UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD

LECTURE NOTES

PAT-301
301 2 (1+1), Principles of Integrated Disease Management

Prepared By:
Dr. Shamrao Jahagirdar
Dr. Shalini D Sagar
Dr. Gurupada Balol
Dr. M. S. Patil

College of Agriculture

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Department of Plant Pathology, AC, Dharwad

Course Outline/Schedule of Lectures

Week Lectures Schedule

1. Categories /Classification of plant diseases based on crops affected,
organs attacked, symptoms, source of inoculums, group of causal
agents, based on occurrence and consequent effects and based on
production and spread of inoculums (monocyclic and polycyclic
diseases).
2. Integrated Disease Management; Introduction, definition, history,
importance, concepts and principles, Different tools of IDM.
3. Economic Importance of plant diseases: Important Examples of the
impact of plant disease/Land marks in Plant Pathology.
4 & 5. Diagnosis and Detection of Plant Diseases: Different methods of
diagnosis of plant diseases. Direct methods of detection of plant
diseases: i. Polymerase Chain Reaction. ii. Fluorescence in-situ
Hybridization. iii. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. iv. Immuno-
fluorescence. v. Flow cytometry: Indirect Detection Methods: i.
Thermographs. ii. Fluorescence Imaging. iii. Hyper spectral Techniques
iv. Gas Chromatography. v. Detection of Plant Diseases Using Portable
Sensors. vi. Biosensor Platforms based on Nano-materials.
6 How pathogens attack the plants? Mechanical forces exerted by
pathogens, chemical weapons of pathogens.
7 How host defends pathogen attack?: Pre-existing and induced structural
and bio-chemical defenses.
8 Survey and Surveillance of crop diseases, Forwarning systems, concepts
and their application with examples.
9 Principles of Plant Disease Management – Introduction, Concepts and
Principles, Disease Management through Biological & Cultural
Methods.
10 Disease Management-Host plant resistance, Regulatory /Legislative
methods.
11 Disease Management - Physical methods and Chemical control
methods: advantages and disadvantages, characteristics of a good
fungicide.
12 Disease Management - Fungicides, classification, mode action and
application mode of action and formulations.
13 Disease Management - Bactericides and Nematicides- their
classification, mode of action and formulations.
14 Disease Management – antiviral principles, botanicals in management
of plant diseases.
15 Pesticide equipments and safety issues in pesticide uses.

16 Case studies of important IDM practices for field crops with examples.

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17 Case studies of important IDM practices for horticultural crops with
examples.
18 Implementation and impact of IDM modules- Benefits and Limitations.

Lecture 1: Categories /Classification of plant diseases

Plant Pathology is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the study of
fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and other microbes that cause diseases of plants.
Plants diseases and disorders make plant to suffer, either kill or reduce their ability to
survive/ reproduce. Any abnormal condition that alters the appearance or function of a
plant is called plant disease.

The term ‘Pathology’ is derived from two Greek words ‘pathos’ and ‘logos’,
‘Pathos’ means suffering and ‘logos’ Means to study/ knowledge. Therefore Pathology
means “study of suffering”. Thus the Plant Pathology or Phytopathology (Gr.
Phyton=plant) is the branch of biology that deals with the study of suffering plants. It is
both science of learning and understanding the nature of disease and art of diagnosing
and controlling the disease.

The science of plant pathology has four main objectives:

1. To study the living, non-living and environmental causes of plant diseases.(Etiology)
2. To study the mechanisms of disease development by pathogens.(Pathogenesis)
3. To study the interactions between the plants and the pathogen.(Epidemology)
4. To develop the methods of controlling the diseases and reducing the losses caused by
them.(Control/ Management)
Definition of plant disease :
• Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation
which results in some suffering producing symptoms (American
Phytopathological society
& British Mycological society).
• Disease is an alteration in one or more of the ordered sequential series
of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy

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 utilization in a plant as a result of continuous irritation from the presence or
absence of some agent or factor.
• Disease: Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that result from
continuous irritation by a pathogenic agent or environmental factor and leads
to development of symptoms (G.N.Agrios, 1997).

Disease Triangle: The interactions of three components of disease, i.e.,

the host, pathogen and environment, can be visualized as a disease triangle. The
length of each side is proportional to the sum total of the characteristics of each
component that favour disease.

