Statistics  Measure Uncertainty: Quantifying the

 Branch of mathematics that deals with degree of confidence in our findings

the collection, analysis, interpretation, through probability.
presentation, and organization of data.
 A powerful tool used across various
disciplines to make sense of complex
data and draw meaningful conclusions.
 The core purpose of statistics is to
convert raw data into useful information Descriptive Statistics
that can inform decision-making, guide  Describes the features of a dataset -
research, and support predictions. involves methods for organizing,
Example: summarizing, and presenting data in an
 4 out of 5 dentists recommend Colgate informative way.
 Almost 85% of lung cancers in men and Key Functions:
45% in women are tobacco-related  Summarization: Condenses large
 Condoms are effective 94% of the time datasets into a few meaningful numbers
 A surprising new study shows that  Visualization: Presents data graphically
eating egg whites can increase one's life for easier understanding – Bar Charts,
span Histograms, Pie Charts
 People predict that Carlos Yulo will win  Examples: Mean, median, mode, range,
a gold in the Paris Olympics standard deviation, measures of
 Based on trend, 95% of students taking variability.
up SASA will pass the subject. Examples:
Applications:  Mean Salary of Employees: A company
 Business: Market research, quality wants to understand the general
control, financial analysis. average salary level of its employees.
 Healthcare: Clinical trials, epidemiology,  Median Age of Participants in a Survey:
health risk assessment. A health survey collects the ages of
 Social Sciences: Behavioral studies, participants to study age-related trends.
public opinion surveys, demographic  Standard Deviation of Test Scores: A
analysis. teacher wants to understand how
 Engineering: Reliability testing, process spread out students' test scores are in a
optimization, risk assessment. particular exam.
 Government: Policy development,
census analysis, economic planning. Inferential Statistics
Why is it important:  Makes predictions, generalization or
 Make Informed Decisions: Based on inferences about a population based on
empirical evidence rather than intuition a sample.
or guesswork. Key Concepts:
 Predict Future Trends: Using historical  Population vs. Sample: The population
data to forecast future outcomes. is the entire group, while a sample is a
 Identifying correlations and causal subset of that population.
relationships between variables.
  Random Sampling: Ensures that the
sample represents the population
accurately.
 Generalization: Drawing conclusions
about the population based on the
sample data.
Examples:
 Estimating the Average Height of a
Population: Researchers select a
random sample of 1,000 men, calculate
the average height of the sample, and
use that average to conclude the
average height of the entire population.
 Hypothesis Testing in a New Drug Trial:
A pharmaceutical company conducts a
clinical trial to conclude whether a drug
Measurement Levels
is effective or not.
 Also known as scales of measurement,
 Predicting Election Outcomes with
describe the nature of information
Polling Data: A survey of 2,000 voters,
within the values assigned to variables.
asking them which candidate they
 Understanding these measurement
intend to vote for.
levels helps in choosing the correct
Why Data Matters in Statistics:
statistical methods for data analysis.
 Data is the foundation of statistical
analysis.
 Enables the collection of information to
make informed decisions.
 Essential for identifying trends, making
predictions, and testing hypotheses.

Nominal Scale
 Categorizes data without any order or
ranking.
 Data are labels or names, and there is
no intrinsic ordering between the
categories.
Examples:
 Gender (Male, Female)
 Hair color (Blonde, Brown, Black)
 Type of pet (Dog, Cat, Fish)

 Statistical Operations: Counting, mode

calculation, chi-square tests.
Ordinal Scale  Data have equal intervals and a
 Categorizes data with a meaningful meaningful zero, allowing for the
order, but the intervals between calculation of ratios. Zero indicates the
categories may or may not be equal. absence of the quantity.
 Represent “greater than” or “less than” Examples:
measurements, such as preferences or  Weight (in kilograms or pounds)
rankings.  Height (in centimeters or inches)
Examples:  Income (in dollars)
 Movie ratings (Poor, Fair, Good,  Age (in years)
Excellent)  Statistical Operations: All mathematical
 Education level (High school, Bachelor's, operations (addition, subtraction,
Master's, PhD) multiplication, division), geometric
 Class rankings (1st, 2nd, 3rd) mean.
 Statistical Operations: Median
calculation, non-parametric tests like
the Mann-Whitney U test.

