and is
independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.
  r 2 
u ( r ) = 2Vavg 1 −   
 R  Friction factor is maximum for a fully developed

  turbulent flow
Shear stress
distribution
4. Head loss (hL): The pressure drop (DP) due to
viscous effects or friction represents an irreversible
r pressure loss and is generally called as pressure loss
R
due to friction (DPL). Head loss (hL) in general refers
to any energy loss associated with the flow but here it
is stated loss to refer to the pressure losses expressed
in terms of an equivalent fluid column height.
τω Laminar Ideal (inviscid)
velocity velocity profile 2
∆PL L Vavg (3)
profile hL = = f
ρg D 2g
3. Pressure drop (DP):
2τ L 4 L τ ω
ΔP hL = =
ρ gr ρ gD

Vavg
Eq. (3) is called the Darcy–Weisbach equation, is
D valid for laminar and turbulent flows in both circular
and non-circular pipes. The head loss represents the
additional height that the fluid needs to be raised by
L a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses
(1) (2) in the pipe. In Eq. (3), pressure drop is taken to be
equivalent to the pressure loss and this is valid only
The pressure drop (between sections 1 and 2) across a under the assumptions by which the equivalency can
length L of a flow section in a horizontal circular pipe be derived from Bernoulli’s equation. The variable hL
of diameter D, is generally referred to as the head loss due to friction.
It is to be noted that DPL and hL both represent losses
32 µ LVavg
∆P = over the length of the pipe.
D2
For the flow of an ideal (inviscid) fluid, hL = 0.

The pressure drop for all type of flow, developed pipe 
flow (laminar or turbulent flows, circular or non- 5. Required pumping power (W pump, L ):
circular pipes, smooth or rough surfaces, horizontal The required pumping power to overcome the
or inclined pipes), pressure loss,
L ρ Vavg
2
 
∆P = f W pump,L = Q D PL = mghL
D 2
Where, f is the Darcy friction factor or Darcy– 6. Volumetric flow rate (Q):
Weisbach friction factor or simply the friction factor, The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal
circular pipe,
8 τω
f = ∆PD 2
ρ Vavg
2 Vavg =
32 µ L

The skin friction coefficient or the coefficient of Volumetric flow rate for laminar flow through a
friction or the Fanning friction factor (Cf) is defined as horizontal pipe of diameter D and length L,

2 τω f ∆ P π D4
Cf =    C f = Q = Vavg A =
ρ Vavg
2 4 128 µ L

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The above equation is called the Poiseuille’s law. or Example 5

the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. The steady laminar The mass flow rate of the steady fully developed laminar
viscous flow in a channel or tube from a region of flow of a fluid (density = 900 kg/m3, viscosity = 9 poise) in
high pressure to a region of low pressure is called a horizontal pipe of diameter 0.5 m is 212.06 kg/s. The per-
Poiseuille flow. pendicular distance from the pipe wall at which the velocity
is 0.432 m/s is
π (A) 0.0236 m (B) 0.4527 m
Q = U max R 2
2 (C) 0.0472 m (D) 0.2264 m

Example 4 Solution
Given
In a horizontal circular pipe of length 20 m, a fluid (density

= 850 kg/m3, viscosity = 9 poise) flows in a steady fully m = 212.03 kg/s
developed laminar manner. If the head loss and the wall
r = 900 kg/m3
shear stress associated with the flow are 5 m and 104 N/m2
respectively, then the Darcy friction factor for the flow is D = 0.5 m
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.0073
V = 0.432 m/s
(C) 0.1167 (D) 1.868

m = r A Vavg
Solution
212.06 × 4
Vavg =
Given L = 20 m 900 × π × 0.52
r = 850 kg/m3 = 1.2 m/s
m = 0.9 Pa/s It is known that for the flow condition given, the velocity
profile of the flow is given by,
hL = 5 m
tw = 104 N/m2  r2 
V = Vmax 1 − 2 
 R 
It is presumed here that all the assumptions for the pressure
loss to be equal to the pressure drop are valid. Here maximum velocity,

\ DP = h1 rg = 5 × 850 × 9.81 = 41692.5 Pa Vmax = 2 × Vavg

∆P R  r2 
Now, tw = × \ V = 2 × Vavg 1 − 2 
L 2  R 
2 Lτ ω  r2 
\ Radius of the pipe, R = 0.432 = 2 × 1.2 × 1 −
∆P 
 0.252 
2 × 20 ×104 r = 0.2264 m
= = 0.1 m
41692.5 \ The perpendicular distance from the pipe wall at which
32 µ Vavg L the velocity is 0.432 m/s
Now, D P = ⋅

= R - r = 0.25 - 0.2264
D2
= 0.0236 m
8 µ Vavg L
= ⋅
Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
R2
41692.5 × (0.1) 2 Example 6
\ Vavg = = 2.895 m/s.
8 × 0.9 × 20 A circular pipe of diameter 0.07 m and length 300 m is
inclined at an angle 30° with the horizontal. The volumetric
8τ ω flow rate of the steady fully developed laminar flow of the
Now, f =
ρ Vavg
2
fluid (viscosity = 8 poise, density = 800 kg/m3) in the pipe is
7 lit/s. The minimum power of a pump with efficiency 70%
8 ×104
= = 0.1167. that can maintain this flow is
850 × 2.8952 (A) 40.28 W (B) 40.28 kW
Hence, the correct answer is option (C). (C) 28.196 kW (D) 48.89 kW

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Solution 0.007 × 4.025 ×106

The energy equation is given by, =
0.7
P1 α1 v12 P V2 = 40280 W = 40.28 kW .
+ + Z1 + hp = L + α 2 2 + Z 2 + ht + hL (1)
ρg 2g ρg 2g Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

2
Example 7
The velocity distribution in a pipe is given as u = umax
  r 3 
1 −    when umax is the maximum velocity at the cen-
 R 
300 m  
1 tre of the pipe, u is the velocity at a distance r from the pipe
centre line and R is the pipe radius. The ratio of the average
velocity to the maximum velocity is
(A) 1 : 2 (B) 3 : 10
(C) 1 : 1 (D) 3 : 5
30°

Solution
Since no pump and turbine is involved in the flow section   r 3 
considered, Given u = umax 1 −    . Consider an elementary ring
  R 
 
hp = h = 0 of thickness dr and at a distance r from the pipe centre. The
The level Z1 is considered as datum, i.e., Z1 = 0. Hence, Z2 discharge through this elementary ring is given by,
1 dQ = u × 2 prdr
= L × sin 30 = 300 × =150 m
2
Although the velocity is not uniform across a pipe cross-   r 3 
section, the velocity profile does not change from section 1 = umax 1 −    2prdr
to section 2 due to the fully developed flow.  R 
 
\ a1 = a2 \ The discharge through the pipe is
Now V1 = V2 (from continuity equation) R
Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes, Q = ∫ dQ
O
P1 − P2
=150 + hL
ρg R   r 3 
= ∫ max 1 −  R   2prdr
u
32 µ LVavg O  
=150 + (it is assumed that DPL − DP)
D2 ρ g 3
= π R 2 umax ×
32 µ L Q 5
=150 + 2 ×
D ρ g π D2 Now, Q = pR2uavg
4
3
32 × 0.8 × 300 0.007 ⇒ pR2Uavg = pR2umax × .
=150 + × 5
0.072 × 800 × 9.81 π × 0.072 Hence, the correct answer is option (D).
4
= 513.26 Flow of Viscous Fluid between
or      P1 − P2 = 513.26 × 800 × 9.81
two Parallel Plates
Plane Poiseuille Flow
= 4.028 MN/m2
             The laminar flow of a viscous fluid between two paral-
lel plates, both of which are stationery, is called a plane
Q × ( P1 − P2 ) Poiseuille flow. Consider a plane Poiseuille flow as shown
Power of the pump =
η in the following figure:

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simple or plain Couette flow or simple shear flow. This type

of flow is usually used to model the lubricant motion in a
b journal bearing with a rotating shaft, where the velocity of
y the lubricant is assumed to be linear.
x ∂p
Case 2: < 0 , i.e., negative pressure gradient in the
∂x
direction of motion. In this case, velocity is positive over
The velocity distribution is given by,
the whole gap between the plates.
∂p
−1  ∂p  Case 3: > 0, i.e., positive pressure gradient in the
u( y ) = (by − y 2 ) ∂x
2 µ  ∂x 
direction of motion. In this case, velocity over a portion of
The discharge per unit with is given by, the gap between the plates can be negative.
− b2  ∂ p 
b3 ∂ p Let, K =  
q =− 2µ u  ∂ x 
12 µ ∂ x

The shear stress distribution (where the fluid is a Newtonian K < −1

fluid) is given by,

−1  ∂ p 
τ =   (b − 2 y )
2 ∂x 

The velocity profile for a plane Poiseuille flow will be a

symmetric parabolic velocity profile. K<0

For a plane Poiseuille flow, the ratio of the average fluid

velocity to the maximum fluid velocity is 2 : 3.