The interaction of susceptible host plant, virulent pathogen and favourable

environmental conditions leads to the development of the disease.

Disorder: Non-infectious plant diseases due to abiotic causes such as adverse

soil and environmental conditions are termed disorders. The common
characteristic of non- infectious diseases of plants is that they are caused by the
lack or excess of something (temperature, soil moisture, soil nutrients, light, air
and soil pollutants, air humidity, soil structure and pH) that supports life. Non-
infectious plant diseases occur in the absence of pathogens, and cannot, therefore, be
transmitted from diseased to healthy plants.

Pathogen: An entity, usually a micro-organism that can incite disease. In a

literal sense a pathogen is any agent that causes pathos (ailment, suffering) or
damage. However, the term is generally used to denote living organisms (Fungi,
bacteria, MLO’s, nematodes etc.,) and viruses but not nutritional deficiencies.

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 Parasite: Organisms which derive the materials they need for growth from
living plants (host or suscept) are called parasites.

Pathogenicity is the ability of the pathogen to cause disease

Pathogenesis is the chain of events that lead to development of disease in the
host (or) sequence of progress in disease development from the initial contact
between the pathogen and its host to the completion of the syndrome

Sign: The pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant.

Symptom: The external or internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a

result of a disease.

Syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease are

collectively called a syndrome.

On the basis of their mode of perpetuation and mode of primary infection:

1) Soil borne diseases: In these diseases, the pathogens survive in soil or on infested
plant debris lying in soil either as their resting spores or as mycelia strands and
rhizomorphs. They all attack the root system of host plants.

Eg: Damping off (Pythium sp.),Seedling blight (Phytophthora, Fusarium sp.)

2) Air borne diseases: Some pathogens infects the host plant through air and bring
primary as well as secondary infection. Eg: Rusts, Powdery mildews.Loose smuts
bring about secondary infection through air.
3) Seed borne diseases: Some pathogens survive as dormant mycelium in the seeds or
other propagative structures of host plants. Eg. Loose smut of wheat (internally seed
borne)
On the basis of their cause, diseases are classified as:
1) Infectious plant diseases: These diseases are caused by living agents,the pathogen.
All pathogens are parasitic on plants. These are characterised by the ability of the
pathogen to grow and multiply rapidly. Ex: Powdery mildews, Rusts.
2) Non-infectious diseases: These diseases do not spread from plant to plant (non-
infectious).These diseases are caused due to abiotic
factors(non parasitic or physiological). Eg: Black heart of potato.

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On the basis of production and spread of the inoculum:
1) Single cycle disease or simple interest disease: In single cycle disease the increase
of disease is mathematically analogous to simple interest disease.
2) Multiple cycle or compound interest disease: In multiple cycle diseases, the
increase in disease is mathematically analogous to compound interest of money.
3) Polyetic diseases: These are also polycyclic diseases but they complete their disease
cycle in more than one year over years. Eg.: Cedar Apple Rust
On the basis of plant parts affected:

1) Localized: If they affect only specific organs or parts of the plants. Eg.: Root
Rot, Leaf spot.
2) Systemic: If entire plant is affected. Eg.: Downy mildew, damping off

On the basis of group of causal organisms:

1) Fungal disease: Caused by plant pathogenic fungi. Eg. Anthracnose
2) Bacterial disease: Caused by plant pathogenic bacteria. Example:

Citrus canker

3) Viral disease: Caused by plant viruses. Eg. Rice tungro disease

4) Phanerogamic phytopathogenic diseases: Caused by phanerogamic plant parasites.
Eg. Striga, Cuscutta.
5) Nematode Diseases: Diseases caused by plant pathogenic nematodes.
Eg. Ear cocle of wheat.

On the basis of occurrence and consequent effects:

Epidemic or Epiphytotic disease: A disease usually occurs widely but periodically in

a destructive form is referred as epidemic or Epiphytotic disease.

Ex: Late blight of potato – Irish famine (1845)

Endemic: Constantly present in a moderate to severe form and is confined to a

particular country or district.

