Types of Texts

Contents
PERSUASIVE WRITING 2
Useful Links 2
Poster, Advertisement 3
Informational Posters 4
Manifesto 4
Letter 8
Business Letters 8
Functional Letters 8
Personal Letters 9
E-mail 9
Parody 11
Cartoon 11
Brochure 20
Editorial 21
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING 21
Four Types of Editorials Will 22
Writing an Editorial 22
A Sample Structure 22
Speech 23
ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING 23
Editorial 23
Compare and contrast 23
DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE WRITING 24
Narrative Writing 24
Novel 24
Short Story 24
Autobiography 25
Memoir 25
Memoir and Autobiography 26
Function of Memoir 26
Biography 26
Diary 27
Letter 27
Graphic Novel 27
Postcard 27
Poetry and Song Lyric 28
Drama 28
Screenplay 28
INFORMATIVE WRITING 28
Biography, Letter, Email, Poster 28
Pastiche 28
Website 29

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Types of Texts

Interview 29
Article 29
Newspaper Article 32
Magazine Article 32
Blog 33
How to Write a Blog Entry 33
Common Blog Features 33
Reports 34
Newspaper Report 34
Book Reports 36
Consumer Reports 37
Instructions 37
Procedure Texts 38
Leaflets 38
Diagrams 38
Graphs 39
Audio -Visual Texts 40
Three Ways of Thinking and Talking about Films 41
Camera Operations 46
Film Terminology 51
Sound 53
Diegetic sound 53
Non-diegetic sound 53
Storyboards 54
Notes About Shots 54
Improving Your Skills in Writing About the Use of Language Effects in a Text 56
Language features and their effects 59
Language Devices and their Effects 65
Persuasive Techniques 70

PERSUASIVE WRITING
Useful Links
https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/K12ELA7-7.2.2-
PersuasiveTechniquesHandout-BY-SA1.pdf
http://blogs.yis.ac.jp/schneerw/files/2014/08/Glossaryofpersuasivetechniques-
vhmcqd.pdf
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson829/Argument-
Propaganda.pdf
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140815205902-57567806-7-propaganda-techniques-
all-students-should-learn
http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/activity/second_war_independence/pages/aganda.html
https://louisville.edu/writingcenter/for-students-1/handouts-and-resources/handouts-
1/logos-ethos-pathos-kairos

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 Types of Texts

Poster, Advertisement
Why What
I. To develop loyalty to a cause, Billboards, fliers, circulars. Pamphlets,
person, or product. posters packaging. Blurbs. TV and radio
II. To tantalize, persuade, and spots.
invite. To circularize
information. Inserts or notices in magazines and
III. To promote an event, product, newspapers.
cause, or person.
IV. To endorse a product over that
of a competitor.
V. To correct actual or perceived
misinformation.
VI. To generate good will.
VII. To sell a service or product.

Features
● Uses concise language structures.
● Sometimes a third party is involved in sponsorship.
● Persuasive language—superlatives, comparisons with competitors.
● Abbreviated language and often abbreviations—the latter are often specialized
or technical terms.
● Extensive use of graphics—layout, color, type font and size, and visual images.
● Often emphasize price, quality, reliability, new or current product.
● Often designed to appeal to a specific audience or to extend audience.
● Elements of urgency—limited availability, special offer, sale, discount.
● Other vocabulary: trademark, retail price, guarantee, warranty, special
conditions apply, ingredients.
● Most include contact information.
● Radio and TV ads may include jingle or song, printed ads will probably include a
logo of the product or company.
● Excellence or superiority is often claimed rather than proven or backed by
research.
● Asterisk often refers to the “fine print” and the conditions or limitations or
warnings.
● Size or duration varies.
● Almost always linked to revenue.
● Often uses metaphors.

Informational Posters
Why What
To convey a large amount of information in a Billboard, fliers, TV advertisements.

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succinct and graphical form to a distant and

fleeting audience.

Features
● Appeals to a specific audience.
● May include slogan, logos, reference to public figures.
● Illustrations may include photographs of well-known people.
● Link with product may be obscure but causes tend to be overtly explicit. Graphics
usually sell the message.
● Inferential reading a common requirement.
● Uses concise language.
● Often includes metaphors.

Manifesto

The word manifesto traces its roots to the Latin ‘manifestum’, which means clear or
conspicuous. A manifesto is defined as a declaration of one’s beliefs, opinions, motives, and
intentions. It is simply a document that an organization or person writes that declares what
is important to them.

A manifesto functions as both a statement of principles and a bold, sometimes rebellious,

call to action. By causing people to evaluate the gap between those principles and their
current reality, the manifesto challenges assumptions, fosters commitment, and provokes
change.

While manifestos are traditionally public declarations, every man can also have a personal
manifesto.

The word manifesto is therefore also used for a public declaration of intent by a sovereign
or government.

It is a compelling statement of intent by a political party. It is linguistically and visually

compelling.

Political parties formulate write and give visual form to well- thought out personal
conviction about issues facing a country and to translate that conviction into strategy for
practice.

Here we boil down the essential characteristics of manifesto.

● it is declaration of beliefs, opinions, motives, and intentions

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● generally, it is intended for a large audience and therefore written in clear, plain,
punchy language
● it sets out a number of realistic and achievable goals
● it may be revolutionary, but usually designed to stimulate public dialogue or
question assumptions

It uses visual rhetoric

● Images
● Slogan/catch lines
● Short text
● Expressive typography

Manifestoes are multimodal - has both visual and written mode.

Pictures/photographs- non-verbal communication (body language) – consider facial
expression, gaze, posture, clothing and appearance. Photographs – consider framing.
Consider colour. Consider logo. What is denoted? What is connoted?

Consider the following

● Foregrounding/Background
● Contrast of lights and darkness
● Position of objects so as to move the eye in a particular direction ( landscape- left to
right; portrait- depth)
● Variety of fonts
● Spacing
● colors
● position so as to offer emotional appeal
● graphics
● Examine purpose and quality of individual images and link to relevant phrases if
possible

Tag lines for graphics

● Written mode: slogan- analyse diction
● List of aims- analyse.

What are the elements of persuasion/manipulation in the language?

● Satire
● Jargon
● Persuasive techniques like high marked modality, imperatives, hyperbole, Synthetic
personalization
● Lexical clusters
● Phrasing and diction
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● Sentence length/complexity
● Paragraph breaks
● contrast in content
● rhetorical devices – alliteration, internal rhyme, assonance, consonance etc
● tonal shifts
● tone/atmosphere

How does written mode reinforce the visual mode? (and vice versa)

How are the language and meaning shaped by culture and context within this text?
Are there Ideological Issues or any forms of bias?
o Power
o Gender
o Ethnicity
o Taboo
o Identity
o Variety/culture

Useful Links:
http://www.slideshare.net/MsSharonLim/visual-text-comprehension
https://prezi.com/1ctzxie5gvlh/visual-literacy-prezi/
http://astar.tv/post/how-to-analysing-visual-texts/
http://astar.tv/post/how-to-analysing-visual-texts/
http://assess1prelimdec.blogspot.in/p/how-do-you-analyse-visual-text.html

● The communicative purposes of a political manifesto are:

1. Main function is to be persuasive: a response in the form of voting for the party is
desired. 2. Capture the attention of the person reading the manifesto.
3. Are usually addressed to all potential voters. 4. Recipients are all the adults who
are eligible to vote in general elections.
5. Not likely to be the first contact between the party and the citizen, rather a later
contact, after the initial interest of the voter has been attracted otherwise.
6. Provides more information on the program, not perhaps addressed in the first
instances or in the media.
● WHAT IS A MANIFESTO?
The word manifesto comes from the Latin manifestus meaning literally that may be
laid hold of by the hand. Manus means hand and Festus comes from fendo: to dash
against. Eventually it came to stand for a document, signed by the master of a
vessel at the place of lading which was to be exhibited at the custom’s house. The
manifesto contained a description of the ship and her cargo, the destination of the
ship and the goods. Accordingly the word manifest means To show plainly, to
display, or Not hidden, clear to view; easily understood. The word manifesto is
therefore also used for a public declaration of intent by a sovereign or
government.

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● AIMS OF A MANIFESTO
● Architects have used the manifesto to declare an opinion about an issue and to
project that opinion into a strategy for practice. It gives the opportunity to

● To investigate broader issues affecting country and to begin to mould a set of

personal values and attitudes towards country.

● To deepen the student’s grasp of the implications of design choices specifically with
regard to how those choices affect the perception and experience of buildings.

● FORM AND STRUCTURE

In form the architectural manifesto is a product where the written word exists in
heightened tension with visual rhetoric. Images, slogans, short texts, expressive
typography all come together to build an image of conviction about a certain issue
and to translate that conviction into strategies for practice.

● The objective is to formulate, write and give visual form to a set of well thought
out personal convictions about some issue in a country. Those convictions should
be concerned with the tension between theory and practice.

● The idea of a manifesto is to make it visually and linguistically compelling. Also it is

short. Evidence is not too important here. The accent is on a compelling statement
of intent.

You can divide the manifesto up into sections by asking the following questions:
1. What is the problem?
2. What are the issues involved?
3. How are these issues relevant to the politician?
4. What is my attitude to the problem?
5. What can we do to solve the problem?