Couette Flow
The laminar flow of a viscous fluid between two parallel
plates, one of which is moving relative to the other, is called K=0
a Couette flow. Consider a Couette flow where the lower
plate is at rest and the upper plate moves uniformity with a
constant velocity u as shown in the following figure:
Upper plate
u

b y

Lower plate K>0

x

The velocity distribution is given by,

u 1 ∂ p
u ( y) = y−   (by − y )
2
b 2µ  ∂ x 

∂p
Case 1: = 0 , i.e., zero pressure gradient in the direc- The discharge per unit width of the plates is given by,
∂x
uy
tion of motion. Then in this case, u(y) = which is a ub b3  ∂ p 
b q= −  
2 12 µ  ∂ x 
linear velocity distribution. This particular case is known as

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The shear stress distribution where the fluids is Newtonian Solution

is given by, The shear stress distribution is
u 1 ∂ p −1  ∂ p 
τ =µ −   (b − 2 y ) τ =   (b − 2 y )
b 2 ∂x  2 ∂x
The maximum shear stress occurs at y = 0
Flow of Lubricant in
−1  ∂ p 
a Journal Bearing At y = 0, t = 
2 ∂x
b
The flow of the lubricant in a journal bearing is usually
modeled as a simple (or plain) Couette flow. The velocity, Given, b = 5 × 10-3 m

ur ∂p
u (r) = = − 5 ×103 N/m 2
d ∂x
−1
\τ = × ( −5 ×103 ) × 5 ×10 −3
2
r
= 12.5 N/m2.
ω Shaft
Hence, the correct answer is option (C).

d
Example 9
Bearing
The maximum velocity of the fluid is
(A) 0.1563 m/s (B) 0.1042 m/s
(C) 0.0782 m/s (D) 0.1172 m/s
Radial clearance
(filled with lubricant) Solution
−1  ∂ p 
Where r is the radial distance from the outer surface of the u( y ) =   (by − y )
2
2µ  ∂ x 
shaft to the bearing, d is the radial clearance and u is the sur-
face speed of the shaft. If the shaft is rotating at N rpm then, Since the velocity profile of this plane Poiseuille flow is a
symmetric parabolic one, the maximum velocity will occur
r ω R r 2π N R b
U (r) = = at y = .
d 60 d 2
Where ω and R are the angular velocity and radius of the  b  − b 2  ∂p 
\ Umax = U   =  
shaft respectively. The Reynolds number for the lubricant  2  8 µ  ∂x 
flow is defined as:
− (5 ×10 −3 ) 2
ρud × ( − 5 ×103 ).
Re = = 8 × 0.1
µ
= 0.1563 m/s
The flow condition in the bearing is said to be laminar if
Re < 500 and turbulent if Re > 500. Hence, the correct answer is option (A).

Direction for solved examples 8 and 9: For the plane Poiseuille flow,
A Newtonian fluid of viscosity 1 poise flows in a steady and ρ Vavg b
laminar manner between two stationery parallel horizontal Re = and friction factor,
µ
plates separated by a perpendicular distance of 5 mm. The
pressure gradient in the horizontal direction (x-direction) is 48
f=
determined to be −5 kN/m2. Re

Example 8
The maximum shear associated with the flow is Example 10
(A) 0 N/m2 (B) 25 N/m2 A laminar flow of an oil (viscosity = 20 poise) takes place
(C) 12.5 N/m2 (D) 12.5 × 103 N/m2 between two stationary parallel plates which are 150 mm

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apart. If the average velocity of flow is 1.5 m/s, then the Given, at y = 0, t = 0
shear stress at vertical distance of 37.5 mm from the lower
plate is u 1 ∂ p
(A) 40 N/m2 (B) 160 N/m2 ⇒ 0=µ −  b
2
b 2 ∂x 
(C) 90 N/m (D) 60 N/m2
1  ∂p  u
or =
Solution 2 µ  ∂x  b 2
Given m = 2 Pa/s, b = 0.15 m,
ub b3  ∂ p 
Now, q = −  
Vavg = 1.5 m/s 2 12 µ  ∂ x 
The maximum velocity for a plane Poiseuille flow is given u b b3 u
by, = − × 2
2 6 b
− b2  ∂ p  ub ub ub
Vmax =   = − = .
8µ  ∂ x  2 6 3
Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
Also for this flow,

2 Kinetic Energy Correction

Vavg/Vmax =
3 Factor (a)
− b2  ∂ p  Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as the ratio of the
\Vavg =   kinetic energy of flow per second based on actual velocity
12 µ  ∂ x 
across a section to the kinetic energy of flow per second
 ∂ p  −1.5 ×12 × 2 based on average velocity across the same section. This fac-
\  = = −1600 N/m3 tor is introduced to account for the non-uniformity of the
∂x (0.15) 2
velocity profile across an inlet or outlet due to viscosity of
fluid.
−1  ∂ p  Kinetic energy correction factor,
Now, t =   (b − 2 y )
2 ∂x 
3
\ At y = 0.0375 m, 1  V 
α = ∫  dA
A  Vavg 
−1
t= × ( −1600) × (0.15 − 2 × 0.0375) Where
2
V = Local velocity at any point in the cross-section
= 60 N/m2.
Vavg = Average velocity across the cross-section.
Hence, the correct answer is option (D).
For uniform velocity distribution, a = 1.0
Example 11 For laminar flow through a pipe, a = 2.0
In a Couette flow, the two parallel identical plates are at a For turbulent flow through a pipe,
distance b metres apart and the upper plate moves with a a = 1.01 to 1.33.
constant velocity of u m/s with the lower plate stationary.
The fluid flows between the plates such that the shear stress
at the lower plate is zero and the discharge for this flow per
Momentum Correction
unit width of the plates is given by q. If the viscosity of the Factor (β)
fluid and the pressure gradient in the horizontal direction The momentum correction factor is defined as the ratio
(x-direction) are doubled, then the discharge per unit width of momentum of the flow per second based on the actual
becomes velocity to the momentum of the flow per second based on
(A) q (B) 0.5 q the average velocity across a cross-sectional area. This fac-
(C) 0.75 q (D) 2 q tor is introduced to account for the non-uniformity of the
velocity across an inlet or outlet and it is defined by,
Solution   
β=
∫ ρ v ( v ⋅ n ) dA
u 1 ∂ p  
Here, t = µ − (b − 2 y )
b 2  ∂x 
m vavg

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If the density is uniform over the inlet or outlet and v is the Characteristics of a boundary layer are:

same direction as vavg , then
1. The boundary layer thickness (d) increases as the
   
β= ∫ ρ v(v . n)dA = ∫ v(v . n)dA distance from the leading edge (x) decreases.
2
⋅
2. d decreases as u increases.
 vavg A
mVavg 3. d increases as kinematic viscosity (v) increases.
If the control surface slices normal to the inlet or outlet area,   ∂u  
i.e., 4. The wall shear stress tw =  = µ   y = 0  decreases
  ∂ y  
 
( v ⋅ n )dA = vdA as x increases. In the turbulent boundary layer, tw
shows a sudden increase and then decreases with
2 increasing x.
1  v 
A ∫  vavg
then, β=   dA
 Boundary layer is laminar when

The factor β is always greater than or equal to one. For a  uxρ 

Rex  =
 < 5 ×10 and turbulent when
5
4  µ 
fully developed laminar pipe flow, β = and for a fully
3 > 5 × 105.
developed turbulent pipe flow, 1.01 ≤ β ≤ 1.2.
Boundary Layer Thickness (δ)
At an inlet or outlet, if the flow is uniform then β = 1 Boundary layer thickness is defined as that distance from
 
and v = vavg the boundary in which the velocity reaches 99% of the free
stream velocity (u = 0.99 ua).
For greater accuracy, boundary layer thickness is defined
Boundary Layer Theory in terms of the displacement thickness (d*), momentum
When a viscous fluid flows past a stationary solid bound- thickness (q) and energy thickness (de).
ary, in a small layer of fluid adjacent to the boundary, the
1. Displacement thickness (δ*):
velocity of flowing fluid increase rapidly from zero at the
boundary surface and approaches the velocity of the main δ
stream. This layer is called the boundary layer. A bound-  u 
δ * = ∫ 1 −  dy
0 
ary layer is formed when there is relative motion between a U
solid boundary and the fluid in contact with it.
2. Momentum thickness(θ):
Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
δ
u Laminar u  u 
boundary Transition Turbulent θ =∫ 1 − U  dy
layer 0
U  

y Boundary
layer 3. Energy thickness (δe):

δ
u  u2 
δe = ∫ 1 −  dy
x 0
U  U2 
Leading Trailing edge
Flat plate
edge
NOTE
The above figure shows a boundary layer formed on a flat
That the difference (U - u) is called the velocity of defect.
plate kept parallel to the flow of fluid of velocity u. Here
u is called as the free stream velocity, sometimes denoted Shape factor:
as ua. The edge of the plate facing the direction of flow is
called as the leading edge while its rear edge is called the δ*
S=
trailing edge. θ
Near the leading edge of a flat plate, the boundary layer
is laminar with a parabolic velocity distribution. In the tur- Where, S is called the shape factor.
bulent boundary layer, the velocity distribution is given by Energy loss: The energy loss per unit width of the
the log law or Prandtl’s one-seventh power law. plate due to the boundary layer,