Ex: Club root of cabbage in Nilgiris

Black wart of potato – Synchytrium endobioticum
Onion smut – Urocystis cepulae

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Sporadic disease: Occur at very irregular intervals and locations and in relatively
fewer instances. Ex: Udbatta disease of rice, Angular leaf
spot of cucumber – Pseudomonas lachrymans

Pandemic: Diseases occurring throughout the continent or sub-continent resulting in

mass mortality. Eg. Late blight of potato.

On the basis of organs affected:

1) Fruit diseases: In these diseases fruits are mainly affected Eg. Apple scab. (Venturia
inaequalis)

2) Root diseases: In these disease, root is mainly affected. Eg.Root rot of

papaya.(Pythium aphanidermatum)

3) Leaf diseases: Disease is localised in the foliage. Eg. Leaf spot of cotton. ( Alternaria
gossypii (Jacz.)

4) Seedling diseases: Seedlings are affected in which stem and root tissues rot. Eg.
Damping off of seedling.(Rhizoctonia sp.)

On the basis of host crop plants affected:

1) Cereal diseases: Disease which affect cereal crops eg. Wheat,barley and oat.

2) Pulses diseases: Diseases which affect pulses crop. Ascochyta blight of chickpea.

3) Millet diseases: Diseases which affect millets. Eg. Green ear disease of Bajra.

4) Vegetable diseases : Diseases which affect vegetable crops.Eg. Early blight of

Tomato caused by Altrnaria solani. 5) Fruits diseases : Diseases affect fruit crops.Eg.
Apple Scab 6) Ornamental plant diseases: Diseases affecting ornamental plants. Eg.
Chrysanthemum stunt.

7) Forest diseases: Diseases affecting forest trees and plantation. Eg.

Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum)

On the basis of symptoms produced on host plants:

1) Rusts : Caused by Basidiomycetes of the order Uredinales. Eg. Stem rust of

wheat.
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2) Smuts : Caused by fungus of order Uredinales,mass of black powedery

spores and grains are not produced .Eg. Loose smut of wheat caused by

Ustilago nuda tritici.

3) Wilts :In this disease, the vascular system of plant is affected .Eg.

Bacterial wilt of cucurbits caused by Erwinia trachiephila. 4) Powdery mildews: It is a

disease of foliage, stem, flower and fruit.Eg.Powdery mildew of grapes.

Rots : In this disease, underground part of plant is infected.Eg.

Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora root rot.

6) Blight : It is complete chlorosis ,yellowing and browning which results in death of

the plant. Eg.Leaf blight of paddy.

7) Leaf spots :It may be caused by fungi or bacteria, spots are formed on leaves which
results in complete yellowing and dropping of leaf.

Eg.Septoria leaf spot in tomato

8) Canker : Canker is a dead area in bark or cortex of woody stem. Ex:

Citrus canker
10 Anthracnose: an ulcer-like lesion that can be necrotic and sunken. These lesions can
appear on the fruit, flowers and stems of the host - e.g. Apple Anthracnose of stems and
or leaves (Cryptosporiopsis sp. Formally Pezicula sp.), or Dogwood Anthracnose
(Discula distructiva)

11. Damping Off: it is a rapid collapse and death of very young seedling. Either the
seed rots before emergence or the seedling rots at the soil line and falls over and dies.
The most common genera involved are Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium. 12 Scab:
localized lesion on host fruit leaves tubers and other plant parts. These infections usually
result in a roughened, crust-like area on the surface of the host - e.g. Apple Scab
(Venturia inaequalis) and Pear Scab (Venturia pirina).

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 Lecture 2:
Integrated Disease Management; Introduction, definition, history, importance,
concepts and principles, Different tools of IDM.

IDM involve management systems which utilize compatible combinations of all the
available techniques to keep the pathogen population below the economic threshold
level (ETL) which would not result in economically unacceptable damage to the crop.
IDM is based on five principles of plant disease management and integrates
multidisciplinary approaches for the management of plant diseases.

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Integrated plant disease management can be defined as a decision-based process
involving coordinated use of multiple tactics for optimizing the control of pathogen
in an ecologically and economically.