Useful Links:
http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/06/manifestos-a-manifesto-the-
10-things-all-manifestos-need/372135/
http://www.ibcando.com/?p=1944
http://rgcl.wlv.ac.uk/2015/05/05/manifestospeak-what-can-linguistic-analysis-tell-us-
about-politicians-and-their-attitudes/
http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Manifesto

Letter
Business Letters

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Types of Texts

Why What
● To request or to respond to a Part of correspondence between two
request. parties, one of whom is part of an
● To express an opinion organized body.
● To inform.
● To apply for a product, information,
or a position.

Features
● Lay out more details, and body of letter has more defined structure than that of a
personal letter.
● Full address of sender and recipient included.
● Structure includes purpose of letter and reference to any previous
correspondence on the same topic, explanation, and thanks which often
summarizes intended or decided action.
● Opinion often stated as fact.
● May include “Reference: Attention.”
● Recipient or writer may be acting on behalf of a group or committee. May include
technical information specific to topic or specific item.
● If more than one item is being discussed, paragraphs are used. Might be
numbered with subsection defined by letters.
● Letterheads.

Functional Letters

● What
Letters for a specific purpose, often “one-
offs” such as expressing condolence,
thanks, or congratulations. Sometimes an
open letter, such as a letter to an editor
intended for public readership.

Personal Letters
Why What
To maintain a relationship. To exchange A written communication from one person
records of incidents and ideas of common to another, traditionally sent in an envelope
interest. by post, but electronic mail is becoming
more common.

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Features
● Sequence may not be important.
● Idioms and natural language common elements.
● Some content probably of significance only to writer and main recipient.
● Often used in research for biographies or autobiographies.
● Address and date often abbreviated.
● Usually longer length than business or functional letters.
● Grammar and spelling are often not as closely checked as in other forms of letters.

E-mail
Structural Component Purpose Examples

Subject Line Provides core content of the “Requesting information

email about X,” “Interested in
learning about X”
Greeting Creates more or less formal “Dear Professor X,” “Dear
tone Follows convention Ms. Surname,” “Dear
Recruiter,” “Dear Jaime,”
“Hello Dr. Surname,” “Hi
Mr. Surname,” “Hi Jaime,”
“Hey Jaime” (formal to
informal)
Pleasantry A politeness strategy that “I hope you’re well”
establishes human “Thanks for getting back to
connection with recipient me” “I hope you had a good
weekend”
Identification of self Depends on how well you “My name is Jaime Smith.
know the recipient. Possible Professor Smart gave me
purposes include: your email address” “This is
● Introducing self for Jaime Smith from section B
first time of your Corporate Finance
● Reminding recipient class”
how you met or got “My name is Jaime Smith.
his/her contact We met last week at the
information Technical Opportunities
● Informing instructor Conference at Carnegie
which class you’re in Mellon University”
Reason for email Lets recipient know early on “I was hoping I could meet

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what to do with the email. with you to discuss...”

Keep in mind: “I know you’re busy, but
● Your purpose may would you be able to review
need to be softened my X when you have time?
depending on the “I’m interested in learning
recipient’s status more about X”
and on what you’re “I have an update on X”
asking him/her to do “Would it be possible for us
for you. to meet and discuss the
● You may want to possibility of you writing a
describe the strong letter of
situation in a recommendation for my X
sentence or two application?”
before stating your Will vary in length and
purpose detail depending on the
Provides context by nature of the situation and
describing the purpose of the email.
situation and
purpose of the email
in more detail.

Describe situation Tells recipient what he/she “I would be more than

and can expect from you next, happy to meet at your
Action plan including available meeting convenience”
times, “If you’re free, I’m available
information/documents you to meet on X day at X time”
can provide, etc. “If you’re willing to look
Also provide an opportunity over my proposal, could you
to give the recipient an possibly do it within the
“out” next two weeks?”
“If you have some free time,
would you be able to give
me a call?”
Closing line Expresses “Thank you for taking the
gratitude/contrition time to consider my
Emphasizes action items. request” “I really appreciate
the help you’ve given me”
“Thank you once more for
your help in this matter”
“Once again, I’m really sorry
that...
“I’m looking forward to your
reply”
“If you require any further
information, please feel fee
to contact me”
Sign-off Creates a more or less “Sincerely,” “Best Wishes,”

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formal tone “Warm Regards,” “Many

Follows convention Thanks,” “Best,” “Regards”

Parody
Useful Links:
https://www.slideshare.net/lclarkhfc/parody-pastiche
http://www.evergladeshs.org/ourpages/auto/2015/11/23/69033959/2015%20How-to-
Write-Parody-and-Satire.pdf
Example for parodies- https://www.edutopia.org/blog/film-festival-education-parodies-
mashups-2013

Cartoon
The use of cartoons alongside articles has become more and more popular for School
Assessed Courseworks (SACs) and end of year English exam. At first glance and even after
deliberation, cartoons may not always appear to contain great amounts of information for
students to analyse. However, when students know what to look for, it can be a vital jump-
start for an insightful cartoon analysis. After all, there is a reason why teachers and
examiners choose to use cartoons. It is crucial that students develop a strong ability to
analyse cartoons with or without written articles. While there are many resources helping
students gain skills in analysing written articles, few are specifically focused on cartoons.
Below are 10 things you should look for in cartoons. These are common techniques used by
illustrators and are a fantastic starting point in cartoon analysis. All cartoons can be found at
The Australian and The Herald Sun.

Colours can be separated into two groups – warm colours and cool colours. Warm colours
including red, orange and yellow may be used to evoke feelings of comfort and
amiableness. It can also be used to express anger and embarrassment. Meanwhile, cool
colours including blue, green and purple may represent calm and tranquility. Otherwise it

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can mean sadness and misery. What colours mean: Remember that a group of colours
can represent an overall meaning:

● Red, blue and white – can

represent Australian flag and
symbolises patriotism.
● Red, green, and dark brown –
can represent earth and
nature.

While analysing colourful

cartoons, also consider that
many cartoons are black and
white. Although these cartoons
lack colour, illustrators use
other methods to create
meaning.

● What shading is used? –

heavy shading can mean
power and solidity; light
shading can indicate frailty
and insignificance.
● What textures/patterns are used? – smooth or rough.
● What shapes are there?
Remember that most cartoons are simply just ‘black and white.’ For example:

Cartoon by Nicholson from "The Australian" newspaper: www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Background: Julia Gillard’s national broadband network will be available to every
Australian citizen no matter where they live and work. Analysis: The monochromatic
national broadband laid across mountains and kilometers just to serve one shack may

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represent a sombre plan that is pointless for Australian citizens.

Size

Size is an important element in cartoons and one that is often quite obvious. Investigate:

● Is anything disproportioned?
● Exaggerated? Under-exaggerated?
● What is large and what is small?
For example:

Cartoon by Nicholson from "The Australian" newspaper: www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Background: Wikileaks exposes information about Hilary Clinton and Kevin Rudd and Julia
Gillard’s subsequent condemnation of the website. Analysis: The oversized ‘WikiLake’
appears to be irrepressible and too overwhelming for the three politicians from
preventing another information release.

Labelling
● What is labelled?
● What do the labels say?
● Do the labels tell us the situation? Person? Time change?
For example:

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Cartoon by Nicholson from "The Australian" newspaper: www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

Background: In the aftermath of the 2011 Queensland floods, many will be seeking
insurance for home and business damages. Analysis: The label ‘Grin Insurance’ is satirical
in that one would expect a customer to be ‘grinning’ to have insurance. However, the
insurance policy only ‘covers [them] against small ‘f’ flood’, not the ‘capital ‘F’ Flood’ they
have just experienced, leaving them with no insurance and little to ‘grin’ about.

Speech bubbles
● Who is speaking?
● What are they saying?
● Is it a conversation?
For example:

Cartoon by Nicholson from "The Australian" newspaper: www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au

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Background: Cows contribute to greenhouse gases via flatuence of methane

gas.Analysis: The irony of a cow stating that he is a ‘climate change septic’ (a pun on the
word 'sceptic') when his own release of methane gas is a significant cause in growing
greenhouse gases.

Symbols

A symbol is something that represents or stands for something else, usually an idea. They
are commonly found throughout daily lives such as the peace sign or the Red Cross for
the organisation that helps victims of war or natural disasters. Sometimes symbols may
be as obvious as those mentioned above, yet other times may be more subtle in their
meaning.

1. What symbols are incorporated?

2. Why are particular symbols used?
3. Is it a well-known symbol?
4. Is the symbol’s meaning clear and identifiable? Or is it vague and can have multiple
interpretations?

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For example:
Cartoon by Mark Knight from "The Herald Sun" newspaper: www.heraldsun.com.au
Background: Ted Baillieu, opposition leader against John Brumby in 2010 Victorian state
elections. Analysis: The representation of Baillieu as an iceberg indicates that he is a
powerful force preventing the Labor Party from moving forwards and winning the 2010
state elections. The cartoon symbolises the famous movie, Titanic, and indicates that the
Labor Party is bound to ‘sink’ against Baillieu and fail to 'sail forward’ to a victory.

Focus

The focus of a cartoon can indicate the main issue or situation.