Interval Scale
 Measures variables where the
difference between values is
meaningful, but there is no true zero
point.
 Data have equal intervals between
values; there is no true zero - zero is
arbitrary and does not indicate the
absence of the quantity.
Examples:
 Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit – 0
degree does not mean absence of temp
 IQ scores - 0 does not mean absence of
intelligence
 Dates on a calendar (e.g., years) - 0 in
the Gregorian calendar (often
considered as 1 BCE or CE) is not the
"beginning" of time but an arbitrary
point in history.
 Statistical Operations: Addition,
subtraction, mean calculation, standard
deviation.

Ratio Scale
 Similar to the interval scale, but with a
true zero point, meaning, the absence
of the quantity being measured.
Non-Probability Sampling
  Technique where not all members of students from their own university, as these
the population have a chance of being students are more accessible. The data collected
selected. Used when the research does would be from those who are conveniently
not require generalization to the entire available, such as students in the researcher’s
population or when random sampling is classes or those present in the university
impractical. Essential in exploratory canteen.
research, qualitative studies, and when
resources are limited.
Common Types:
1. Convenience Sampling
 Participants are composed of
individuals who are easy to
reach or readily available to the
researcher. It is the simplest and
most common form of sampling
used in many types of research,
especially when the goal is to
quickly gather data without
needing a representative
sample of the population.
Application:
 Market Research: Collecting feedback Application:
from customers who are easily  Market Research: Companies use quota
accessible, like those in a particular sampling to ensure their samples reflect
store or online visitors. the target market's demographics.
 Educational Research: Surveying  Social Research: Researchers use it to
students in a classroom or participants ensure that minority groups or other
in a workshop. specific populations are adequately
 Health Research: Conducting quick represented in the study.
surveys in clinics or hospitals.  Political Polling: Pollsters may use
How to Implement: quotas to ensure that their samples
1) Identify Accessible Participants: Identify accurately reflect the electorate's
individuals or groups that are easy to demographic makeup.
access. This could be students in a class, How to Implement:
shoppers in a mall, or users of a 1) Identify Relevant Quotas: Determine
particular website. the characteristics important to the
2) Collect Data: Approach these individuals study, such as age, gender, or income.
and collect the required data through 2) Determine Proportions of the
surveys, interviews, or observations. Subgroups: Based on population data or
Example: research goals, establish the proportion
Suppose a researcher wants to understand the of each subgroup in the sample. For
eating habits of college students. Instead of example, if a population is 60% female
surveying students from various universities and 40% male, the sample should
across the country, they might choose to survey reflect this ratio.
 3) Determine the Sample Size for each  Flexibility: Allows the researcher to
Quota focus on specific characteristics that are
4) Select Participants: Use non-random most relevant to the research question.
methods (e.g., convenience sampling) DISADVANTAGES
to select participants until the quotas  Potential for bias: Since participants are
for each subgroup are filled. The not selected randomly, there’s a risk
researcher selects people who fit the that the sample may still be biased
quota criteria until the required number despite meeting the quota criteria.
for each category is met.  Subjectivity in participant selection: The
process relies on the researcher's
judgment in selecting participants,
which can introduce bias.
 Limited generalizability: Because the
sample is not random, the results may
not be generalizable to the broader
population.