The term Integrated Pest Management was first based on the concept of ‘integrated
control’ given by the entomologists from University of California, who defined it as
“applied pest control which combines and integrates biological and chemical control.
Chemical control was used only if necessary and in a way which was least disruptive
to biological control”. Entomologists initiated the work on the concept of IPM
following the problems faced with pest resistance to insecticides and the ecological
damage identified with the widespread use of insecticides in the late 1950s and early
1960s. The concept got further importance due to the programs emphasizing
sustainable agriculture, growing public concern regarding pesticides and food safety,
greater difficulty in registering new pesticides and mounting pressure from growers
and practitioners for IPM tactics. IPM does not seek to eliminate the use of pesticides,
but aims to utilize the least disruptive options and to reduce the use of pesticides for
pest control to the lowest practical levels. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
survey showed that over 50% of the developing countries neither had legal means to
limit pesticide use nor any code of practice. Whereas, countries like the Netherlands,
which have adopted pesticide reduction programs, over 60% reduction in the amount
of applied pesticides was achieved, in some seasons. Inclusion of the term ‘IPM’ in
plant pathology was only after the formal involvement of plant pathologists with
entomologists, nematologists and weed scientists in IPM programs under Huffaker
Project, in the USA. Plant pathologists embraced integrated disease management by
applying fundamental information on loss potential and pathogen biology, ecology and
epidemiology, and applying the basic concepts of plant disease management. The
principles of plant disease management should always be based on the integration of
basic concepts such as avoidance, exclusion, eradication, protection, resistance and
therapy. Adoption of Integrated Pest (Disease) Management against the diseases
encountered in vegetable crops is of paramount importance as most of the vegetable
crops are not harvested at the end of the crop season but it is spread over a long
duration by way of several pickings, as in case of tomato, okra, cucurbits, pea, beans,
etc. Moreover, many of the vegetables are eaten raw, therefore, dependence on
chemicals for the management of various diseases is a great health hazard to the
consumer. This assumes greater importance in the developing countries where the
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farmers are not educated enough to follow some cutoff date for application of
chemicals to the standing crops. The present WTO scenario warrants the high quality
disease free vegetable produce for ensuring competitive selling in the international
market. All these factors along with the growing awareness among the users regarding
pesticide residues, pollution to the environment and sub-soil water and increased
problem of pathogen resistance towards the pesticides, have been the compelling
reasons for moving away from the total dependence up on the pesticides and to adopt
IPM strategies that would involve one or more than one concepts of plant disease
management.

History:

A century ago the science of plant pathology was just being born and L. R.
Jones wondered, at a meeting in Atlanta in 1913, whether it was a good thing to
separate plant pathology as a discipline from botany. This was only a few
decades after the idea that fungi were causal agents of plant diseases had been
accepted and that the concept of "spontaneous generation," which regarded fungi as
symptoms on plants suffering from bad environmental conditions, had been on its
way out. This new concept of germs being causal agents of disease had its earliest
supporters among plant pathologists like Tillet for bunt in 1755, Prevost for smut in
1807, Berkeley and de Bary for the late blight fungus of potatoes in the
1850s.Unfortunately, the broader significance of these findings was not recognized,
and it was only in the1860s that the work of Pasteur and Koch on human
pathogens led to the breakthrough of the germ theory. Therefore, it is not surprising
that the understanding and the standard of fungicides a century agowas very
rudimentary.

A. Era of traditional approaches:

About the time humans started aggregating into villages and began planting
selected food crops in clusters near rivers in fertile valleys, pests became an increasing
challenge. Through trial and error, humans began to learn how to improve conditions
and control the environment. People learned to perform cultural and physical
control practices for crop protection. Methods such as flooding, destroying or
using crop refuse, roughing diseased plants, tillage to expose and eliminate soil
borne pathogens, removal of alternate hosts of pathogens and insects, timing

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of planting, crop rotation, trap crops, determining optimum planting sites, pruning,
dusting with sulphur, and others reduced damage potential to many crops from
many pests. This was followed by the use of plant products from neem,
chrysanthemum, rotenone, tobacco and several other lesser known plants
indifferent part of the world.

B. Era of fungicides:

As with many inventions, "development" of the first fungicide was the result of
good observations. The first use of brining of grain with salt water followed by liming
took place in the middle of the 17thcentury to control bunt, and followed
the observation that seed wheat salvaged from the sea was free of bunt. Up until the
1940s chemical disease control relied upon inorganic chemical preparations,
frequently prepared by the user.