1. What is in focus?
2. What is in the foreground and background?

For example:
Cartoon by Mark Knight from "The Herald Sun" newspaper: www.heraldsun.com.au
Background: Wikileaks obtaining information about politicians. Analysis: While a gigantic
fly labeled ‘Wikileaks’ is the main focus of the cartoon, it is humorous in that it succeeds
in surreptitiously listening in on Kevin Rudd and Hilary Clinton’s unsuspecting private
conversation.

Angle

Angles often provide readers an indication of the status of particular people or things. If
the angle is sloping down, then it creates an image of a smaller person or item. This
indicates weakness, inferiority and powerlessness. An angle sloping up towards a person
or item provides it with power, superiority and authority. A straight-on angle can
represent equality.

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1. Is the angle sloping up?

2. Is the angle sloping down?
3. Is it straight on?
4. From behind? Front on?
5. On top or below?
For example:

Cartoon by Mark Knight from "The Herald Sun" newspaper: www.heraldsun.com.au

Background: Banks and Power Companies are two sectors important to Australian
society.Analysis: The angle tilted up towards the Bank and Power Company demonstrates
that they are domineering, powerful and authoritative.

Tone

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The tone of a cartoon can indicate the illustrator’s attitude and stance towards the issue.
Common cartoon tones include: satire, humour, irony and amusement. For more
examples of tones check out: VCE Study Guides 195 Tones Vocabulary. For example:

Cartoon by Mark Knight from "The Herald Sun" newspaper: www.heraldsun.com.au

Background: The North Koreans are well known for their possession of nuclear
weapons.Analysis: Although North Korea has made significant technological advances
with their nuclear weapons, it is ironic that their other tools of war remain
underdeveloped, perhaps since the Middle Ages as the catapult implies.

Facial Expression

Facial expressions are key to the character’s thoughts, feelings and emotions.

● What facial expressions are used?

● Do they change (sequential cartoons)?
● How do expressions compare to another’s expression?

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● Is it an
expression we expect?
For example:
Cartoon by Mark Knight from "The Herald Sun" newspaper: www.heraldsun.com.au
Background: Prince William introducing Kate Middleton to his royal
family. Analysis: While Prince William appears to be proud and excited to introduce Kate
to his family, his fiancé’s expression demonstrates that perhaps she may be apprehensive
about the event.

Context

The context of a cartoon is important. Most of the time, cartoons are attached to articles
and usually draw upon a point contended by the writer of the article.

● Does the cartoon support or oppose the article?

● Is it relevant or irrelevant?
● Does it focus on the past, present or future?
● Which aspect of the article does it relate to?
● Does it add further information?

However, there are times when you will have to analyse a cartoon alone, where it is not
accompanying an article. In this case you will have to understand the background, the
situation and the issue that is represented.

Reference:
1. http://www.1stwebdesigner.com/design/color-psychology-website-design/

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Brochure
http://www.innovativewriting.com/Sample_School_Brochure.html

Why What
To inform. To invite. To persuade. To market Single sheet, often folded, of
a product, attraction, or event. To create promotional material advertising a
interest and good will. product, attraction, or event.

Features
● Symbols
● Abbreviations.
● Directions.
● Color, font, type size and layout are important. Schedules and timetables.
● Language may vary within one brochure from concise and factual (especially when
giving information of price, responsibilities, reservations) to emotive and
persuasive descriptions using superlatives and making comparisons with
competitors.
● Vocabulary: guarantee, reservations, responsibility, warranty, location.
● Contact information—address, phone, fax, Internet.
● Illustrative material often includes photographs portraying best aspects of subject
and maps.

Editorial
Useful Link: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/19/sunday-review/did-reddit-boss-
coverage-cross-a-line-ellen-pao.html?_r=1

Why What
1. To persuade others to have the same A short persuasive essay which
opinions as the editorial writer. expresses opinion or reaction to a news
2. To share opinions. story or topical event. An informative
3. To force public officials to reconsider outline of contents in a magazine.
decisions or priorities.
4. To suggest alternative procedures.
5. To influence readers.
6. To bring current issues to the reader’s
attention.
7. To entertain.

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Features
● Expresses opinion; sometimes biased.
● May be controversial.
● Anticipates counterarguments.
● Critical reading required for reader to make informed decision. Sometimes
esoteric.
● May focus on negative. Consistent placement and length. Usually written by chief
editor.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue. It reflects the
majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made up of
editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned. Much in the same manner of a lawyer,
editorial writers build on an argument and try to persuade readers to think the same way
they do. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and
sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an
opinionated news story.

Editorials have:
1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories
2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues
3. A timely news angle
4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer
addresses
5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials
engage issues, not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics
of persuasion.
6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe
about a problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making
the situation better by using constructive criticism and giving solutions.
7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give
it some punch.
Four Types of Editorials Will:
1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the
newspaper covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may
explain new school rules or a particular student-body effort like a food drive.
2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while
providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to
see the problem, not the solution.
3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the
problem. From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific,

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positive action. Political endorsements are good examples of editorials of

persuasion.
4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done
well. They are not as common as the other three.

Writing an Editorial
● Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers.
● Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research
● State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement
● Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is
important
● Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts
● Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures,
quotations. Pick apart the other side's logic.
● Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can
acknowledge that would make you look rational.
● Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds.
● Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge.
● Encourage critical thinking and pro-active reaction.
● Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis
statement).
● Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"

A Sample Structure
Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/Controversy.

● Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the
budget, are looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held …)
● Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant.
● Additional research may be necessary.

II. Present Your Opposition First.

As the writer, you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically who
oppose you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable stations can pick
them; only the rich watch public television.)
• Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions.
• Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a weak
position.

Speech
Useful Links:

22
 Types of Texts

1. http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/persuade.htm
2. https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-
communications-textbook/introduction-to-public-speaking-1/types-of-public-
speeches-22/informative-vs-persuasive-speeches-107-8006/
3. http://www.egaa-gym.dk/fileadmin/filer/Filbank_laerere/engelsk/intro-
nonfic_analysis_en-da_termer.pdf

ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING
Useful Links:
http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/argue.htm
http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUMENTATIVE%20ES
SAY.htm
https://depts.washington.edu/owrc/Handouts/Argumentative%20Paper%20Format.pdf
https://www.roanestate.edu/owl/argument.html

Editorial
Find under Persuasive Writing

Compare and contrast

Useful Links
http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/comparcontrast.html
https://www.sbcc.edu/clrc/files/wl/downloads/WritingaCompareContrastEssay.pdf
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/comparing-and-contrasting/
http://www.depauw.edu/files/resources/compare-contrast-essay.pdf

Some tasks:
http://sciencenetlinks.com/lessons/technology-past-present-and-future/

Some articles to read on the global context

https://aeon.co/essays/has-progress-in-science-and-technology-come-to-a-halt
http://fergusonvalues.com/2014/10/innovation-vs-ingenuity-as-core-values-is-there-a-
difference/
http://www.inc.com/jordan-ritter/why-innovation-is-dead-but-ingenuity-is-alive.html

DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE WRITING

http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/describe.htm

Narrative Writing

Why What

23
Types of Texts

● To entertain. The record of a series of factual or

● To enable the reader to enjoy fictional events in which the linking of
experiences vicariously. the events gives a sequence and shape
● To record experiences. to the telling. Short stories, epics,
ballads, biographies, autobiographies,
novels, romances are examples of
narratives.

Features
● Realistic, humorous, fantasy, historical, science fiction.
● Structures familiar in narratives for beginning readers include cumulative,
interlocking or chain (ab, bc, cd ... ), common sequences (seasons, days of the
week), rhyme, repetition, and time sequence.
● An identifiable problem or tension which gives shape to the plot:
● Beginning—introduction of characters, setting, problem.
● Middle—development and elaboration of problem or tension, introduction of
other elements. Conclusion—resolution or acceptance of inevitable.
● Characters, mood, tension, strength of story line, and setting are interwoven and
interdependent elements.
● Often rely on sensory details for impact.

Novel
http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/Discourse01.htm

Short Story
https://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/ewattsvp/Short_Story_Conventions
http://www.writersdigest.com/writing-articles/by-writing-goal/write-first-chapter-get-
started/4-story-structures-that-dominate-novels

Autobiography
Why What
● To share aspects and incidents of A first-person account (usually narrative) of all
one’s life through the printed or part of one’s life. Diaries, memoirs,
word. journals, and personal letters are
● To correct misinformation. autobiographical items but are not usually
● To reflect on one’s own life. continuous narrative.
● To acknowledge those who have
made a contribution to the
author’s life.
● To explore a period of time.

24
 Types of Texts

Features
● Offers insights into the attributes, personalities, interests, and opinions of the
subject and of those close to the subject.
● Offers insights into the conditions and times in which the person lives/d.
● Usually continuous narrative.
● Often unreliable as a record of facts.
● May be based on memory, or on other people’s impressions and memories rather
than research or reference to factual records.
● First person.
● Usually some emotive and reflective language.
● Usually includes feelings and opinions.
● Usually highlights one’s better traits.
● Illustrations most likely to be photographs, grouped and presented in signatures.
● Photographs usually grouped chronologically.
● May include flashbacks.
● Probably some direct and indirect speech.
● Index common.
● May have a ghostwriter.
● Chapter headings usually descriptive.

