CM1020 - Topic 1 : Sets – Week1- Summary Notes

Definition of a set: Collection of any kind of objects.

Element of a set (∈) , Not an element of a set (∈)

A = { 2, 3, 4, 5}

2 ∈𝐴 A
7 ∈ 𝐴

Cardinality of set A noted |𝐴| is the number of elements in set A.

Subset of a set ⊆ / ⊂ , 𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒂 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒕 ⊈ / ⊄:

A is a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.

𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 ⇔ 𝑖𝑓𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑦 ∉ 𝐵

Two possible ways to show a set :

• Listing method that consists of listing all the elements of the set between the
curly brackets{ , }.
Example: All multiples of five between 1 and 21 using the listing method:
{5,10,15,20}
• Set Builder method that consists of describing common features of the set’s
elements.
Example: All multiples of five between 1 and 21 using the Builder method:
{ 5𝑘: 𝑘 ∈ ℤ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 4 }

The Powerset of a set: Given a set S, the powerset of S, 𝒫(𝑆), is the set containing all
the subsets of S.
example:
𝒫(∅) = { ∅}
𝒫C𝒫(∅)D = {∅, {∅}}

The cardinality of the powerset of a set S is the is 2|S|

A membership table shows all the combinations of sets an element can belong to.
Sets operations:

Union (A∪ 𝑩):

The union of two given sets A and B is a set that contains all elements in Either A or B.
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝒐𝒓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }
Membership table
A B A ∪B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Note : “1” is the Boolean value True (element of the set ), “0” is the Boolean value False (not element of
the set)
Intersection A∩ 𝑩:
The intersection of two given sets A and B is a set that contains all elements in A and B.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 }
Membership table
A B A ∩B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Set difference 𝑨 − 𝑩:
The difference of two given sets A and B is a set that contains all elements in A that are
not element of B.
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 }
Membership table
A B A − B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
“1” is the Boolean value True, “0” is the Boolean value False

Symmetric difference 𝑨 ⊕ 𝑩:
The difference of two given sets A and B is a set that contains all elements in A or B but
not in both.
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑩𝑼𝑻 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 }
Membership table
A B A ⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
“1” is the Boolean value True, “0” is the Boolean value False
CM1020 - Topic 1 : Sets – Week 2- Summary Notes

Complement of a set A, 𝑨 " , contains all the elements in

the universal set U but not in A.

" =𝑼−𝑨
𝑨

Venn Diagram for 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩

Venn Diagram for 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩

Venn Diagram for 𝑨 − 𝑩

Venn Diagram for 𝑨 ⊕ 𝑩

De Morgan’s law

The complement of the union of two sets A and B is equal

to the intersection of their complements:
-------
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵-
A B 𝑨 " 𝑩 " 𝑨 ∪𝑩 𝑨 --------
∪𝑩 𝑨 " ∩ 𝑩
"
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
The complement of the intersection of two sets A and B is
equal to the union of their complements:
-------
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵-
A B 𝑨 " 𝑩 " 𝑨 ∩𝑩 𝑨 --------
∩𝑩 𝑨 " ∪ 𝑩
"
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

Commutativity of set operations

Set union, set intersection, and set symmetric difference

are commutative . but set difference is not commutative.

Associativity of set operations

Set union, set intersection, and set symmetric difference

are associative . but set difference is not associative.

Distributivity of set operations

The set union is distributive over the set intersection.

The set intersection is distributive over the set union.

Remember this particular identity:

𝑨−𝑩=𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 "
Partition of a set A is a set of subsets 𝐴! of A such that All
the subsets 𝐴! are disjoints and all the subsets 𝐴! is equal
to A:

𝑨𝟏 ∩ 𝑨𝟐 ∩ … ∩ 𝑨𝒏 = ∅

𝑨𝟏 ∪ 𝑨𝟐 ∪ … ∪ 𝑨𝒏 = 𝑨

Summary table of important set identities

CM1020-Topic 01 - Sets-Week 1- Assigned exercises (Even-
numbered)

Assigned exercises (Koshy, Thomas. Discrete Mathematics with Applications. (Academic

Press, 2004)) - Week1 : complete the following questions from exercises 2.1. :
pp.76: exercises 1–8, 13-27, 30-32 and 41-44.
Even-numbered exercises as odd numbered exercises’ solutions are available on the book.