From 1940 to 1970 there were a number of new chemistry classes introduced as
fungicides. The decade from 1960 to 1970 the most widely used protectant
fungicides, mancozeb and chlorothalonil, were introduced. The decade also gave us
the first broad-spectrum foliar systemic ,thiabendazole, and the systemic seed
treatment carboxin. The first case of resistance to benzimidazoles occurred
in powdery mildew in greenhouses in 1969, one year after introduction. During
the 1980s fenpropidin and fenpropimorph were key fungicides in the European
cerealmarket, while tridemorph was used extensively forsigatoka followed by the seed
treatment carboxin(Vitavax), which is highly effective on bunts, smuts and assorted
Basidiomycetes such as Rhizoctonia spp. The intensive and extensive use, misuse
and abuse of synthetic fungicides during the ensuing decades caused widespread
damage to the environment. Additionally, disease problems in some crops
increased following the continuous application of fungicides. This, in turn,
further increased the consumption of fungicide resulting in the phenomenon of the
fungicide treadmill.

C. Era of IDM The IDM terms came from integrated pest management
(IPM).In the late 1960's, a movement to develop more environmentally benign
crop protection methods began. Although economics was the prime driver to use
crop scouting to determine spray schedules, it was a first real step toward an IPM

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approach. IDM calls for minimal use of pesticides, and only if deemed
necessary.IDM gives preference to other control methods such as host-plant
resistance, cultural practices and biological control. In the 21stcentury, the term of
"agricultural sustainability" has become a norm for modern agriculture and
numerous non-chemical methods for control of crop diseases such as pathogen-
free seeds, disease resistance, crop rotation, plant extracts, organic amendments and
biological control are considered less harmful than synthetic chemical pesticides
and, therefore, offer great potential for application in conventional agriculture, organic
farming and/or soilless culture. No single method can provide satisfactory control of
crop diseases. Integration of all effective and eco-friendly measures in
accordance with the dynamics of the agro ecosystem management would be the
best strategy for efficient control of diseases in crops.

The implications are:

Simultaneous management of multiple pathogens

Regular monitoring of pathogen effects, and their natural enemies and antagonists as
well

Use of economic or treatment thresholds when applying chemicals

Integrated use of multiple, suppressive tactics.

Main components of IDM:

1. Cultural practices

2. Regulatory measures (quarantine)

3. Chemical methods

4. Biological methods

5. Physical methods

6. Genetic engineering

Advantages Integrated approach integrates preventive and corrective measures to

keep pathogen from causing significant problems, with minimum risk or hazard to
human and desirable components of their environment.

Some of the benefits of an integrated approach are as follows:

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 • Promotes sound structures and healthy plants

• Promotes the sustainable bio based disease management alternatives.

• Reduces the environmental risk associated with management by encouraging the

adoption of more ecologically benign control tactics

• Reduces the potential for air and ground water contamination

• Protects the non-target species through reduced impact of plant disease

management activities.

• Reduces the need for pesticides and fungicides by using several management
methods

• Reduces or eliminates issues related to pesticide residue

• Reduces or eliminates re-entry interval restrictions

• Decreases workers, tenants and public exposure to chemicals

• Alleviates concern of the public about pest & pesticide related practices.

• Maintains or increases the cost-effectiveness of disease management programs

Therefore, IDM utilizes all suitable strategies in a compatible manner to reduce and
maintain pathogen populations at levels below those causing economic losses.

Essential considerations in integrated plant disease Management:

1. Benefit-cost ratio : Cost benefit ration ‘is a very important consideration in

application of management measures. It is known that plant disease always reduce
economic gains. If control measures fail to increase economic gain even if the disease
incidence is lowered, the growers or farmer do not accept the recommendation to
combat plant diseases. The aim of the disease management is to check disease with
economic gain.

2. Procedures for disease control should fit into general schedule of operations of crop
production

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3. Control measures should be adopted on a co-operative basis over large adjoining
areas. This reduces frequency of applications (treatments), reduced cost of control,
reduced chances of disease outbreak and increases chances of success of control
measures

4. The knowledge regarding disease cycle or disease development on the following

aspects is essential for effective and economic control:

a. Cause of a disease
b. Mode of survival and dissemination of the pathogen
c. Host parasite relationship
d. Effect of environment on pathogenesis in the plant or spread in plant population
5. Prevention of disease depends on management of primary inoculum

6. Integration of different approaches of disease management is always recommended.

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Lecture 3:

Economic Importance of plant diseases : Important Examples of the impact of

plant disease/Land marks in Plant Pathology.