Memoir
Memoir is a written factual account of somebody’s life. It comes from the
French word mémoire, which means “memory,” or “reminiscence.” This
literary technique tells a story about the experiences of someone’s life. A
literary memoir is usually about a specific theme, or about a part of
someone’s life. It is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus, and
subject matter, involving reflection on some particular event or place.

Memoirs are often associated with popular personalities, such as

celebrities, sportsmen, soldiers, singers, and writers. It allows making a
connection with what the audience finds captivating, interesting, appealing,
and engaging.

Memoir and Autobiography

Memoir falls under the category of autobiography, but is used as its sub-
genre. The major difference between memoir and autobiography is that a
memoir is a centralized and more specific storytelling, while an
autobiography spans the entire life of a person with intricate details such as
the childhood, family history, education, and profession. A memoir is
specific and focused, telling the story of somebody’s life, focusing on an
important event that occurred at a specific time and place.

Function of Memoir
25
Types of Texts

Memoir has been around since ancient times. Perhaps Julius Caesar, who
wrote and depicted his personal experiences about epic battles, was the
first memoirist. Later, it became a popular and acclaimed literary genre.
Memoir serves to preserve history through a person’ eyes. Through
memoir, celebrities also tell harsh sides of their careers. Rock stars tell
their fans about tough days spent in distress, drug addicts reveal their
struggle in seeking normal life, soldiers write war experiences, people who
are mentally ill describe ups and downs to achieve clarity, and authors tell
particular events that happened before their eyes. Hence, the function of
memoir is to provide a window for the audience to have a look into the lives
of other people.

Biography

Why What
● To highlight achievements. A written account of a person’s life that
● To dispel biased views. focuses on character and career or
● To publicize the subject. achievements. Ideally, an accurate history
of a person’s life (as perceived at that time)
● To perpetuate the memory of a
and a reflection of the time and place in
person or achievements.
which he/she lived.
● To reflect on aspects of historical
interest.

Features
● Detail may include family background, childhood experiences, education,
personality traits, business ventures, comments by critics, contributions to his or
her field of work or interest and the effects of these.
● Usually well researched.
● Research base may include diaries, newspaper clippings, official documents,
subject’s letters and memos to or from others, memories of contemporaries,
personal knowledge.
● Illustrative material usually photographic.
● Photographs usually between signatures of book.
● Probably includes quotes or comments from other people.
● Usually shortcomings as well as virtues highlighted, or at least included.
● Usually organized chronologically.
● May be written while subject still alive or posthumously.
● Chapter headings usually descriptive.

Diary

26
 Types of Texts

http://igcseeastbury.weebly.com/diary-entryjournal-entry.html
https://targetstudy.com/languages/english/diary-writing.html
https://prezi.com/sphtnij6afj4/writing-a-diary-entry/

Letter
Covered earlier

Graphic Novel
https://prezi.com/74r931iui-tk/conventions-of-the-graphic-novel/
https://www.slideshare.net/RaeAnna/graphic-novels-1137714
http://lmnet.wikispaces.com/file/view/Exploring+Graphic+Novels.pdf

Postcard
http://www.literacytools.ie/files/pdfs/10%20Postcards.pdf
http://slideplayer.com/slide/1448317/

Poetry and Song Lyric

http://documents.mx/documents/cats-drift.html
http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/PoetryWhatisPoetry01.htm
http://mysongcoach.com/what-is-song-structure/
http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/poetrythesis.htm

Drama
http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/DramaIntro01.htm
http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/play.htm

Screenplay
http://www.writingroom.com/viewwriting/wr_how_to/How-To-Structure-A-Screenplay
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2-E7pENfKE

INFORMATIVE WRITING
http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/mainguides/inform.htm

Biography, Letter, Email, Poster- Done earlier

Pastiche

27
Types of Texts

Pastiche (noun): an artistic work in a style that imitates that of another work, artist, or
period; a creative work intended to convey the literary techniques, tone, and themes of a
specific text

Instructions
Choose EITHER “Girl” (1978) by Jamaica Kincaid (http://www.saginaw-
twp.k12.mi.us/view/8490.pdf)OR “I Want a Wife” (1971) by Judy
Brady(http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/rainbow/wife.html), and compose a pastiche
based upon your chosen text.

The objective is to persuade your audience to believe as you tell them. Although your
pastiche must model the style of the author – Kincaid or Brady – it is an original piece: be
creative with your content while being loyal to the author’s style (techniques, tone,
structure, etc).

Ideas for how to mimic style:

1. Sentence structure
2. Use of external/internal voice
3. Repetition of key phrases
4. Describe behaviors
5. Describe interactions with others
6. Describe expectations
7. Duplicate narrative form

Possible Topics for “Girl” Pastiche Possible Topics for “I Want a Wife”
Pastiche
❑ How an athlete would be spoken to ❑ I want a home
❑ How a boy would be spoken to ❑ I want a sibling
❑ How an honors student would be ❑ I want a career
spoken to ❑ I want a car
❑ How a LGBTQ person would be spoken ❑ I want a counselor
to ❑ I want a teacher
❑ How a __________ would be spoken to ❑ I want a __________ (your choice)
(your choice)

Website
http://webstyleguide.com/wsg3/6-page-structure/3-site-design.html
http://www.usingmyhead.com/2016/02/27/4-main-website-components/

Interview
Why What
● To record conversations with or Usually magazine or newspaper articles set
questioning of a person for a out in question-and-answer format.

28
 Types of Texts

specific purpose or audience.

● To obtain and share information
about predetermined topics
through a question- and-answer
session.

Features
● Little or no scene setting.
● Verbatim recording of questions and answers.
● Interviewee does not usually have opportunity to use reference material.
● Use of bold type, abbreviations, and colons in presentation.
● May include idioms, incomplete structures.
● Sidetracking is common.

Article
Informs, Entertains & Persuades.

Overview
Articles aim to inform, entertain and persuade readers. But most articles will do all three to
some degree. Online articles require you to be able to grab the reader's attention quickly
and hold that attention. Writing a great article isn't always easy and there are many aspects
that come together to make a great article.

Purpose
Feature articles are detailed pieces of writing that explore a range of issues, opinions,
experiences and ideas.
The purpose will vary depending on the media it is meant for. Regardless, it should appeal
to the particular audience being targeted.
For example if a magazine was targeted at middle aged women, then the articles,
advertising, and pictures within would reflect their interest in lifestyle, career, money,
health and relationships.

Types
Feature articles can be informative, entertaining, persuasive, or simply satisfy the reader's
curiosity about a particular topic. A feature article may provide more information about an
important issue, offer an opinion about current affairs, or simply present a personal or
humorous perspective on modern day life. Unlike news reports, which can quickly go out of
date, feature articles have a more general focus and may interest readers long past the date
they're published.

Feature writers are often regular contributors who have a particular expertise or interest in
their subject or topic. Writers go beyond just the facts on the surface and add colour, detail,

29
 Types of Texts

background and personal comment. The appeal of these articles is usually the personal
touch and viewpoints that they offer.

Types Include:
• Analysis and opinion on current issues.
• Profiles of, or interviews with well known-people.
• Humorous reflections.
• Personal experience or anecdotes.
• Online articles (HubPages!).
• Background information on local, national or international events.
• Magazine articles.
• Human interest stories.
• Newspaper articles.
• Background information and personal opinion on your interests.

“Feature articles are not just dry facts, they provide story and information from a unique
angle.”

Feature Article Examples

• Library Point - Feature Article Examples For Kids
This resource has many great feature articles aimed at children and is updated weekly.

• Feature Stories - Different Kinds of Feature Stories

Feature Stories - Different Kinds of Feature Stories
https://youtu.be/dUGDPKOGepM

Structural Elements of a News/Feature Article

Headline :
A headline is text that is at the top of a newspaper article, indicating the nature of the
article. The headline catches the attention of the reader and relates well to the topic.
Modern headlines are typically written in an abbreviated style omitting many elements of a
complete sentence.
Byline :
A byline gives the name and often the position of the writer.
Subhead :
The subhead, dek, or deck is a phrase, sentence or several sentences near the title of an
article or story such as a quick blurb or article teaser
Billboard :
Capsule-summary text, often just one sentence, which is put into a sidebar or text-box on
the same page to grab the reader's attention as they are flipping through the pages to
encourage them to stop and read this article.
Lead :
The lead sentence captures the attention of the reader and sums up the focus of the story.
The lead also establishes the subject, sets the tone and guides reader into the article.

Newspaper Article
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 Types of Texts

Why What
To provide information or opinion about a Two main Categories: news article that
current topic or issue provides a record of what happened or what
was said and a feature article that offers
opinion or focuses on the human aspect
Features
● News articles usually written by journalists or publicity personnel for an
organization or business.
● Key or topic sentence is important as editing or space limitations may cut some of
the subsequent details or explanations
● Includes who, what, where, when, why, and how.
● Details are added in order of importance.
● News articles should report events factually and objectively, whereas feature
articles often include opinion, judgement and assumptions.
● Follows standard rules of grammar, punctuation and format.
● Feature articles usually include background information.