Exercise 2 pp76

The set of letters in the word GOOGL

Solution:
Since in a set we do not repeat elements, the answer is {G,O,L}

Exercise 4 pp76

The set of solutions of the equation x2 − 5 x + 6 = 0

Solution:

This is a quadratic equation. In general, a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 ! + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has two

real number solutions (We are working with the real numbers in these context) if b2- 4ac ≥ 0
"# ± √ # ! "' ()
and they are expressed as !(
. If b2- 4ac= 0 , then the two solutions are the same
number and the solution is equal to: -b/2a

So, in this exercise, a = 1 , b = -5 , and c = 6 hence b2- 4ac= 25 – 24 = 1 which is strictly positive.
* ± √+
Hence, the solutions are : !
. In other words, using the set notation, the solutions are
{ 3, 2}.

Exercise 6 pp76

Rewrite the following description using the set building method:

The set of months : January. February, May, July.
Solution:
{ x / x is a month name finishing with letter y}

Exercise 14 pp76
Mark as true or false:
Solution:

False : b is an element of set {a,b,c} not a subset and therefore, we should write 𝑏 𝜖 {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}
Exercise 16 pp76
Mark as true or false:

Solution:
False: the set {0} is not empty. It has the element 0.

Exercise 18 pp76

Solution:
False. the set of the empty element {∅} is not 0.

Exercise 20 pp76

Solution:
True . the empty set is a subset of any set. Remember ∅ = { }

Exercise 22 pp76

Solution:
True.
{ 𝑥 |𝑥 ≠ 𝑥} = { } = ∅

Exercise 24 pp76

Solution:
True. {x} is an element of {{x}, y}

Exercise 26 pp76

Solution:
True. Any set is a subset of itself.

Exercise 30 pp76
The power set of 𝜙 = { } is 𝑃(∅) = {∅}

Exercise 32 pp76
The power set of {a, b, c} is :
𝑃({𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}) = {∅, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, {𝑐 }, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}, {𝑏, 𝑐 }, {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 })
Exercise 42 pp76 :
L is a language over the set Σ = { 𝑎, 𝑏}
Find five words in this language such as :
𝐿 = { 𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Σ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏}
Solution:
L = {b, ab, aab, aba, baa}

Exercise 44 pp76
L is a language over the set Σ = { 𝑎, 𝑏}
Find five words in this language such as :
𝐿
= { 𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Σ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏′𝑠}
Solution:
L = {aab, aabbb, aabbbbb, aaaab, aaaabbb }

CM1020-Topic 01 (Week 2) - Sets

Assigned exercises (Koshy, Thomas. Discrete Mathematics with Applications. (Academic
Press, 2004)) – Week2 : complete the following questions pp.93, exercises 5–
14, 27-32 and 57-60.
Even-numbered exercises as odd numbered exercises’ solutions are available on the book

Let A = { a, e, f , g, i } , B = { b, d, e, g, h } , C = { d, e, f , h, i } , and

U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k } .

Exercise 6 pp 93
Find jjjjjjjjjjj
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐶̅ )

𝐶̅ = { a, b, c, j, k}

𝐴 ∪ 𝐶̅ = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑔, 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘}
jjjjjjjjjjj
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐶̅ ) = {𝑑, h}

Exercise 8 pp 93
Find 𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑓, 𝑖, 𝑏, 𝑑, ℎ}

Exercise 10 pp 93
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴 − (𝐵 – 𝐶)

(𝐵 – 𝐶) = { b, g}
𝐴 − (𝐵 – 𝐶) = { 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑖}
Exercise 12 pp 93
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {𝑒, 𝑔}

(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 = { 𝑔 }

Mark each as true or false, where A, B and C are arbitrary sets and the universal set.

Exercise 28 pp 93
∅ − 𝐴 = −𝐴 is false as ∅ − 𝐴 = ∅

Exercise 30 pp 93
𝐴 − 𝐴 = 0 is false as 𝐴 − 𝐴 = ∅

Exercise 32 pp 93
𝐴 − 𝐴̅ = ∅ is false as 𝐴 − 𝐴̅ = 𝐴

Exercise 58 pp 93
(𝐴 − 𝐴̅) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴) = C𝐴 ∩ jjjjj
(𝐴̅)D ∪ C𝐵 ∩ (𝐴̅)D = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) ∪ C𝐵 ∩ (𝐴̅)D
= 𝐴 ∪ C𝐵 ∩ (𝐴̅)D = (𝐴 𝑈 𝐵) ∩ C𝐴 ∪ (𝐴̅)D = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝑈 = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)

Exercise 60 pp 93
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ jjjjjjjjjjj
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵j ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ C 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵j D De Morgan’s law.

= (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵) Double complement

= (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵) Associative

= ( 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵) Commutative

= ( 𝑈 ∪ 𝐵)

= 𝑈

Done by A.Senti.