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1
Drag Force on the Plate
EL = ( ρ δ e u) × u 2 The drag force acting on a small distance dx of a plate is
2
given by,
Mass flow: The mass flow in the boundary layer at a

position where the boundary thickness is d, is given ∆FD = τ ω × B × dx
by,
Where, B is the width of the plate.
δ
Total drag force acting on a plate of length L on one side,
m = ∫ ρ udy
0
L L
FD = ∫ ∆ FD = ∫ τ ω × B × dx
The mass entrainment (Dm) between two sections
0 0
where the boundary layer thickness are d1 and d2
respectively is given by,
Local Coefficient of Drag (CD*)
∆m = m1 − m2
δ1 δ2 τω
CD* =
∆m = ∫ ρ udy − ∫ ρ udy 1
ρ u2
0 0 2

This coefficient is also sometimes called as coefficient of

Reynolds Number for the Plate skin friction.
If L is the length of a plate, then Reynolds number for the Average Coefficient of Drag (CD)
ρuL
whole plate = . Reynolds number for the front half of
µ FD
CD =
ρuL 1
the plate = . ρ Au 2
2µ 2

Von Karman Momentum Equation Laminar Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate
For a fluid flowing over a thin plate (placed at zero inci- From the solution of the Blasius equation for the laminar
dence) with a free stream velocity equal to u, boundary layer on a flat plate, the following results are
obtained.
τω dθ
= 5x
ρ v 2 dx δ=
Rex
The above equation is called as the Von Karman momentum
equation for boundary layer flow. It is used to determine the
frictional drag on a smooth flat plate for both laminar and 0.664
turbulent boundary layers. CD* =
Rex
Boundary Conditions for a Velocity
Distribution
1.328
The following boundary conditions must be satisfied for CD =
any assumed velocity distribution in a boundary layer over ReL
a plate:
1. At the plate surface,
uLρ
Where, ReL = , L being the length of the plate.
y = 0, u = 0 µ
2. At the outer edge of boundary layer,
Summary of Fluid Frictional Resistance
(a) y = d, u = U
Fluid frictional resistance is the opposition force (or resist-
du ance) experienced by a fluid in motion. It exists both in
(b) y = d, =0
dy streamline flow and in turbulent flow.

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 Chapter 4 ■ Viscous Flow of Incompressible Fluids | 3.673

Fluid Friction in Streamline Flow Where

(Laminar Flow) R = Radius of pipe
 k = Average height of irregularities For rough pipes,
1. The viscous forces predominate the inertial force in R
this type of flow, which occurs at low velocities. friction factor depends only on   and not on
k
2. Frictional resistance is proportional to the velocity of Reynolds number (Re). The relative roughness,
flow, contact surface area and temperature.
k
3. The entrance length (Le), which is the length of pipe of pipe is (which is the reciprocal of the relative
R
from its entrance to the point where flow attains fully
smoothness).
developed profile and remains unaltered beyond that
The average height of irregularities (i.e., k), which is a
point is given by, Le = 0.07 Re D . measure of the roughness of pipe, depends upon the age of
Where pipe. The relation is:
  Re = Reynolds’s number for flow and k = k0 + at
  D = Diameter of pipe
Where
4. The Darcy’s friction factor in smooth pipes (as per k0 = Value of pipe roughness for new pipe
64 t = Age of pipe (in year)
Blassius) is given by, f = .
Re a = Constant
k = Value of pipe roughness after t years.

Fluid Friction in Turbulent Flow

1. As per Darcy–Weisbach equation, the head loss due Turbulent Flow in Pipes
to friction is: Turbulent flow is characterized by swirling regions of fluid
called eddies which greatly enhance mass, momentum and
fLV 2 heat transfer compared to laminar flow. Turbulence in a flow
hf =
2 gD can be generated by:
Where 1. Frictional forces at the boundary solid walls.
  L = Length of pipe 2. Flow of fluid layers, with different velocities, adjacent
  D = Diameter of pipe to one another.
  V = Mean velocity of flow Turbulence can be classified as:
  f = Friction factor (0.02–0.04 for metals)
1. Wall turbulence: Turbulence generated and
Hence, frictional resistance is proportional to square continuity impacted by the boundary walls.
of velocity.
2. Free turbulence: Turbulence generated by two
2. The frictional resistance does not depend upon the adjacent fluid layers in the absence of walls.
pressure but it varies slightly with temperature.
3. Convective turbulence: Turbulence generated at
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the density regions where there is conversion of potential energy
of the fluid. to kinetic energy by the process of mixing.
4. The entrance length (Le) ≈ 50D. Also,
Le = 0.7 Re D.
Property Values in a Turbulent Flow
Where At a specified location in a turbulent flow field, properties
  Re = Reynold’s number of flow such as velocity, pressure, temperature, etc. Fluctuate with
  D = Diameter of pipe. time about an average value. For a property P, the instanta-
5. Darcy’s friction factor in smooth pipes (as per neous value of the property ( P̂ (s, t)) at the specified loca-
0.3164 tion s = f (x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates) is given by,
Blassius) is f = for turbulent flow.
( Re1/ 4 ) Pˆ ( s, t ) = P ( s, t ) + P1 ( s, t )

Variation of Pipe Roughness with Aging Where, P(s) the time average or temporal mean value and
R P′ (s, t) is the fluctuating component. The term P(s) is a
The relative smoothness of a pipe = .
k constant with respect to time.

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1 ˆ
T
The term u ′ v ′ is usually found to be a negative quantity
T ∫0
P ( s) = lim P ( s1 t ) dt and hence shear stress is greater in turbulent flow than in
laminar flow.
T →α
Where, T is the integration time over which the indicated In laminar flow, u′ = v′ = 0 such that u ′v ′ = 0.
time averaging takes place. The time average of the turbu-
lent fluctuating component is zero, i.e.,
Terms such as − ρ u ′V ′ or − ρ (u ′) 2 or − ρV ′ω ′ are called as
1
T
Reynolds stress or turbulent stresses. Here, V and ω are the y
lim
T ∫ P ′( s, t ) d t = P ′ ( s1 t ) = 0 and z components of the instantaneous velocity Vˆ .
0
T →α Boussinesq Approximation or Hypothesis
P(s1t) du
τ turb = − ρ u ′V ′ = µt
dy
ˆ t)
P(s,
Where, mt is the eddy viscosity or turbulent viscosity.
P′(s, t)
P(s1t) du
τ total = ( µ + µt )
dy

t
du
τ total = ρ (∞ + ∞t )
dy
Shear Stress in a Turbulent Flow
The total shear (ttotal) in a turbulent flow is given by,
µt
Where, ∞t = is the kinematic eddy viscosity or kine-
ttotal = t lam + tturb ρ
matic turbulent viscosity or eddy diffusivity of momentum.
Where, tlam is the laminar shear stress and tturb is the Kinematic eddy viscosity depends on flow conditions and it
decreases towards the wall where it becomes zero.
turbulent shear stress.
−
du
Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory
τ lam = µ
dy du
In this theory, the eddy viscosity is µt = ρ lm 2 .
dy
Where, u is the x-component of the instantaneous velocity
Vˆ and u is the time average (or time mean) value of u. 2
du 
τ turb = − ρ U ′V ′ = ρ lm 2  
 dy 
Where, lm is the mixing length defined as the average lateral
distance through which a small mass of fluid particles would
move from one layer to the adjacent layer before acquiring
τ total the velocity of the new layer.
y For the steady fully developed turbulent flow of a fluid
in a horizontal pipe, Re total shear stress varies linearly with
0
τ lam τ turb the pipe radius.
r
τ total = τ ω
τ turb = − ρ u ′ v ′ R
Where 0 ≤ r ≤ R ⋅

Where, u ′v ′ is the time average of the product of the fluc-

tuating velocity component u′ and V′. The term u ′ v ′ can be At the wall, velocity gradients and thus wall shear stress
non-zero even if u ′ = 0 and v ′ = 0. are much larger for turbulent flow than for laminar flow.