Magazine Article
Why What
● To explain, inform, express opinion, ● Short text within a collection
report. ● Often a stand-alone item within
● To engender interest or response. the collection, either by form or
content

Features
● Offers opinion or focuses on the human aspect
● Key or topic sentence is important as editing or space limitations may cut
some of the subsequent details or explanations
● Includes who, what, where, when, why, and how.
● Details are added in order of importance.
● Usually topical or current and linked to focus of magazine
● May be by regular contributor to magazine
● May be a one-off topic.
● feature articles often include opinion, judgement and assumptions - Often
biased.
● Follows standard rules of grammar, punctuation and format.
● Feature articles usually include background information.

31
Types of Texts

Blog
PURPOSE
● To inform
● To reflect
● To seek a response, to interact

STRUCTURE
● Personal thoughts, online journal
● Discrete entries (“posts”), usually with most recent at the top
● Often themed on a single subject
● Reflections on idea (interactive – comments from other users)

LANGUAGE FEATURES
● Abbreviated words and sentences
● Simple language structures
● Linking words to sequence ideas logically
● Qualifying words (e.g. usually, probably)
Persuasive, descriptive or personal language depending on context

How to Write a Blog Entry

Language
Think about the range of language required. A blog might use more sophisticated or
specialized language, since it is read by the public.

Message/Content
Checklist:
● Do you use an informal style, with some colloquialisms?
● Do you balance your informal style with well-chosen words and phrases that are
more complex?
● If your blog is aimed at a public audience it should have a point of focus and a
purpose. Does yours?
● Does your blog have a personal angle?
● Does your diary entry show a clear, creative flow of thought?
● A diary usually has a narrative of some sort. Does your writing show effective
explanation and control of events?
● Does your diary entry show reflection and personal conclusions drawn from events?

Format
Your blog entry should start with a date and title. You might also include the name of your
imaginary blog.
Common Blog Features
Blogs (shortened from the term web log) can use any layout and can cover many different
topics, but they all have basic characteristics in common.

32
 Types of Texts

● Blog entries are posted in reverse-chronological order. The order is similar to a

backwards diary, running from the most recent at the top of a page to the least
recent at the bottom.
● Blog entries usually include the date and specific time that they were posted (a
timestamp).
● The blogger’s name is usually listed with the timestamp. By default, blogs usually
end “Posted by [blogger’s name].”
● Older blog entries are usually found in an archive. Often the archive is sorted by
months and years. The archive links are usually in a sidebar on the page.
● Readers and the blogger can usually comment on (or reply to) a blog entry. The
comments can turn into a dialogue, with the readers and blogger talking together.

Depending upon the blog site, you may also find other kinds of information with each blog
entry.
● Blog entries usually have a title that describes or relates to the content of the entry.
Titles are usually set off in a layout with a bold font.
Blog entries can list categories, assigned by the blogger. When a blog includes categories,
you will usually find a list of the categories in a sidebar on the site.

Reports
Newspaper Report
Generic conventions of a newspaper report

The “Have I?” check sheet

Have I:
Written a headline
This is usually catchy and often uses a literary device like:
• alliteration, Demoralised Dogs,
• a pun, Nathan has Buckley’s chance,
• rhyme, Cats are the real deal or
• an allusion to another text Deep Purple-trouble at the Dockers.

It is written in bold, in a larger font, a contrasting font (Ariel for the heading and Times New
Roman for the text).

It is centred. It does not contain personal pronouns.

Written a By-line
This is the journalist’s name. It is usually written in block capitals. On the front page it is
sometimes wallpapered. JOHN SMITH. An easy way to achieve this is to turn the font
colour to grey. In the sports pages it is larger and bolded. JOHN SMITH There may be co-
authors. Sometimes a location is given instead of a writer, CANBERRA or MOSCOW.
Sometimes the by-line will be two lines in length. It will also contain information like
33
Types of Texts

MEDICAL EDITOR or it may give the location of the journalist as well. The By-line may have
a stylistic feature like a line or double lines over it. This is dependent on the style of the
whole paper.

Constructed a lead
A summary of the most important information is given. The key to structuring this is the
five W’s:

WHAT – What happened that is note worthy?

WHERE - Where did this happen?
WHEN - When did these events occur? (This is usually written as Yesterday or Last night or
something similar as the date is given on every page of the paper and it would be a
tautology to include it in each article.
WHO – Who are the important people in the story?
WHY – Why did the event/s happen?

Some of these may be omitted in the lead but they will be covered by the headline, by-line
or addressed in the rest of the story.

Included the comments of an expert witness?

In order to add credibility a journalist will research and add the views of an expert in the
field. S/he will acknowledge this source by stating the title, name and position of this
person. Former KGB officer, Alexander Litvineko; Health Department director of
communicable disease control, Dr. Paul Crisp. Some newspapers write positions with lower
case letter at the beginning. This is a more modern stylistic feature.

Included the comments of a bystander?

To vary the sources and where the subject matter does not lend itself to experts a witness is
often included. A brief description or a feature of the person’s character will be given. Dr
Hanibf, an Islamic militant; Nikki Jones, a 14 year old student at Mount Lawley Senior High,
Wheatley,59, the influential and respected figure…….

Used neutral language (ideally)

First person point of view is not used.
The conclusion will refer to consequences or likely further development

Used appropriate grammar

Used a direct quote

To verify what an expert or bystander has said the write will record speech that a person
has uttered. This is then shown by inverted commas. “Doctors have long dreamt of being
able to predict how….a reality,” Professor Mallal said. The quote always begins on a new
line and is always indented.

34
 Types of Texts

Used an indirect quote

For variation on the above verification and particularly if the reporter has not used a
recording device or does not have a written statement s/he will write the comments in
his/her own words. This is called paraphrasing. Shadow transport minister, Simon O’Brien
said that the Opposition would build a similar rail line if it won government.

Used short paragraphs

Unlike formal essays paragraphs in this genre are very short in length. Instead of
leaving a line to show the paragraph the writer indents to save space.
The tab bar ensures uniform indentation.

Book Reports
Why What
● To summarize reaction to a book ● A synopsis of a book, tailored for
● To influence other readers other potential readers, discussing
● To promote or introduce a book noticeable features and new
insights
Features
Differs from book review, as a report focuses mainly on what is objectively observable.
Format may be:
● Title and author.
● Characters, setting, and point of view or purpose.
● Brief synopsis of content.
● Comment on the theme or perspective.
● Quotations from book to support statements
● Recommendation on appropriate readership.

Consumer Reports
Why What
● To help potential buyers make an ● Evaluative surveys of goods and
informed decision about a services for personal use rather than
purchase those used for the production of
● To maintain standards other goods or services.
● To show how one product or ● Clear and objective presentation of
service is viewed in relation to advantages and disadvantages of a
others available product or service in relation to
others of similar intent.
Features
● Uses comparison and contrast and cause and effect.
● Rating system often present using numerals, stars, letters, percentages, or bar
graphs.

35
Types of Texts

● Usually prepared by independent group.

● Criteria known to readers.
● Field testing, clinical research, and/or consumer surveys.
● Often rated against national or international standards.
● Usually include summary and recommendations for purchase or use.
● Present an objective and impersonal tone.
● Uses third person point of view.
● Includes headings, graphs, charts, tables.
● May include personal testimonies presenting positive or negative experiences.

Instructions

Procedure Texts
Why What
● To direct thought or action ● A detailed sequence of how and
● To give a sequence for an action when to do or say something in
order to achieve a planned result
● Recipes, instructions, manuals,
blueprints, rules, handbooks,
directions, laws
Features
● Vocabulary: ingredients, method, procedure, “ordinals”, assemble, construct,
materials, equipment.
● Present or future tense.
● Second or third person.
● Indirect speech.
● Usually short sentences.
● Numbering, bullets, arrows.
● Each step may start on a new line.
● May include diagrams (cutaway, outline, or shaded to focus on current action) or
figures with insets for more detail of specific parts.
● Composite diagram showing or summarizing several steps.
● Explanatory captions.

Leaflets

Useful Link: https://www.slideshare.net/saima_abedi/leaflet-writing-presentation

Diagrams

36
 Types of Texts

Why What
● To draw attention to specific parts ● A sketch, plan, or outline
● To describe a sequence demonstrating the form or workings
● To identify component of something
● To summarize ● A pictorial representation of an
● To show relativity object or parts thereof
● To show layout ● Cut-away diagrams, cyclic diagrams,
scale diagram, web, tree diagram,
sequence diagram, Venn diagram
Features
● Arrows
● Captions
● Labels – words out of textual context, but pictures provide context
● May not be adjacent to relevant section of text
● Vocabulary: figure, top/bottom left/right

Graphs
Why What
● To present comparative ● Pictorial or graphical representation
information in a graphical form of date
● To show quantitative relativity of ● Types of graphs include pie, line, bar,
items with a common base pictorial
● To identify trends or changes
Features
Line graph may show two or more sets of information
Vocabulary:
Bar graph – percentages
Line graph – anchor points

37
Types of Texts

Audio -Visual Texts

Animation
Film
Music Videos

Literary Dramatic
Cinematic Aspects
Aspects Aspects
Narrative Acting Camera angles

Characters Costumes Sound and vision

Setting Make-up Lighting

38
 Types of Texts

Theme

Signs/symbol

Genre

* Narrative (the story, story line, what the story line is based on; binary
oppositions; disruption of an equilibrium and how a new equilibrium sets in).