Importance of Plant Diseases

The study of plant diseases is important as they cause loss to the plant as well as plant
produce. The various types of losses occur in the field, in storage or any time between
sowing and consumption of produce. The diseases are responsible for direct monitory
loss and material loss.

The crop loss due to diseases is estimated to be approximately 30-50%. Cultivated

plants are often more susceptible to diseases than are their wild relatives.

Important environmental factors that may affect development of plant diseases are
temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture, soil pH, soil type, and soil fertility.

Each pathogen has an optimum temperature for growth. High soil-moisture levels
favors development of destructive water mold fungi, such as species of Aphanomyces,
Pythium, and Phytophthora.

High humidity favors development of the great majority of leaf and fruit diseases
caused by fungi and bacteria.

Soil pH, a measure of acidity or alkalinity, markedly influences a few diseases, such as
common scab of potato and club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae) of crucifers.

Raising or lowering the levels of certain nutrients also influences the development of
some infectious diseases. Most control measures are directed against inoculums of the
pathogen and involve the principles of exclusion and avoidance, eradication, protection,
host resistance and selection, and therapy.

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Important Famine in World

Late blight of potato-1841-51 (Irish famine): The late blight of potato, a

diseased caused by the fungus, Phytophthorainfestans, is a famous example of what a
plant disease can do to change the course of history. In 1845, this diseasedestroyed the
potato crop of Ireland where potato constituted the staple diet of the majority in rural
areas. The disease had started in Ireland, England and part of the continental Europe as
early as 1830 and was causing some damage every year, resulting in food shortage. It
was reported that in 1840 the population of Ireland was 8 million which was reduced to
4 million after the famine.

Coffee rust 1867-1870 (Sri Lanka):

In 1867, coffee rust attacked the plantations in Sri Lanka and by 1893, export of coffee
from Sri Lanka had declined by 93%. The economic crisis forced the planters to cut
down coffee plants and take to tea planting. When coffee rust was spreading in Sri
Lanka the science of plant pathology was just developing and control measure of the
disease were not known.

Bengal Famine 1942 (India): In the last year of Second World War (1943) Bengal had
to face a serious famine. One of the reasons to which this famine has been attributed was
the loss in yield of the rice crop due to attack of Helminthosporium leaf spot which had
been affecting the crop for the last several years. Situation was similar to the Irish potato
famine but not so catastrophic.

Why Diseases become major problem in Modern agriculture?

1. Continuous monoculture of an annual crop

2. Cultivation of genetically similar plants.

3. Use of plants susceptible to pathogens.

4. Development of New races of pathogen.

5. Changing environmental conditions.

Why Disease Management is necessary?

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 Of the 30,000 plant diseases recorded from different countries about 5,000 diseases
are present in India. It is estimated that the total annual production for all agricultural
crops worldwide is about 12000-13000 billion $. Of this, about 500 billion $ worth of
produce is lost annually to diseases, insects and weeds.

Following are the significance of Plant diseases

1. Famine: Irish famine – Late blight of potato, Bengal famine – Brown spot of
paddy
2. LOSSES

a) Quantity (Yield loss): During Wheat rust epidemic in Bihar (1956-57) yield
reduced from 900kg/ha to 50 kg/ha.

b) Crop quality losses: Example: Citrus canker, Chiku rough storage, Apple scab,
Groundnut – aflatoxin, Wheat – bunt, ear cockle.

3. Human/ animal hazard /food poisoning: Consumption of Ergot infected rye –

causes gangrene, loss of fingers, limbs and death. (Known as Saint Antony's
fire). Death of one Lakh turkeys in England due to consumption of Peanut meal
contaminated with Aflatoxin. Aflatoxin is immune suppressive and causes Liver
cancer in Human beings.
4. Cropping pattern changed: In Srilanka Coffee was replaced by Tea plantation
due to Coffee Rust (1867).
5. Limit the cultivation of variety: Due to Downy mildew of Bajra, cultivation of
GJ 104 variety was discouraged in Gujarat. Due to Wilt & red rot cultivation of
co. 671, co. 8603 sugarcane variety was discouraged in south Gujarat.
6. Diet change/ food habit change: In Sri Lanka drinking habit changed from
coffee to tea due to coffee rust. In Southern U.S.A food habit changed i.e. from
wheat to corn due to wheat rust
7. Agro- industries affected: Due to Wilt and red rot diseases Sugar Industries in
Gujarat affected. Wine industry in France was severly affected due to Downy
mildew disease.
8. People’s migration: Due to Irish Famine in more than 1.6 million people
migrated from Ireland to North American continent.
9. Sociological effect :. Increase in Poverty due to close of Agro industries