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Relative Roughness
∈ = 0.01
f D
∈
∈ = 0.0001
D

boundary

The variable ∈, referred to as absolute roughness, denotes Re

the mean height of irregularities of the surface of a
boundary. A boundary is generally said to be rough if At very large Reynolds number, Re friction factor curves in
the value of ∈ is high and smooth if ∈ is low. For a pipe, the Moody chart are nearly horizontal and thus the friction
∈ factor are independent of the Reynolds number.
relative roughness =
, where D is the diameter of the pipe.
D Intensity of Turbulence in a Flow
Turbulent Velocity Profile It is also called as degree of turbulence in a flow which is
Several empirical velocity profile units for turbulent pipe described by the relative magnitude of the root mean square
flow and among these the best known is the power law. value of the fluctuating components (u′, v′, and ω′) with respect
Velocity profile defined as follows: to the time averaged velocity (V ).
1/ n 1/ n

( )
u  y  r 1
=  = 1 −  (u ′) 2 + ( v ′) 2 + (ω ′) 2
umax  R  R
I= 3
V
Where n is a constant and whole value increases as Reynolds
number increases. Many turbulent flows in practice is If the turbulence is isotropic, then u′ = v′ = ω′.
approximated using the one-seventh power law velocity
profile where n = 7. Note that the power-law velocity profile Example 12
cannot be used to calculate the wall shear stress, as a veloc- A liquid flows turbulently in a horizontal pipe with a pres-
ity gradient obtained will be infinity. This law is applicable sure gradient of 3 kPa/m. The wall shear stress developed
to smooth pipes. is 112.5 N/m2. If the laminar shear stress is 10 N/m2 at
a radius of 35 mm, then the turbulent shear stress at this
Velocity distribution are more uniform in turbulent flow radius would be
than in laminar flow. (A) 52.5 N/m2 (B) 10 N/m2
(C) 42.5 N/m2 (D) 95 N/m2
y
R Solution
∆P
r Given = 3 ×103 Pa/m
L
R u( y) tw = 112.5 N/m2
The following equations are applicable for turbulent flows.
0
∆P R
τω = (1)
L 2
Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow τω r
τω = . (2)
The friction factor in a fully developed turbulent pipe flow R
depends on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness
From Eq. (1), we get 112.5
(e/D). The friction factor is minimum for a smooth pipe
and increases with roughness. For laminar flow, the friction R
= 3 × 103 × .
factor decreases as Reynolds number increases and is inde- 2
pendent of surface roughness.
\ Radius of the pipe, R = 0.075 m
Moody Chart Now, at radius r = 0.035 m
It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a
function of Reynolds number and relative roughness. This 0.035
t = 112.5 × = 52.5 N/m2
chart can be used for circular pipes and non-circular (taking 0.075
into consideration the hydraulic diameter) pipes. Here t is the total shear stress, i.e., ttotal = 52.5 N/m2

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At this radius, tlam = 10 N/m2 Piston

ttotal = tlam + tturb
ttotal = 52.5 − 10 = 42.5 N/m2 1
15 mm 1 .5 mm
Hence, the correct answer is option (C). F1 x 2

Example 13
A fluid (density = 950 kg/m3, viscosity = 0.1 poise) flows with
an average velocity of 1 m/s in a 100 m long horizontal pipe Syringe
having an absolute roughness of 0.175 mm. The magnitude 100 mm
of the pressure loss due to friction is obtained by multiplying
the friction factor with 19 × 105. A set of friction factor (f )
(A) 0.0251 N (B) 0.2765 N
values for some given combination of Reynolds number (Re)
(C) 0.7856 N (D) 0.4836 N
and relative roughness (RR) values are given in the following
table. The friction factor associated with the flow is
Solution
Re RR f Consider two points 1 and 2 such that both points are in
9800 0.00175 0.0338 the same horizontal plane and point 1 lies in the centre of
9500 0.0035 0.0361
the piston cross-section while point 2 lies in the centre of
the needle exit cross-section.
19000 0.00175 0.0296
The energy balance equation with suitable assumption
19000 0.0035 0.0325
can be reduced to
(A) 0.0338 (B) 0.0361
(C) 0.0296 (D) 0.0325 P1 α1V12 P2 α V 2
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 2 + z2 + hL (1)
ρ g 2g ρg 2g
Solution
Here,              Z1 = Z2
For turbulent or laminar flow, we have
F1
2 f ρV 2 L P1 = Patm +
D PL = A1
D
P2 = Patm
2 ρV 2 L
Given, =19 ×105 a1 = a2 (uniform velocity assumed across any cross-section)
D
\ Eq. (1) becomes,
2 × 950 ×12 ×100
or D = = 0.1 m  V 2 −V12 
19 ×105 F1 =  2  ρ A1 + hL A1 ρ g
 2 
Given, t = 0.175 mm
When ideal flow is assumed, hL = 0
t 0.175
\ Relative roughness = = \F1 − F2 = hLA1 r g
D 100
= 0.00175 L V2 2
= f × × A1 ρ g
ρ V D 950 ×1× 0.1 D2 2 g
Re = = = 9500
µ 0.01
L V2 2
= f × × A1 ρ
For Re = 9500 and RR = 0.00175 friction factor f = 0.0338. D2 2
Hence, the correct answer is option (A). Q = 1944 mm3/s
Example 14 = 1944 × 10-9 m3/s
A force F1 Newtons is required as the frictionless piston in a
π π
syringe to discharge 1944 mm3/s of water through a needle A1 = × D12 = × (0.015) 2
as shown in the following figure. The force is determined 4 4
by assuming fully developed laminar viscous flow through = 1.767 × 10-4 m2
the needle. If ideal flow is assumed, then the force required
on the piston to achieve the same discharge would be F2 π π
A2 = × D2 2 = × (0.0015) 2
Newtons. The difference F1 – F2 neglecting losses in the 4 4
syringe is equal to = 1.767 × 10-6 m2

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Q 1944 ×10 −9 Example 16

U2 = = = 1.1 m/s Water flows at the rate of 0.06 m3/s in a pipe involving a
A2 1.767 ×10 −6
sudden contraction where the pipe diameter decreases from
ρ D2 ×V2 250 mm to 160 mm, as shown in the following figure. The
Reynolds number of flow in the needle, Re =
µ coefficient of contraction is
1000 × 0.0015 ×1.1
= = 1650
0.001
flow
64 64
f = = = 0.0388 2
Re 1650 1
\F1 – F2
0.0388 × 0.1 1.12
= × ×1.767 ×10 −4 ×1000
0.0015 2
40 mm
= 0.2765 N
Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

Example 15 mercury
Water is flowing at a volumetric flow rate of 0.08 m3/s in
(A) 0.655 (B) 0.543
a horizontal pipe of length 15 m and diameter (D) varies
(C) 0.792 (D) 0.125
along its length (l) according to the linear relationship: D =
0.25 − 0.01l. If the friction factor is taken to be constant for
Solution
the whole pipe and equal to 0.02, then the head loss due to
friction in the pipe is P1 − P2 ρm 
= h − 1
(A) 0.6441 m (B) 2.0611 m ρg  ρ 
(C) 10.3059 m (D) 2.5764 m Where, r (density of water) = 1000 kg/m3 and rm (density
of mercury) = 13600 kg/m3 and h = 40 mm
Solution
Head loss due to friction, P1 − P2  13600 
\ = 0.04  − 1
ρg  1000 
L V2
hL = f = 0.504
D 2g
The energy balance with suitable assumption can be reduced
Where, L is the whole length of the pipe. to,
For a differential length of the pipe, the differential head P1 V12 P V2
loss due to friction can be written as: + + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + hL
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
f V2 Here the head loss (hL) is equal to the head loss due to
d hL = dl
D 2g contraction,
2
f Q 2 ×16 × d l V2 2  1 
= × hL = hc =  − 1
D π 2 ×10 4 × 2 g 2 g  Cc 
Z1 = Z2 (as the points 1 and 2 same horizontal plane)
.8 f Q 2 d l
= × 5
P1 − P2 V2 2   1   V2
2
π2 g D
\ = 1 +  − 1  − 1
ρg 2 g   Cc   2 g
dl  
= 0.08263 f Q 2
(0.25 − 0.01 l )5 or 0.504 × 2 × 9.81
Integrating the above equation we have, 2
 0.06 × 4    1    0.06 × 4 
2 2
hL 15
dl =   1 +  − 1  −  
 π × ( 0.16 )2    Cc    π × (0.25) 2 
∫ d hL = 0.08263 f Q 2 ∫ (0.25 − 0.01l )5    
o o
or Cc = 0.655
That is, hL = 2.5764 m
Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
Hence, the correct answer is option (D).

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Exercises

1. The kinetic energy correction factor for a fully devel-

oped laminar flow through a circular pipe is 2
(A) 1.00 (B) 1.33
(C) 2.00 (D) 1.50 5m