* Characters (heroes, villains, helpers, main characters, supporting

characters, and how characters function and contribute to our understanding of
the story).

* Setting (physical environment in which filming occurs, indoor or outdoor

setting, its significance).

* Theme (general statement about the subject).

* Signs (anything perceptible that has significance beyond its usual function
or meaning; an object, a sound, a person, an act, a color).

* Genre (romance, comedy, suspense, a combination of different genres).

* Acting (the performance of actors, whether it is convincing or not).

* Costumes (formal clothes, informal clothes, their color, and their contribution
to the film).

* Make-up (style, color, whether it is exaggerated or plain, the effects it creates,

colors).

* Camera angles, movements, and positions (low camera angle, high camera
angle, dose-up, extreme close-up, tilted camera, and how these affect our
understanding).

* Sound and vision (sound effects, soundtrack music, visual effects).

* Lighting (illumination in a scene)

Three Ways of Thinking and Talking about Films

Literary Aspects Dramatic Aspects Cinematic Aspects
39
Types of Texts

Who are the characters Did the actors make you What vivid visual
in the film? forget they were acting? images did you note?
How? What did they make you
feel or think about?
What is the film's Were costumes, make- What sounds or music
setting? up, and set equally do you remember?
important to the success What did they make you
of the film? feel or think about?
What are the main plot In what scene was an What scenes can you
elements? actor's voice (pitch, understand even without
volume, expression) dialogue? Why?
particularly effective?
From whose point of Select a scene that must What scene has very
view is the story told? have been difficult to effective or unusual
act. How did the actor editing?
make his or her body
movements appropriate
and convincing?
What is the theme of the Describe a scene in If the film uses special
film? which facial expression effects, do they add to
was important. What or detract from your
feelings were enjoyment of the film?
developed? Were words
necessary?
What is the mood of the Did the actors establish
film? their characters more
through dialogue or
through movement and
facial expressions?
What symbols did you How is this film like or
notice? unlike other films by the
director? Does this
director have a
recognizable "style"?
Was there anything
about the acting, set, or
costumes that bothered
you or interfered with
your watching of the
film

40
 Types of Texts

Core Concepts of Media

Applications to Film
Literacy2
In film, scenes are shot out-of-order and then
edited (constructed) to make a logical
sequenced story.
All media messages are Who is in charge of the "construction:" the
constructed producer, the director, the cinematographer,
the editor? What role does each of these
people play in the production of a film?
(see EDITING)

In film, a wide, establishing shot (for

example) is used to tell the audience: here is
Media messages are
where the action is taking place, take a look
constructed
at this; music may also be composed to
using a creative language
convey a mood or evoke an emotion
with its own rules
(see also CAMERA
SHOTS; LIGHTING;MUSIC; SETTING/AR
T DIRECTION)

The audience brings its prior knowledge and

Different people
experiences to its viewing of the film and
experience the same
thus may come away with different
message differently
interpretations and understanding of what it
all means.

After viewing the film, some viewers may

get a "stereotypical" view of life in the South
Media have embedded during the depression. In what ways does the
values and points-of-view film convey stereotypes.
Are the blacks in the film subservient to the
whites?
(see SYMBOLISM)
Media messages are
constructed to gain power This film would not have been made if the
and/or profit studio and producers did not feel they would
receive a return on their investment. (To Kill
A Mockingbird won several Academy
Awards in 1963, and was one of the most
profitable films of that year.)
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Some Key Questions to

Consider
Who wrote the SCREENPLAY? What are
the challenges of adapting a screenplay
from a famous piece of literature?
Who was the PRODUCER, DIRECTOR,
Who created this message? and CINEMATOGRAPHER? What are
their roles and responsibilities
Could it have been EDITED differently, if
so, how so?
Where is the SETTING of this film?

Why was it shot in "black and white"?

How do CAMERA SHOTS communicate
meaning?
Identify SYMBOLS throughout the film.
What techniques are used Listen closely to the MUSIC; how does it
to attract my attention? contribute to the film?
(See: LANGUAGE OF In what ways does it communicate
FILM) happiness; about childhood; fear and
uncertainty?
What role does LIGHTING play?
Listen for SOUND EFFECTS and discuss
how they influence you during a particular
scene.

How might different viewers from me,

How might different
interpret this film differently?
people understand
Why do they not "see" the same things that
this message differently
I see?
from me?
How do my life's experiences filter my
understanding of the film?
What lifestyles, values,
and How do the producers of this film
points-of-view REPRESENT the antagonist or the
are represented protagonist?
in or omitted from this What do the SETTING, the clothes, the
message? accents of the actors all communicate about
the time period or the way of life of these
characters?
How do the children learn about right and
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wrong; good vs evil?

What role does each character play in
communicating values?

Why was this film made? Did the success

Why was this message of Harper Lee's book play a part?
sent? Do you think it was risky making this film
during the Civil Rights period in American
history? Why or why not?

Camera Operations

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Film Terminology
Shots and Framing
Shot: a single piece of film uninterrupted by cuts.
Establishing Shot: often a long shot or a series of shots that sets the scene. It is used to
establish setting and to show transitions between locations.
Long Shot (LS): a shot from some distance. If filming a person, the full body is shown. It
may show the isolation or vulnerability of the character (also called a Full Shot).
Medium Shot (MS): the most common shot. The camera seems to be a medium distance
from the object being filmed. A medium shot shows the person from the waist up. The
effect is to ground the story.
Close Up (CU): the image being shot takes up at least 80 percent of the frame.

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Extreme Close Up: the image being shot is a part of a whole, such as an eye or a hand.
Two Shot: a scene between two people shot exclusively from an angle that includes both
characters more or less equally. It is used in love scenes where interaction between the two
characters is important.

Camera Angles
Eye Level: a shot taken from a normal height; that is, the character’s eye level. Ninety to
ninety-five percent of the shots seen are eye level, because it is the most natural angle.
High Angle: the camera is above the subject. This usually has the effect of making the
subject look smaller than normal, giving him or her the appearance of being weak,
powerless, and trapped.
Low Angle: the camera films subject from below. This usually has the effect of making the
subject look larger than normal, and therefore strong, powerful, and threatening.

Camera Movements
Pan: a stationary camera moves from side to side on a horizontal axis.
Tilt: a stationary camera moves up or down along a vertical axis
Zoom: a stationary camera where the lens moves to make an object seem to move closer
to or further away from the camera. With this technique, moving into a character is often a
personal or revealing movement, while moving away distances or separates the audience
from the character.
Dolly/Tracking: the camera is on a track that allows it to move with the action. The term
also refers to any camera mounted on a car, truck, or helicopter.
Boom/Crane: the camera is on a crane over the action. This is used to create overhead
shots.

Lighting
High Key: the scene is flooded with light, creating a bright and open-looking scene.
Low Key: the scene is flooded with shadows and darkness, creating suspense or
suspicion.
Bottom or Side Lighting: direct lighting from below or the side, which often makes the
subject appear dangerous or evil.
Front or Back Lighting: soft lighting on the actor’s face or from behind gives the
appearance of innocence or goodness, or a halo effect.

Editing Techniques
Cut: most common editing technique. Two pieces of film are spliced together to “cut” to
another image.
Fade: can be to or from black or white. A fade can begin in darkness and gradually assume
full brightness (fade-in) or the image may gradually get darker (fade-out). A fade often
implies that time has passed or may signify the end of a scene.
Dissolve: a kind of fade in which one image is slowly replaced by another. It can create a
connection between images.
Wipe: a new image wipes off the previous image. A wipe is more fluid than a cut and
quicker than a dissolve.

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Flashback: cut or dissolve to action that happened in the past.

Shot-Reverse-Shot: a shot of one subject, then another, then back to the first. It is often
used for conversation or reaction shots.
Cross Cutting: cut into action that is happening simultaneously. This technique is also
called parallel editing. It can create tension or suspense and can form a connection
between scenes.
Eye-Line Match: cut to an object, then to a person. This technique shows what a person
seems to be looking at and can reveal a character’s thoughts.

Sound
Diegetic: sound that could logically be heard by the characters in the film.
Diegetic sound

Sound whose source is visible on the screen or whose source is implied to

be present by the action of the film:

• voices of characters
• sounds made by objects in the story
• music represented as coming from instruments in the story space ( =
source music)

Diegetic sound is any sound presented as originated from source within the
film's world

Diegetic sound can be either on screen or off screen depending on

whatever its source is within the frame or outside the frame.

Another term for diegetic sound is actual sound

Non-diegetic sound
Non-Diegetic: sound that cannot be heard by the characters but is
designed for audience reaction only. An example might be ominous music
for foreshadowing. Sound whose source is neither visible on the screen nor
has been implied to be present in the action:

• narrator's commentary
• sound effects which is added for the dramatic effect
• mood music

This is represented as coming from the a source outside story space.

The distinction between diegetic or non-diegetic sound depends on our

understanding of the conventions of film viewing and listening. We know of
that certain sounds are represented as coming from the story world, while
others are represented as coming from outside the space of the story
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events. A play with diegetic and non-diegetic conventions can be used to

create ambiguity (horror), or to surprise the audience (comedy).