 The main purpose is to focus on

particular characteristics of a population
that are of interest, which will best help
answer the research questions.
 This method is often used when the
researcher is looking for specific insights
or when studying unique cases that are
not typical of the general population.
Application:
 Qualitative Research: Particularly in
ADVANTAGES studies that aim to explore in- depth
 Ensures representation of key groups: insights rather than generalize findings
By setting quotas, the researcher can to a larger population.
ensure that important subgroups within  Case Studies: When studying unique or
the population are represented in the rare cases where a random sample
sample. would not yield the necessary
 Time and cost-efficient: Can be faster information.
and more cost-effective than random  Expert Interviews: When the study
sampling methods, particularly when requires information from individuals
random sampling is impractical. with specific knowledge or expertise.
How to Implement:  Comparison: Allows for easy
1) Define the Criteria: The researcher comparison between different data sets
identifies the characteristics or criteria or variables.
that are essential for the study. This  Visualization: Helps in identifying
could be based on experience, trends, patterns, and outliers through
expertise, or other relevant factors. visual representation.
2) Identify Potential Participants: Using the  Communication: Facilitates the
established criteria, the researcher communication of complex data to a
identifies individuals who fit the profile. broader audience, including those who
3) Select Participants: The researcher may not be experts in statistics.
chooses participants based on their
judgment of who will best contribute to Common examples:
the research objectives.
Example: Stem and Leaf
A researcher is studying the impact of a specific  Displays quantitative data in a way that
teaching method on students with learning retains the original data values while
disabilities. The researcher uses purposive also showing their distribution. It is
sampling to select teachers who have significant particularly useful for visualizing the
experience working with students with learning shape of a data set and identifying the
disabilities. By focusing on this specific group, central tendency, spread, and possible
the researcher can gather detailed insights into outliers.
the effectiveness of the teaching method. Components:
Stem: the part of the data that represents the
leading digits. For example, in the number 47,
the digit 4 would be the stem. The stems are
usually listed in a vertical column from smallest
to largest.
Leaf: The last digit of each data point. For the
number 47, the digit 7 would be the leaf. The
Data Presentation leaves are listed horizontally next to their
 Process of organizing, summarizing, and corresponding stem.
displaying data in a way that makes it
easy to understand, interpret, and Steps:
analyze. The primary goal is to 1. Sort the data in ascending order.
communicate the essential features and 2. Determine the Stems: Identify the leading
patterns within the data effectively. It digit(s) of each data point to serve as the stem.
helps in drawing meaningful insights If the data are in the tens (e.g., 10-99), the tens
and supports decision-making. digit would be the stem.
Why is it important? 3. Determine the Leaves: The final digit of each
 Clarity: It transforms raw data into a data point.
more understandable format, making it 4. Organize the Plot:
easier to grasp the key points.  Write the stems in a vertical column,
typically on the left side.
 Draw a vertical line to the right of the Array
stems to separate them from the leaves.  Method of data presentation where
 Place the corresponding leaves in rows data values are arranged in order,
next to each stem, arranging them in usually from the smallest to the largest
ascending order. (ascending) or from the largest to the
smallest (descending).
Steps:
1. Sort the Data: Arrange the data in ascending
(or descending) order.
2. Check for Duplicates: Ensure that any
repeated values are correctly listed.

Textual Form
 Describing data using words, sentences,
and paragraphs rather Than charts,
tables, or graphs.
 Especially useful when context and
analysis are critical to understanding the
data.
 Often used in reports, articles, or
research papers where the goal is to
provide a detailed explanation or
analysis of the data.
Key Features:
1. Narrative Explanation: Narrative that explains
trends, patterns, and key points by summarizing
the data, discussing implications, or providing
context.
2. Detailed Description: Instead of visual aids,
textual presentation describes the data in detail,
often including numbers, percentages, and
comparisons directly in the text.
3. Contextual Information: Include background categories, making it easier to identify
information or explanations that help the reader patterns, trends, and relationships.
understand the significance of the data. This can Applications:
include historical context, theoretical  Financial Reports: Presenting financial
background, or comparisons with other data statements, budget comparisons, or investment
sets. analysis.
4. Sequential Flow: The information is usually  Academic Research: Displaying research data,
presented in a logical sequence, guiding the statistical results, or survey responses.
reader through the data step by step. This flow  Business Reports: Summarizing sales
can make complex data more accessible by performance, customer feedback, or market
breaking it down into smaller, understandable analysis.
parts.  Government Statistics: Presenting
Example: demographic data, economic indicators, or
Sales Performance Report In the first quarter of policy impact assessments.
2024, our sales department achieved a 12%
increase in total revenue compared to the same Key Components:
period last year. The most significant growth  Title: The title of the table should clearly
was observed in the North American region, describe what the data represents.
where sales increased by 18%. This growth can  Rows: Each row in the table typically
be attributed to the successful launch of our corresponds to a different observation, record,
new product Line, which accounted for 40% of or category.
the total sales in this region. Conversely, the  Columns: Each column represents a specific
European market saw a slight decline of 2%, variable or attribute related to the data.
primarily due to economic challenges and  Headings: The column headings or labels
increased competition. However, the overall provide information about what each column
global performance remains strong, with total represents.
revenue reaching $2.5 million.  Body: The body of the table contains the
actual data values or entries.
 Footnotes (optional): Any additional
information or clarifications about the data can
be included in footnotes.

Tabular Form
 Most commonly used methods for
organizing and displaying data.
 Involves arranging data in rows and
columns, where each row represents a
specific observation or record, and each
column represents a particular variable
or attribute.
 Provides a clear, structured way to
compare data across different
Frequency Distribution
 A structured way to organize data to
show how often each value or group of
values (called "classes" or "intervals")
occurs in a dataset. It provides a clear
and concise summary of the distribution
of data, making it easier to analyze
patterns, trends, and outliers.