2. A solid sphere (diameter 6 mm) is rising through oil

(mass density 900 kg/m3, dynamic viscosity 0.7 kg/m-
s) at a constant velocity of 1 cm/s. What is the specific
weight of the material from which the sphere is made? 45°
(Take g = 9.81 m/s2)
(A) 4.3 kN/m3 (B) 5.3 kN/m3 5. The discharge in the pipe is equal to
(C) 8.7 kN/m3 (D) 12.3 kN/m3 (A) 0.100 m3/s (B) 0.127 m3/s
(C) 0.144 m /s 3 (D) 0.161 m3/s
Direction for questions 3 and 4: 6. If the flow is reversed, keeping the same discharge, and
The laminar flow takes place between closely spaced par- the pressure at section 1 is maintained as 435 kN/m2,
allel plates as shown in the following figure. The velocity the pressure at section 2 is equal to
y (A) 488 kN/m2 (B) 549 kN/m2
profile is given by u = V . The gap height, h, is 5 mm and (C) 586 kN/m2 (D) 614 kN/m2
h
the space is filled with oil (specific gravity = 0.86, viscosity 7. For air flow over a flat plate, velocity (U) and boundary
µ = 2 × 10-4 N-s/m2). The bottom plate is stationary and the layer thickness (d ) can be expressed respectively, as
top plate moves with a steady velocity of V = 5 cm/s. The 2
area of the plate is 0.25 m2. U 3 y 1 y 4.64 x
= − ;δ =
U ∞ 2 δ 2  δ  Rex
V y
If the free stream velocity is 2 m/s, and air has kin-
u ematic viscosity of 1.5 × 10-5 m2/s and density of 1.23
h
x kg/m3, the wall shear stress at X = 1 m, is
(A) 2.36 × 102 N/m2
(B) 43.6 × 10-3 N/m2
(C) 4.36 × 10-3 N/m2
3. The rate of rotation of a fluid particle is given by (D) 2.18 × 10-3 N/m2
V 8. A centrifugal pump is required to pump water to an
(A) ωy = 0; ωz = -
2h open tank situated 4 km away from the location of the
V pump through a pipe of diameter 0.2 m having Darcy’s
(B) ωy = 0; ωz = - friction factor of 0.01. The average speed of water in
h
the pipe is 2 m/s. If it is to maintain a constant head
V V of 5 m in the tank, neglecting other minor losses, the
(C) ωy = ; ωz =
h h absolute discharge pressure at the pump exit is
(A) 0.449 bar (B) 5.503 bar
V (C) 44.911 bar (D) 55.203 bar
(D) ωy = ; ωz = 0
h 9. The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a
4. The power required to keep the plate in steady motion pipe of diameter D is given by u = u0(1 – 4r2/D2), where
is r is the radial distance from the center. If the viscosity
(A) 5 × 10-4 W (B) 10-5 W of the fluid is m, the pressure drop across a length L of
-5
(C) 2.5 × 10 W (D) 5 × 10-5 W the pipe is:
µ u0 L
Direction for questions 5 and 6: (A) ⋅ (B) 4 µ u0 L
D2
⋅

D2
An upward flow of oil (mass density 800 kg/m3, dynamic
viscosity 0.8 kg/m-s) takes place under laminar conditions 8µ u0 L 16 µ u0 L
(C) ⋅ (D) ⋅

in an inclined pipe of 0.1 m diameter as shown in the figure. D2 D2

The pressures at sections 1 and 2 are measured as P1 = 435 10. A siphon draws water from a reservoir and discharges
kN/m2 and p2 = 200 kN/m2. it out at atmospheric pressure. Assuming ideal fluid

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and the reservoir is large, the velocity at point P in the 16. If the energy grade line and hydraulic grade line are
siphon tube is: drawn for flow through an inclined pipeline the follow-
(A) 2 gh1 (B) 2 gh2 ing four quantities can be directly observed:
I. Static head
(C) 2 g ( h2 − h1 ) (D) 2 g ( h2 − h1 ) II. Friction head
III. Datum head
Direction for questions 11 and 12: IV. Velocity head
A smooth flat plate with a sharp leading edge is placed Starting from the arbitrary datum line, the above types
along a gas stream flowing at U = 10 m/s. The thickness of heads will be in the sequence:
of the boundary layer at section r-s is 10 mm, the breadth (A) III, II, I, IV
of the plate is 1 m (into the paper) and the density of (B) III, IV, II, I
the gas P = 1.0 kg/m3. Assume that the boundary layer (C) III, IV, I, II
is thin, two-dimensional, and follows a linear velocity (D) III, I, IV, II
distribution, u = U(y/d ), at the section r-s, where y is the 17. Consider steady laminar incompressible axi-symmetric
height from plate. fully developed viscous flow through a straight circu-
q r U
lar pipe of constant cross-sectional area at a Reynolds
number of 5. The ratio of inertia force to viscous force
U on a fluid particle is
δ
(A) 5 (B) 1/5
p
s (C) 0 (D) ∞
18. The head loss due to sudden expansion is expressed by
Flat plate
2
V 2 − V22 V − V 
(A) 1 (B)  1 2 
11. The mass flow rate (in kg/s) across the section q-r is: 2g  2g 
(A) zero (B) 0.05
(C) 0.10 (D) 0.15 (V1 − V2 ) 2 (V1 − V2 ) 2
(C) (D)
g 2g
12. The integrated drag force (in N) on the plate, between
p-s, is: 19. The procedure to follow in solving for discharge when
(A) 0.67 (B) 0.33 hf (head loss), L (pipe length), D (inside diameter), v
(C) 0.17 (D) zero (kinematic viscosity) and k (wall roughness) are given,
13. Consider an incompressible laminar boundary layer is to
flow over a flat plate of length L, aligned with the direc- (A) assume a f (friction factor), compute V, R
tion of an oncoming uniform free stream. If F is the (Reynolds number), k/D, look up for f and repeat
ratio of the drag force on the front half of the plate to if necessary.
the drag force on the rear half, then (B) assume a R, compute f, check k/D, etc.
(A) F < 1/2 (B) F = 1/2 (C) assume a V, compute R, look up for f, compute V
(C) F = 1 (D) F > 1 again etc.
14. While using boundary layer equations, Bernoulli’s (D) assume a O, compute V, R, look up, etc.
equation 20. Branching pipe problems are usually solved
(A) can be used anywhere. (A) by assuming the head loss is same through each
(B) can be used only outside the boundary layer. pipe.
(C) can be used only inside the boundary layer. (B) by equivalent lengths.
(D) cannot be used either inside or outside the bound- (C) by assuming the elevation of the hydraulic grade
ary layer. line at the junction point and tying to satisfy
15. During the measurement of viscosity of air flowing continuity.
π d 4  dp  (D) by assuming a distribution which satisfies continu-
through a pipe, we use the relation µ = −
128Q  dx  ity and computing a direction.
under the condition that in the measuring section 21. The hydraulic head at a point in the soil includes______.
(A) there is a viscous zone near the wall and an invis-
cid core persists at the centre. 22. Due to aging of a pipeline, its carrying capacity has
(B) the entire cross-section is viscous. decreased by 25%.
(C) the flow can be assumed as potential flow. The corresponding increase in the Darcy Weisbach
(D) the flow is irrotational. friction factor, f is …. %

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23. In network of pipes (A) zero.

(A) the algebraic sum of discharges around each cir- (B) one-fourth of the value when the cylinder was full.
cuit is zero. (C) half of the value when the cylinder was full.
(B) the algebraic sum of discharges around each cir- (D) not determinable from the given data.
cuit should not be zero. 29. Three reservoirs A, B and C are interconnected by
(C) the elevation of hydraulic grade line is assumed pipes as shown in the figure. Water surface elevations
for each junction point. in the reservoirs and the Piezometric head at the junc-
(D) elementary circuits are replaced by equivalent tion J are indicated in the figure.
pipes.
EL 200 m
24. While deriving an expression for loss of head due to a Piezometric EL 180 m
sudden expansion in a pipe, in addition to the continu- A head
ity and impulse momentum equations, one of the fol- = 160 mm
B
lowing assumptions is made:
(A) head loss due to friction is equal to the head loss is
eddying motion. Q1 Q2
(B) the mean pressure in eddying fluid is equal to the
f
downstream pressure.
(C) the mean pressure in eddying fluid is equal to the EL 140 m
Q3
upstream pressure.
(D) head lost in eddies is neglected. C
25. If a single pipe of length L and diameter D is to be
replaced by three pipes of same material, same length
and equal diameter d(d < D), to convey the same total Discharges Q1, Q2 and Q3 are related as
discharge under the same head loss, then d and D are (A) Q1 + Q2 = Q3 (B) Q1 = Q2 + Q3
related by (C) Q2 = Q1 + Q3 (D) Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0
d d 30. The comparison between pumps operating in series and
(A) D = 1/ 5 (B) D = 5 / 3 in parallel is
3 2
(A) pumps operating in series boost the discharge,
d d
(C) D = 2 / 3 (D) D = 3/ 2 whereas pumps operating in parallel boost the
3 2 head.
26. The head loss in a sudden expansion from 6 cm diam- (B) pumps operating in parallel boost the discharge,
eter pipe to 12 cm diameter pipe in terms of velocity V1 whereas pumps operating in series boost the head.
in the smaller diameter pipe is (C) in both cases there would be a boost in discharge
3 V12 5 V12 only.
(A) ⋅ (B) ⋅ (D) in both case there would be a boost in head only.
16 2 g 16 2 g
7 V12 9 V12 Direction for questions 31 and 32:
(C) ⋅ (D) ⋅
16 2 g 16 2 g A pipeline (diameter 0.3 m, length 3 km) carries water from
27. An inviscid, irrotational flow field of free vortex motion point P to point R (see figure). The piezometric heads at P
has a circulation constant Ω. The tangential velocity at and R are to be maintained at 100 m and 80 m, respectively.
any point in the flow field is given by Ω/r, where r, is To increase the discharge, a second pipe is added in parallel
the radial distance from the centre. At the centre, there to the existing pipe from Q to R. The length of the additional
is a mathematical singularity which can be physically pipe is also 2 km. Assume the friction factor, f = 0.04 for all
substituted by a forced vortex. At the interface of the pipes and ignore minor losses.
free and forced vortex motion (r = rc), the angular 1 km 2 km
velocity ω is given by
Ω Ω P Q R
(A) ⋅ (B) ⋅

rc2 rc
(C) Ω rc (D) Ωrc2 ⋅

28. A right circular cylinder, open at the top is filled with 2 km

liquid of relative density 1.2. It is rotated about its ver-
tical axis at such a speed that half the liquid spills out. 31. What is the increase in discharge if the additional pipe
The pressure at the centre of the bottom will be has same diameter (0.3 m)?