Another term for non-diegetic sound is commentary sound.

Storyboards
These are a series of drawings — or photographs — that a director creates
before the movie is filmed to help the director to visualize what will appear
later on screen. Often, lighting, dialogue, framing, and other elements of
the shot will be noted as well. These individual drawings or photographs
are then arranged in sequence to create a final storyboard. Later in this unit
you will be asked to create your own storyboard.

MIS-EN-SCENE Elements- Refer to the PPT that has been shared already.

Notes About Shots

The following information is designed to assist the teacher and provide
background information for the teacher before he or she presents the
terminology lesson with students.
We have seen how the point-of-view shot works to put the spectator
literally in the very place of the character and thus to secure psychological
identification with that character. This is only one of the devices by which
the cinema seeks to manipulate and control how the spectator feels and
what he or she is thinking. Other types of shot articulations (what
cinematic moves are called in critical discussion) do the same thing. For
example, in the shot-reverse-shot sequence, the spectator occupies
alternately the position of now one character in the dialogue, now the other
character, thus switching identifications every few seconds without really
knowing it. Another type of shot that has the effect of manipulating the
viewer is without doubt the close-up. In the early years of the cinema,
there were no close-ups, only long shots, so that the spectator was always
held at a good distance from the characters; this distance worked against
the identification processes that modern cinema seeks to encourage.
When you see a close-up, for instance, you have the sense of being in very
intimate connection with the character, close indeed to him or her
emotionally and thus able to register and even feel directly what he or she
is going through. That sense of closeness is, of course, illusory, since in
actuality you are situated in a seat some distance away from the face on
the screen, not only in space but also in time. (Just think of the fact that the
actor has done this performance not at the present time, before your eyes,

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as it may seem, but in a different place many weeks, months, or even years
before the date at which you view the film. The actor or actress is thus not
even “present” to you; only a shade or delegate is.) But the close-up more
than anything else in cinema can elicit reactions from you by making you
feel that you are up there on the screen, a part of the proceedings, and not
there in your seat.
A zoom, which is a movement of a long focal lens — not of the camera
itself — either in toward an object or out away from that object is a
cinematic articulation that you probably have seen many times. It is the
refocusing of your eye that you instinctively do when you instantly turn your
attention from one thing to another; it registers exactly this kind of sudden
turning of attention, as if your very eyes have noticed something and
focused in on it, or indeed pulled back from it, and in this way, the zoom
imitates the patterns of your mind and your vision. Similarly, the pan gets
you to turn your neck, so to speak, without moving your head; via the dolly,
you walk forward, backward, or to the side without leaving your seat, etc.
These are the ways by which the camera enlists your attention and your
response, and because they seem so “natural” — just the ways in which
you are used to seeing in everyday life — you hardly notice that you have
been captivated.
A film audience does not want to be conscious of the fact of projection,
does not want not to see the screen but rather the magical unfolding of the
images, does not want to have to think about the machinery or projection,
for that too interferes with its total absorption in and captivation by the film’s
fiction. All of these components of the cinema that are effectively
obliterated during a screening — the camera, the projector, the screen and
even, as we have seen, the spectator him- or herself — taken together are
referred to as the cinematic apparatus. Cinema counts on making this
apparatus unapparent. For if it were apparent, the main illusion on which
cinema is based, that of looking in on a private world that unwinds
magically, would be spoiled. Thus, the cinema’s means of production are
concealed so that the spectator is not aware of the material machinery that
constructs the filmic illusion; he or she has the false sense that the story is
being told by nobody from nowhere, or even produced by the spectator.

LIGHTING

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http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/downloads/filmanalysis.pdf

MUSIC VIDEOS

http://www.understandmedia.com/topics/media-theory/143-how-to-analyze-a-music-video
https://prezi.com/6vpwdwlpatm0/how-to-analyze-a-music-video/
http://web.stanford.edu/~amanda94/music32n/Music%20Video%20Analysis.pdf
http://jasonhatch.wikispaces.com/file/view/Culminating%20Assignment%20Package.pdf

Improving Your Skills in Writing About the Use of Language Effects in

a Text

To get a high grade in the reading paper in English, you need to be

able to:
1 – understand the text
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2 – comment on presentational effects

3 – spot some of the language effects used by the writer and describe
HOW and WHY they work
This activity will build skill 3. You are already good at spotting
effects like these:
Example of how to use these:
“The writer uses repetition of ideas in threes in the text: [quotation
here] This makes the text more persuasive by using a technique that is
often used in speech-writing and in advertising. The rhythm of the
language when ideas are in threes builds up and makes the ideas feel
more authoritative. It creates a powerful effect that the writer is right
because the ideas have been grouped in this way. It is also like to
make the text more memorable for the reader.
Possible effect: say what and then explain
Technique WHY or HOW

1. Repetition in ● Adds detail to the text

threes / lists of ● Makes the text more persuasive by using
points a
● technique often used in speeches and
advertising
● Makes the subject seem more complex
or interesting

2. Alliteration ● Catches the reader’s interest visually and

aurally
● Makes the text more like poetry or
advertising
● Makes the text more memorable

3. Emotive ● Makes the subject more emotional

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vocabulary ● Provokes a response in the reader

(makes us agree / disagree / happy /
unhappy)

4. Formal or ● Formal: Makes the text feel more

informal authoritative / powerful / convincing
vocabulary – eg ● Informal: makes the text appeal to us
“did not” v “didn’t” because it’s speaking to us, on our level,
conversational

5. Hyperbole ● Makes the point more powerful

(overstatement) ● Helps us to visualise and remember the
idea

6. Metaphor/simile ● Makes the subject more vivid

● Helps us to visualise the idea
● Uses a technique often used in
advertising and storytelling

7. Pun (wordplay) ● Makes the text memorable / amusing /

quirky / noticeable
● Appeals to the reader by making us think
we are clever for noticing the pun

8. Addressing the ● Makes the reader feel involved

reader directly ● Gets the reader to empathise with the
(“you”) writer or someone in the text
● Encourages our emotional reaction
● Makes the text more memorable

9. Adjectives and ● Adds detail to the text which helps us to

adverbs visualise what is being described
● Uses the senses to make the text more
vivid
● Paints a picture in our minds which will
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help us to remember the text

10. Short/long ● Creates rhythm in the text which makes

sentences it more interesting to read
● Short sentences give clarity and
authority
● Long sentences may make it more
formal or more conversational
● Overall effect will be to hold our interest
better

11. Use of ● Adds interest to the text by not using one

statements / tone of voice
commands / ● This will keep us reading and help us to
questions remember the text
● Commands may provoke a response
from us (“Stop talking and listen”) and
establish a link between writer and
reader
● Questions (“Why should you visit
Ibiza?”) draw us into the text

12. Use of dialogue ● Helps bring the text to life by adding

human voices
● Grabs our interest by personalising the
subject
● Adds visual interest on the page by
being different from ordinary paragraphs

Language features and their effects

Use this checklist:
● to understand the ways in which writers gain impact in their writing
● to use various features in your own writing (creative and transactional, as well as for your oral
presentations) in order to craft your writing and gain impact
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● to help you achieve unit standards which require you to explore language and think critically
about poetic / transactional / oral texts

Language Definition or Example General effect

feature explanation (you must decide on the
specific effect relative to the
text)
Rhyme The ends of words That second day they Makes the text memorable
have the same sound. hunted me and can make poems
Usually at the ends of From hill to plain, from amusing. Can tie together
lines in poetry, but shore to sea. the middle and end of
may be internal (within Then Billy who was verses.
a line). silly
Almost every other
day…
Rhythm A regular pattern of I went to town to buy Makes the text as a whole
stressed and a phone. more memorable and makes
unstressed syllables. On the road there’s a it flow better.
girl with a bike.
Alliteration Repetition of the same Having heard the Makes small sections of the
consonant sound at song, he sang it text hang together and flow
the beginning of words softly. better. Draws our attention to
– usually close in There came a ghost this phrase. Creates a harder
succession. to Mary’s door or softer mood in line with
With many a grievous the meaning (hard
groan. consonants are b d k p q t,
soft are f h j l m n r s v w y z,
while c and g can be either
hard or soft)
Assonance Vowel sounds are Her early leaf’s a Makes small sections of the
repeated at the flower text hang together and flow
beginning or middle of But only so an hour. better. Draws our attention to
nearby words. There were excited this phrase. Repetition of
bursts and swerves vowels generally gives a
as the cattle soft, quiet, calm mood unless
stampeded. the sounds are the short
vowels, eg in cat, pet, pin,
off, cup.
Sound clusters A group of sounds is Season of mists and These create a “wall of
repeated throughout a mellow fruitfulness… sound” with a number of
sentence or a group of I love to see the repeated sounds, not just
lines in a poem, not cottage smoke curl one type. They usually
just at the beginnings upwards through the create a particular mood by
of words. trees. using a number of hard or
soft sounds, rather than a
combination of the two.
Onomatopoeia Words sound like the There came a furious This helps us hear the actual
sounds they name. woofing from the sound being named and
seals. therefore we understand it
The brrrring of the properly or it transports us to
alarm woke him. the place of the sound.
Repetition Repeating the same “Come on, Come on!” This is used to emphasize
or nearly the same she shouted. “We’re whatever is being said or
words for effect. late!” written, or to mimic repetition
in nature.
Parallel Using the same word Into the valley, Parallel construction
construction class order twice (in through the marsh, provides rhythm while it
same or two rode the hunting pair. expands the detail of the
sentences) description and creates

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balance.
Triple Repeating three times …that government of Same as for parallelism, but
construction a group of words the people, by the the triplet provides closure or
which have the same people, for the people finality along with that sense
pattern of word shall not perish from of balance.
classes. Each group the face of the earth.
may or may not start Then leaf subsides to
with the same word/s. leaf,
So Eden sank to grief,
So dawn goes down
to day…
Simile An image which The black smoke rose All imagery gives the
compares two things like a wizard’s tower person/animal/thing being
using like or as spiralling into the described the characteristics
sky. of something else. It
The playground was therefore enlivens
as empty as a ghost descriptions by helping us to
town. see these
people/animals/things in a
new light – in a way we may
Metaphor An image which We emerged from the have never seen them or
compares two things cool dark of the hut thought about them before.
without using like or into the blast furnace Metaphors are more
as heat of a Central compact and tighter in their
Otago summer comparative description than
afternoon. similes.
The fireworks were
sparkling flowers
exploding in the night
sky.
Personification An image which gives The night hung out a In addition to the above,
human qualities to multitude of lanterns personification makes
non-human things. to guide the travellers. inanimate objects seem
Raindrops danced on lively and lifelike while it also
the pavement. contributes to our sense of
oneness with these
inanimate objects.
Choice of Using more unusual or The wind moaned, a Sometimes, more unusual
words specialized or low-pitched, words provide more specific
(vocabulary) technical words unutterably eerie meaning than common ones.
threnody (sad song). Specialized or technical
He died of a words make it seem like the
myocardial infarction. writer/speaker really knows
the topic.
Use of slang Most likely used in “Hey, you guys, let’s Grounds the text in
direct speech. cut loose tonight and informality as well as a
paint the town red.” certain social group and
period of time.
Use of direct or Quoting or reporting “Come over here!” Makes the character come
indirect speech spoken words. Jack yelled, then alive. We can “hear” the way
proceeded to tell us s/he speaks – the actual
all how he’d won the vocab, grammar and tones
Melbourne Cup pool
in his office.
Use of Generally used in “Let’s have ourselves Creates an image of the
incorrect direct speech but may a few beers.” character – helps to define
grammar also be used in “I sure do hate them personality and place
autobiography for direct marketers him/her in a particular
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particular effect. always calling at educational or social class.

dinner time.” Provides authenticity in your
writing.
Pun Word play involving An advert for an Provokes amusement and
the use of a word with omega-3 margarine therefore a tendency for the
two different meanings has this statement: reader to feel good about the
or two words that The way to a man’s company / product and
sound the same but heart is through his possibly to buy the product.
mean different things. stomach. This gives If used by a character,
Often used in new literal meaning to shows that that character is
advertising. an old figurative rather clever and witty.
phrase which involved
romance rather than
health.
Hyperbole Deliberate I’ve told you Used for emphasis to get a
exaggeration thousands of times to point across. Also illustrates
clean up your something of the mood of the
bedroom. speaker/writer.
Litotes Deliberate “Well, I was sure was Shows just how strong the
understatement brassed off when he emotion is and illustrates
walked out on me.” something of the character of
the speaker/writer.
Use of multiple The adjectives give The air was full of Builds up a very full picture
adjectives or more information driving, needle- of the object/animal/person
adverbs about the noun and pointed ice or the activity so that it
the adverbs about the spicules… becomes very clear in the
verb. Slowly, stealthily, reader’s mind – the reader
the wind was lifting a feels s/he can picture it or
swell. see it happening very
precisely.
Simple These have only one Passing the school, Used to establish one idea.
sentences complete verb, though we saw the flames Often used as topic
there may be one or pouring out of the sentences, making clear
more incomplete office. what the paragraph is about
verbs. or marking a change of
place/topic/etc
Compound These have a We danced all night, Used to get across two main
sentences minimum of two then climbed the hill ideas with some supporting
complete verbs and to see the sun rise. detail.
each part of the
sentence can stand on
its own.
Complex These have a We left the party Used to provide explanations
sentences minimum of two because the level of and other more detailed
complete verbs; the violence was getting information about the idea
part of the sentence way over the top. expressed in the main
which has one of Although the sky was clause.
those verbs, but overcast, no snow fell
cannot stand on its that night.
own, is called a
subordinate clause.
Rhetorical A question that does So what would result To get the readers’ /
question not expect an answer from such a plan? audience’s attention and
from the reader or Chaos, that’s what. make them think about the
audience answer before giving it.
Use of This is the verb used Stop! Come here and To catch people’s attention,
command alone (without a noun sit down while I talk to whether it’s another
or pronoun). Can be you. character in a narrative or
used with adverbs or the audience listening to a
other word classes. speaker. We are socially

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conditioned to obey
commands so the advertiser
or speaker may get some
affirmative response.
Use of first and 1st person singular = I would like you to First person: Gives
second person I, me, my, mine, plural think hard about what immediacy to the text – the
pronoun = We, us, our, ours I’m going to tell you author or character makes a
2nd person singular next. direct connection with the
and plural = You, your, “You wouldn’t dream reader / audience. The
yours what happened to emotional qualities of the text
him. I can’t believe it / character are more
Mostly used in myself!” available also – the internal
● autobiography I opened the door life of the author or
● 1st person wide, then opened my character. “We” in a speech
narrative eyes wider when I involves the audience with
saw a small black dog the speaker (“We all know
● direct speech
sitting on the step. that violence is wrong”).
● oral I was born on a grey
presentations. winter’s day in Second person: In speeches
Dunedin. My mother and adverts, this direct
tells me that the nurse address to the
bathed me in cold listeners/viewers involves
water by an open them and may challenge
window so that’s them to respond, even if only
probably why I enjoy mentally. In narrative, the
the cold southern use shows interaction
winters…. between characters.
Symbolism Use of an object Simple symbols are These are a form of
(concrete noun) to widely accepted, eg. shorthand to emotions – an
represent some heart / love, dove with author can use a symbol so
emotion or belief an olive branch / that the reader / audience
system or other peace. Others are understands the emotions
abstract noun more complex and invested in the object without
individual to an author describing those emotions
/ character, eg. neon every time the object is used.
lights / urban Provides the reader with a
sophistication visual (actual or mental)
aide-memoire – something
that conjures up certain
memories and/or emotions
or qualities when s/he sees
the symbol.
Euphemism Use of a less His wife passed away Amusement in the reader, or
objectionable or harsh (died). revealing of the character of
expression to avoid The firm was the person using it
upsetting or offending restructuring (sacking (kindhearted or sarcastic or
people workers). squeamish, for example)
She is vertically
challenged (short).
Neologism New word – an nylon, radar, Thermos Newness / novelty /
invented word difference from “ordinary”
words makes it stand out –
make the reader/viewer
remember them
Listing Objects/reasons/parts We give him access Shows the extent of or
of a whole, etc. are to the biomechanics, emphasizes the
listed – in text, usually conditioning, nutrition, topic/object/event being
with commas physiology and discussed/described; shows

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separating them; in psychology he needs the author’s wide knowledge

adverts/web pages or to be the best. of the topic
text, can be with bullet
points
Emotive Choice of words which There was a clammy The attitude and emotions of
language have specifically self-congratulating the author are transferred or
intended emotional illiteracy of the heart made clear to the reader
effects or are intended drooling from every
to evoke an emotional word.
response in the reader
Sarcasm Unkind humour …fluff-filled (as above – the emotions
directed against what catalogues.. and attitudes are ones of
the writer / speaker disdain or contempt or
doesn’t like revulsion or dislike or
bitterness)
Irony saying the opposite of ..cultural icons like (as above – the intent and
what you mean McDonald’s carparks.. effect are less offensive than
in sarcasm, but the author
may still feel strongly on the
subject)
Contrast Using word of In a city that never Strengthens each aspect of
opposite meaning sleeps, she seems to the contrast by showing up
close together be trying to keep us the differences
awake. To emphasize a change or
The sun warms on a difference or idea
bitterly cold day
Use of - Thousands died and A specific number or statistic
numbers / hundreds of gives the impression that the
statistics thousands are speaker/writer is
homeless authoritative and
knowledgeable
Use of The words (or image) (Paris Hilton wears The reader / viewer aspires
authority of a famous person or only Versace). to share the goals of (and
figures celebrity are used (Daniel Carter loves use the product promoted
Jockeys). by) the personality
Allusion A reference to another Wagner’s Ride of the Adds another dimension to
work Valkyries plays during the text by introducing
Apocalypse Now material from our external
“It’ll be just like Coral knowledge (if we get the
Island.” allusion)
Quotation Direct use of another’s Churchill famously A quotation will add some of
words (spoken or said, “We will fight the authority of the original
written) them on the author to the current
beaches….” speaker/writer

Language Devices and their Effects

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Persuasive Techniques

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