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(A) 0% (B) 33% (A) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
(C) 41% (D) 67% correct explanation of A.
32. If there is no restriction on the diameter of the addi- (B) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
tional pipe, what would be the maximum increase in correct explanation of A.
discharge theoretically possible from this arrange- (C) A is true but R is false.
ment? (D) A is false but R is true.
(A) 0% (B) 50% 37. Velocity distribution in a boundary layer flow over a
(C) 67% (D) 73% plate is given by (u/um) = 1.5η where, η = y/δ; y is the
33. A fire protection system is supplied from a water tower distance measured normal to the plate; δ is the bound-
with a bent pipe as shown in the figure. The pipe fric- ary layer thickness; and um is the maximum velocity at
tion f is 0.03. Ignoring all minor losses, the maximum y = δ. If the shear stress τ, acting on the plate is given
discharge, Q, in the pipe is by τ = K(µ um)/δ, where µ is the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid, then K takes the value of
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 1.5 (D) None of these
38. A flat plate is kept in an infinite fluid medium. The fluid
25 m has a uniform free-stream velocity parallel to the plate.
d = 100 mm
For the laminar boundary layer formed on the plate,
pick the correct option matching List I and List II.
Q List I List II
150 m a. Boundary layer 1. Decreases in the flow
thickness direction
(A) 31.7 lit/s (B) 24.0 lit/s b. Shear stress at the 2. Increases in the flow
(C) 15.9 lit/s (D) 12.0 lit/s plate direction
34. In a cylindrical vortex motion about a vertical axis, c. Pressure gradient 3. Remains unchanged
r1 and r2 are the radial distances of two points on the along the plate
horizontal plane (r2 > r1). If for a given tangential fluid Codes:
velocity at r1, the pressure difference between the points a b c a b c
in free vortex is one-half of that when the vortex is a (A) 1 2 3 (B) 2 2 2
forced one, then what is the value of the ratio (r2/r1)? (C) 1 1 2 (D) 2 1 3
(A) 3/ 2 (B) 2 39. The thickness of the laminar boundary layer on a flat
plate at a point A is 2 cm and at a point B, 1 m down-
(C) 3/2 (D) 3 stream of A, is 3 cm. What is the distance of A from the
35. In which one of the following cases separation of leading edge of the plate?
boundary layer must occur? (A) 0.50 m (B) 0.80 m
dp (C) 1.00 m (D) 1.25 m
(A) <0
dx 40. A fluid (density = 900 kg/m3 and viscosity = 3 × 10–3kg/
ms) flows upwards between two inclined parallel iden-
dp
(B) =0 tical plate at a volumetric rate of 3 lit/s per unit width
dx in metres of the plates. The plates are inclined at an
dp angle of 30° with the horizontal and the plates are 20
(C) >0
dx mm wide apart. The pressure difference between two
dp sections that are 15 metres apart is
(D)  > 0 and the velocity profile has a point of (A) 66218 N/m2 (B) 66420 N/m2
dx 2
(C) 203 N/m (D) 132638 N/M2
­inflection
41. In a horizontal plane, water flows through a pipe of 200
36. A viscous fluid flows over a flat plate at zero angle of
mm diameter and 20 km length. At a point M, as shown
attack.
in the following figure, the pipe is branched off into two
Assertion (A): The thickness of boundary layer is an identical parallel pipes of diameter 100 mm and length
ever increasing one as its distance from the leading 10 km. The friction factor for all pipes is to be taken
edge of the plate increases. to be equal to 0.015. If in the pipe MQ, water is com-
Reason (R): In practice, 99 per cent of the depth of the pletely drained off from closely spaced side tappings at
boundary layer is attained within a short distance from a constant rate of 0.01 lit/s per metre length of the pipe,
the leading edge. then the discharge in MN(Q1) is

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N Q1 layer over the whole of the plate. If the average coef-

ficient of drag for the whole plate having a turbulent
0.072
M boundary layer is given by CD = , then the
A ( ReL )0.2
Q ratio of the drag force on the rear half of the plate to the
drag force on the front half of the plate is
(A) 1.349 (B) 0.4256
(C) 0.7411 (D) 0.5743
O Q2
48. A ship with hull length of 100 m is to run with a speed
(A) 0.1577 m3/s (B) 0.0577 m3/s of 10 m/s. For dynamic similarity, the velocity for a 1:
3
(C) 0.1 m /s (D) 0.0264 m3/s 25 model of the ship in a towing tank should be
(A) 2 m/s (B) 10 m/s
42. An oil (viscosity = 0.8 kg/ms and density = 1400 kg/
(C) 20 m/s (D) 25 m/s
m3) flows in a laminar manner between two parallel
inclined plates 15 mm apart and inclined at 45° to the 49. Consider the following statements:
horizontal. The pressure at two points 1.5 m vertically I. Complete similarity between model and prototype
apart are 100 kN/m2 and 300 kN/m2. If the upper plate envisages geometric and dynamic similarities only.
moves at a velocity of 2.5 m/s but in a direction oppo- II. Distorted models are necessary where geometric
site to the flow, then the velocity of the flow at a dis- similarity is not possible due to practical reasons.
tance of 5 mm from the lower plate is III. In testing of model of a ship, the surface tension
(A) 2.51 m/s (B) 1.23 m/s forces are generally neglected.
(C) 2.42 m/s (D) 1.58 m/s IV. The scale effect takes care of the effect of dissimilar-
43. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the ity between model and prototype.
face of a spillway was observed to have the form: (A) I and III (B) I, II and IV
0.22 (C) II and III (D) II and IV
u  y
=
U  δ 
50. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
from the given codes:
At a certain section AA′, the boundary layer thickness
was estimated to be 70 mm. If the energy loss per metre List II (Dimensionless
length of the spillway is 325.64 kN-m/s, then the free List I (Forces) number)
stream velocity of the section AA′ is a. Gravity force 1. Weber number
(A) 28 m/s (B) 35 m/s b. Pressure force 2. Mach number
(C) 21 m/s (D) 207 m/s
c. Surface tension 3. Froude’s Number
44. A old pipeline which has relative roughness of K/D d. Elastic force 4. Euler’s number
= 0.005 operates at a Reynold’s number which is suf-
ficiently high for the flow to be beyond the range of Codes:
viscous influence and the corresponding f = 0.03. If a b c d a b c d
through further aging, the relative roughness is doubled (A) 1 2 4 3 (B) 4 3 2 1
and the corresponding f = 0.0375, the power increase (C) 3 4 1 2 (D) 2 1 3 4
required to maintain the same rate of flow would be
about Direction for questions 51 and 52:
(A) 25% (B) 50% A liquid of viscosity 0.8 and specific gravity 1.3 flows
(C) 75% (D) 100% through a circular pipe of 100 mm diameter. Maximum
45. The Prandtl mixing length for turbulent flow through shear stress at the pipe wall is 220 N/m2.
pipes is
51. Pressure gradient of the flow in N/m2 per m is
(A) dependent on shear stress at the wall.
(A) -6800
(B) a universal constant.
(B) -8800
(C) zero at the pipe wall.
(C) 6800
(D) independent of radial distance from pipe axis.
(D) 8800
46. Cavitation is caused by 52. Average velocity of flow is
(A) high velocity. (B) low pressure. (A) 2.6 m/s
(C) high pressure. (D) high temperature. (B) 2.9 m/s
47. A flat plate kept at zero incidence in a stream of fluid (C) 3.2 m/s
with uniform velocity develops a turbulent boundary (D) 3.4 m/s

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 Chapter 4 ■ Viscous Flow of Incompressible Fluids | 3.683

Direction for questions 53 and 54: 56. Match the following:

List I List II
K P. Compressible flow 1. Nusselt number
Viscosity μ
h U Q. Boundary layer flow 2. Reynold’s number
Viscosity μ α
R. Pipe flow 3. Skin friction coefficient
h−k
S. Heat convection 4. Mach number

Codes:
A large thin plate is pulled at a constant velocity U through P Q R S
a narrow gap of height h. On one side of the plate is filled (A) 3 1 4 2
with oil of viscosity m and the other side oil of viscosity am, (B) 3 4 2 1
where a is a constant. (C) 4 3 2 1
53. Total drag force on the plate is (D) 2 1 3 4
1 α  57. In laminar flow through a pipe, the pressure drop per
(A) AmU  +  unit length of pipe is given by
 k h−k 
 h−k  32 µ u 16 µ u
(B) AmU  k + (A) (B)
α 
⋅ ⋅

D D2

µU  1 α  128µ Q 128µ Q
(C) + (C) (D)
A  k h − k 
 π D4 π D2
µU  h−k  58. A pipe 300 m long slopes down at 1 in 100 and tapers
(D) k+
A  α  from 600 mm diameter to 300 mm diameter. Oil is pass-
54. Value of k such that the drag force is minimum is ing through the pipe at a rate of 90 litres per ­second.
Specific gravity of oil is 0.8. If the pressure gauge at the
h h higher end reads 60 kN/m2, pressure at the lower end of
(A) (B)
1+ α 1− α the pipe (in kN/m2) is______.
h h (A) 89.2 (B) 88.4
(C) (D)
1− α 1+ α (C) 82.3 (D) 82.9
55. The velocity profile of a fully developed laminar flow 59. A pipe of 240 mm diameter and 12,000 m length is laid
in a straight circular pipe, as shown in the figure, is at a slope of 1 in 150. An oil of specific gravity 0.85 is
given by the expression: pumped up at a rate of 0.02 m3/s. If the coefficient of
−R 2  ∂p   1 − r 2  friction is 0.0266, power (in kW) required to pump the
u(r) =   2  oil is______.
4µ ∂x  R 
(A) 24.3 (B) 23.2
∂p (C) 22.1 (D) 25.4
Where is a constant.
∂x
60. Crude oil is pumped through a 150 mm diameter
smooth pipe which is subjected to seasonal changes in
R temperature from 0°C to 38°C. At maximum tempera-
ture, power required to maintain a flow of 30 lit/s is 2.3
X
kN per 300 m. If kinematic viscosity of crude oil at 0°C
is 2.8 stokes, the power requirement per 300 m (in kW)
to maintain same rate of flow is______(specific gravity
The average velocity of fluid in the pipe is
of crude oil = 0.9).
−R 2  dp  (A) 5.64 (B) 4.92
(A)  
8µ  dx  (C) 5.28 (D) 5.47
−R 2  dp  61. Water flows through a pipe of 250 mm diameter.The
(B)  
4 µ  dx  coefficient of friction between water and pipe surface is
−R 2  dp  0.04. There is a shear stress of 0.15 kN/m2 at a distance
(C)   of 40 mm from the pipe axis. Shear stress at the pipe
2 µ  dx 
wall (in kN/m2) is______.
−R 2  dp  (A) 0.423 (B) 0.486
(D)  
µ  dx  (C) 0.468 (D) 0.438

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 3.684 | Part III ■ Unit 8 ■ Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

Previous Years’ Questions

1. Flow rate of a fluid (density = 1000 kg/m3) in a small
R 2  dp   r2 
diameter tube is 800 mm3/s. the length and the diam- given by the expression u(r) = −   1 − 2  .
eter of the tube are 2 m and 0.5 mm, respectively. The 4 µ  dx   R 
dp
pressure drop in 2 m length is equal to 2.0 MPa. The where is a constant. The average velocity of fluid
dx
viscosity of the fluid is [GATE, 2007] in the pipe is [GATE, 2008]
(A) 0.025 N-s/m2 (B) 0.012 N-s/m2
(C) 0.00192 N-s/m2 (D) 0.00102 N-s/m2
2. Consider a steady incompressible flow through a R
u(r)
channel as shown below. r
x
Y

u0
Vm
H 2 R 2  dp 
(A) − R  dp  (B) −
8µ  dx  4 µ  dx 
2
(C) − R  dp 
2
(D) − R  dp 
δ
X
A B 2 µ  dx  µ  dx 
5. The maximum velocity of a one-dimensional incom-
The velocity profile is uniform with a value of u0 at
pressible fully developed viscous flow, between two
the inlet section A. The velocity profile at section B
fixed parallel plates, is 6 m/s. The mean velocity (in
downstream is
m/s) of the flow is [GATE, 2008]
 y (A) 2 (B) 3
 Vm δ , 0≤ y ≤δ (C) 4 (D) 5
 6. The flow of water (mass density = 1000 kg/m3 and
u =  Vm , δ ≤ y ≤ H −δ
 H − y H −δ ≤ y ≤ H kinematic viscosity = 10-6 m2/s) in a commercial
Vm , pipe, having equivalent roughness ks as 0.12 mm,
 δ yields an average shear stress at the pipe boundary
p A − pB = 600 N/m2. The value of ks/δ′ (δ′ being the thickness
The ratio (where pA and pB are the pressures of laminar sub-layer) for this pipe is [GATE, 2008]
1
pu0 2 (A) 0.25 (B) 0.50
2 (C) 6.0 (D) 8.0
at section A and B, respectively, and r is the density of
the fluid) is [GATE, 2007] 7. Oil flows through a 200 mm diameter horizontal cast
iron pipe (friction factor, f = 0.0225) of length 500 m.
1 1 The volumetric rate is 0.2 m3/s. The head loss (in m)
(A) −1 (B)
(1 − (δ / H)) 2 [1 − (δ /H )]2 due to friction is (assume g = 9.81 m/s2)
 [GATE, 2009]
1 1
(C) −1 (D) (A) 116.18 (B) 0.116
(1 − ( 2δ /H )) 2 1+ (δ /H ) (C) 18.22 (D) 232.36
3. Water at 25°C is flowing through a 1.0 km long GI 8. An incompressible fluid flows over flat plate with zero
pipe of 200 mm diameter at the rate of 0.07 m3/s. If pressure gradient. The boundary layer thickness is
value of Darcy friction factor for this pipe is 0.02 and 1 mm at a location where the Reynolds number is
density of water is 1000 kg/m3, the pumping power (in 1000. If the velocity of the fluid alone is increased by
kW) required to maintain the flow is [GATE, 2008] a factor of 4, then the boundary layer thickness at the
(A) 1.8 (B) 17.4 same location, in mm will be [GATE, 2009]
(C) 20.5 (D) 41.0 (A) 4 (B) 2
(C) 0.5 (D) 0.25
4. The velocity profile of a fully developed laminar flow
9. Water flows through a 100 mm diameter pipe with a
in a straight circular pipe, as shown in the figure, is
velocity of 0.015 m/s. If the kinematic viscosity of

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 Chapter 4 ■ Viscous Flow of Incompressible Fluids | 3.685

water is 1.13 × 10-6 m2/s, the friction factor of the (A) 3 (B) 4
pipe material is [GATE, 2009] (C) 5 (D) 6
(A) 0.0015 (B) 0.032 16. Consider laminar flow of water over a flat plate of
(C) 0.037 (D) 0.048 length 1 m. If the boundary layer thickness at a dis-
10. For steady, fully developed flow inside a straight pipe tance of 0.25 m from the leading edge of the plate
of diameter D, neglecting gravity effects, the pressure is 8 mm, the boundary layer thickness (in mm), at a
drop Δp over a length L and the wall shear stress τw distance of 0.75 m, is ______. [GATE, 2013]
are related by [GATE, 2010] 17. A 2 km pipe of 0.2 m diameter connects two reser-
∆pD ∆pD voirs. The difference between the water levels in the
(A) τ w = (B) τ w = reservoir is 8 m. The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
4L 4 L2
of the pipe is 0.04. Accounting for frictional entry
∆pD 4∆pD and exit losses, the velocity in the pipe in (m/s) is
(C) τ w = (D) τ w =
2L D  [GATE, 2013]
11. Water flows through a pipe having an inner radius of (A) 0.63 (B) 0.35
10 mm at the rate of 36 kg/hr at 25°C. The viscosity of (C) 2.52 (D) 1.25
water at 25°C is 0.001 kg/ms. The Reynolds number 18. With reference to a standard Cartesian (x, y) plane, the
of the flow is ______. [GATE, 2011] parabolic velocity distribution profile of fully devel-
12. For a fully developed flow of water in a pipe having oped laminar flow in x-direction between two parallel,
diameter 10 cm, velocity 0.1 m /s and kinematic vis- stationary and identical plates that are separated by
cosity 10–5 m2/s, the value of Darcy friction factor is distance, h, is given by the expression
______. [GATE, 2011]
h2 dp   y 
2
13. A single pipe of length 1500 m and diameter 60 cm u=- 1 − 4   
connects two reservoirs having a difference of 20 m 8µ dx   h  
in their water levels. The pipe is to be replaced by
In this equation, the y = 0 axis lies equidistant between
two pipes of the same length and equal diameter ‘d’
the plates at a distance h/2 from the two plates, p is the
to convey 25% more discharge under the same head
pressure variable and µ is the dynamic viscosity term.
loss. If the friction factor is assume to be the same for
The maximum and average velocities are, respec-
all the pipes, the value of ‘d’ is approximately equal to
tively [GATE, 2014]
which of the following options? [GATE, 2011]
h2 dp 2
(A) 37.5 cm (B) 40.0 cm (A) umax = - and uaverage = umax
8µ dx
⋅

(C) 45.0 cm (D) 50.0 cm 3

h2 dp 2
14. Water flows through a 10 mm diameter and 250 m (B) umax = and uaverage = umax
8µ dx
⋅

long smooth pipe at an average velocity of 0.1 m/s. 3

The density and the viscosity of water are 997 kg/m3 h2 dp 3
and 855 × 10–6 N. s/m2, respectively. Assuming fully– (C) umax = - and uaverage = umax
8µ dx
⋅

8
developed flow, the pressure drop (in Pa) in the pipe is
h2 dp 3
______. [GATE, 2012] (D) umax = and uaverage = umax
8µ dx
⋅

8
15. The circular water pipes shown in the figure are flow-
ing full. The velocity of flow (in m/s) in the branch 19. Consider the turbulent flow of a fluid through a cir-
pipe ‘R’ is [GATE, 2012] cular pipe of diameter, D. Identify the correct pair of
statements.
I. The fluid is well-mixed
dia = 4 m
II. The fluid is un-mixed
P Q III. ReD < 2300
IV. ReD > 2300 [GATE, 2014]
(A) I, III (B) II, IV
V = 6 m/s V = 5 m/s (C) II, III (D) I, IV
20. An incompressible homogeneous fluid is flowing
steadily in a variable diameter pipe having the large
R
and small diameters as 15 cm and 5 cm, respectively.
V=?
If the velocity at a section at the 15 cm diameter por-
dia = 2 m
tion of the pipe is 2.5 m/s, the velocity of the fluid

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 3.686 | Part III ■ Unit 8 ■ Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

(in m/s) at a section falling in 5 cm portion of the pipe Qfull. Similarly, the discharge when the pipe is flowing
is _______. [GATE, 2014] half-full, i.e., with a flow depth of 0.5 m, is denoted by
21. An incompressible fluid is flowing at a steady rate in a Q
Qhalf . The ratio full is [GATE, 2015]
horizontal pipe. From a section, the pipe divides into Qhalf
two horizontal parallel pipes of diameters d1 and d2 (A) 1 (B) 2
(where d1 = 4d2) that run for a distance of L each and
(C) 2 (D) 4
then again join back to a pipe of the original size. For
both the parallel pipes, assume the head loss due to 26. Consider fully developed flow in a circular pipe with
friction only and the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor negligible entrance length effects. Assuming the mass
to be the same. The velocity ratio between the bigger flow rate, density and friction factor to be constant, if
and the smaller branched pipes is _______. the length of the pipe is doubled and the diameter is
 [GATE, 2014] halved, the head loss due to friction will increase by a
factor of [GATE, 2015]
22. A straight 100 m long raw water gravity main is to
(A) 4 (B) 16
carry water from an intake structure to the jack well of (C) 32 (D) 64
a water treatment plant. The required flow through this
water main is 0.21 m3/s. Allowable velocity through 27. The Blaussius equation related to boundary layer
the main is 0.75 m/s. Assume f = 0.01, g = 9.81 m/s2. ­theory is a  [GATE, 2015]
The minimum gradient (in cm/100 m length) to be (A) third-order linear partial differential equation.
given to this gravity main so that the required amount (B) third-order non-linear partial differential equation.
of water flows without any difficulty is ________. (C)  second-order non-linear ordinary differential
 [GATE, 2014] equation.
(D) third-order non-linear ordinary differential equation.
23. A siphon is used to drain water from a large tank as
shown in the figure below. Assume that the level of 28. For flow through a pipe of radius R, the velocity and
water is maintained constant. Ignore frictional effect temperature distribution are as follows: u(r, z) = C1,
due to viscosity and losses at entry and exist. At the   r 3 
and T(r, x) = C2 1−    , where C1 and C2 are
exit of the siphon, the velocity of water is   R  
 [GATE, 2014] constants.
Q R
2
U m R 2 ∫0
The bulk mean temperature is given by Tm = ⋅ u
P
(r, x)T(r, x) rdr, with Um being the mean velocity of
O
flow. The value of Tm is [GATE, 2015]
ZQ 0.5C2
ZP (A) (B) 0.5C2
Um
ZO
0.6C2
(C) 0.6C2 (D)
Datum ZR R
Um
29. Air (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity, d = 2
× 10-5 m2/s) with a velocity of 2 m/s flows over the top
(A) 2g (ZQ − Z R ) (B) 2g (Z P − Z R ) surface of a flat plate of length 2.5 m. If the average
(C) 2 g ( Z0 − Z R ) (D) 2g ZQ 1.328
value of friction coefficient is C f = , the total
Rex
24. A fluid of dynamic viscosity 2 × 10–5
kg/ ms and den-
sity 1 kg/m3 flows with an average velocity of 1 m/s drag force (in N) per unit width of the plate is ______.
through a long duct of rectangular (25 mm × 15 mm)  [GATE, 2015]
cross-section. Assuming laminar flow, the pressure 30. Within a boundary layer for a steady incompressible
drop (in Pa) in the fully developed region per metre flow, the Bernoulli’s equation  [GATE, 2015]
length of the duct is ______. [GATE, 2014] (A) holds because the flow is steady.
25. A circular pipe has a diameter of 1 m, bed slope of 1 (B) holds because the flow is incompressible.
in 1000, and Manning’s roughness coefficient equal to (C) holds because the flow is transitional.
0.01. It may be treated as an open channel flow when (D) does not hold because the flow is frictional.
it is flowing just full, i.e., the water level just touches 31. The head loss for a laminar incompressible flow
the crest. The discharge in this condition is denoted by through a horizontal circular pipe is h1. Pipe length

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 Chapter 4 ■ Viscous Flow of Incompressible Fluids | 3.687

and fluid remaining the same, if the average flow entrance is sharp (loss coefficient = 0.5) and the valve
velocity doubles and the pipe diameter reduces to half is half-open (loss coefficient = 5.5). The head differ-
its previous value, the head loss is h2. The ratio h2/h1 ence between the two reservoirs is 20 m. Assume the
is [GATE, 2015] friction factor for the pipe as 0.03 and g = 10 m/s2.
(A) 1 (B) 4 The discharge in the pipe accounting for all minor and
(C) 8 (D) 16 major losses is ________. [GATE, 2015]
32. For a fully developed laminar flow of water (dynamic 36. The drag force, FD, on a sphere kept in a uniform flow
viscosity 0.001 Pa-s) through a pipe of radius 5 cm, field depends on the diameter of the sphere, D; flow
the axial pressure gradient is –10 Pa/m. The magni- velocity, V, fluid density, ρ; and dynamic viscosity, µ.
tude of axial velocity (in m/s) at a radial location of Which of the following options represents the non-
0.2 cm is ______. [GATE, 2015] dimensional parameters which could be used to ana-
33. Couette flow is characterized by [GATE, 2015] lyze this problem? [GATE, 2015]
(A) steady, incompressible, laminar flow through a FD µ FD ρVD
straight circular pipe. (A) and (B) and
VD ρVD ρVD 2
µ
(B) fully developed turbulent flow through a straight
circular pipe. FD ρVD FD µ
(C) and (D) and
(C)  steady, incompressible, laminar flow between ρV 2 D 2 µ ρV 3 D 3 ρVD
two fixed parallel plates.
37. A nozzle is so shaped that the average flow velocity
(D)  steady, incompressible, laminar flow between
changes linearly from 1.5 m/s at the beginning to 15
one fixed plate and the other moving with a con-
m/s at its end in a distance of 0.375 m. The magnitude
stant velocity.
of the convective acceleration (in m/s2) at the end of
34. Three parallel pipes connected at the two ends have the nozzle is _________. [GATE, 2015]
flow-rates Q1, Q2 and Q3 respectively, and the cor-
38. A pipe of 0.7 m diameter has a length of 6 km and
responding frictional head losses are hL1, hL2, and hL3
connects two reservoirs A and B. The water level in
respectively. The correct expressions for total flow
reservoir A is at an elevation 30 m above the water
rate (Q) and frictional head loss across the two ends
level in reservoir B. Halfway along the pipe line, there
(hL) are [GATE, 2015]
is a branch through which water can be supplied to
(A) Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3; hL = hL1 + hL2 + hL3
a third reservoir C. The friction factor of the pipe is
(B) Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3; hL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3
0.024. The quantity of water discharged into reservoir
(C) Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3; hL = hL1 + hL2 + hL3
C is 0.15 m3/s. Considering the acceleration due to
(D) Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3; hL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3
gravity as 9.81 m/s2 and neglecting minor losses, the
35. Two reservoirs are connected through a 930 m long, discharge (in m3/s) into the reservoir B is _______.
0.3 m diameter pipe, which has a gate valve. The pipe  [GATE, 2015]

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. C 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. B 6. D 7. C 8. B 9. D 10. C
11. B 12. C 13. D 14. B 15. B 16. D 17. A 18. D 19. A 20. D
21. Pressure head as well as datum head 22. 77% 23. A 24. C 25. A 26. D 27. A
28. A 29. A 30. B 31. C 32. D 33. D 34. B 35. D 36. D 37. C
38. D 39. B 40. B 41. B 42. C 43. B 44. A 45. A 46. B 47. C
48. A 49. C 50. C 51. B 52. D 53. A 54. D 55. A 56. C 57. C
58. D 59. C 60. D 61. C

Previous Years’ Questions

1. C 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. C 6. D 7. A 8. C 9. D 10. A
11. 635 to 638 12. 0.06 to 0.07 13. D 14. 6800 to 6900 15. B 16. 13.5 to 14.2
17. A 18. A 19. D 20. 22.5 21. 2 22. 4.8 23. B 24. 1.7 to 2 25. C 26. D
27. D 28. C 29. 0.0158 to 0.0162 30. D 31. C 32. 6.2 to 6.3 33. D 34. B
35. 0.1413 m3/s 36. C 37. 540 38. 0.5716

Part III_Unit 8_Chapter 04.indd 687 5/31/2017 3:22:38 PM