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 10. High/rise market price: Shortage of food due to heavy crop loss leads to Rise in
price of Agril. Commodities
11. High cost of production: Extra Expenditure to be incurred on pesticides, labour
etc. for control of diseases
12. Political effect: Due to Irish famine, the free trade was allowed between
England and Ireland
13. Destroy the beauty of environment: By damaging plants around houses, along
street, in gardens & in forest.
Ecological implications: Environmental pollution due to fungicidal use or due
to disease

Important milestones of plant pathology:

HISTORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY:

Ancient period:A literature of European and vedic eras will give us some
information on the plant diseases and their control measures. Greek philosopher
Theophrastus recorded some observations on the plant diseases in his book enquiry
into plants. His experiences were mostly based on imagination and observation but
not on experimentation. He had mentioned that plants of different groups have
different diseases which were autonomous or spontaneous, i.e., no external cause was
associated.

In India, the information on plant diseases is available in ancient literature

such as rigveda, atharveda (1500-500BC), arthasashtra of Kautilya (321-186 BC),
Sushruta sanhita (200-500AD), Vishnupuran (500AD), Agnipuran (500-
700AD), Vishnu dharmottar (500-700AD), etc. In Rigveda, not only the
classification of plant diseases has been given but the germ theory of disease was also
advocated.
Vriksha ayurveda by Surpal in ancient India is the first book in
which lot of information on plant diseases is available. In this book, plant diseases
were categorized into two groups, internal (probably physiological diseases) and
external (probably infectious diseases). External diseases were supposed to
be due to attack of microorganisms and insects. In this book, a mention of
treatments for different diseases caused by different agencies was prescribed which
were based on superstition as well as scientific observation. Hygiene, tree surgery,

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protective covering with pastes and special culture of plants are practices which are
still recommended. In chemical treatments, use of honey, ghee, milk, barley flour,
pastes made from herbs, plant extracts, etc., were recommended. For the control of
root diseases, oilcakes of mahuva, mustard, sesame, castor, etc., were used.

Symptoms of plant diseases such as rust, downy mildew, powdery mildew and
blight are often mentioned in the bible, Shakesphere’s poems and dramas of
other Christian literature. In Jataka of Buddhism, Raghuvansh of Kalidas there was
also a mention about different symptoms of plant diseases.

PRE-MODERN PERIOD
PIER ANTONIO MICHELLI (Italian):

He was an Italian botanist.

He was the founder and father of Mycology.

He was the first person who observed fungal spores for the first time
and conducted many spore germination studies (by growing fungus
organisms on freshly cut pieces of melons and pears).

He was the first person who observed Cystidia on the lamellar edge or
hymenial layer of Agaricales.

In 1729 he published a book “Nova Plantarum Genera” in which he
gave descriptions about 1900 species in Latin out of which 900 were
fungi. The important genera are Aspergillus niger, Botrytis sps., Polyporus sps.
etc.

TILLET (French)

In 1755, he published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat

By well planned experiments he proved that wheat seeds that contained black
powder on their surface produced more diseased plants than clean seeds.

He emphasized that bunt was an infectious disease and it was closely related
with fungus. However, he believed that the disease was caused by some toxin
produced by the black powder. He did not know that the black powder
contained the spore mass of the fungus.

He reported that the chemical treatment of seeds with common salt and lime
inhibited the contagious activity.

20
 MODERN PERIOD
BENEDICT PREVOST (French)

He proved that diseases are caused by micro-organisms

He studied wheat bunt disease for about 10 years and in 1807, he published
his findings in the paper “memoir on the immediate cause of bunt or smut of
wheat and of several other diseases of plants and on preventives of bunt”

He proved that the bunt of wheat was caused by the fungus Tilletia caries

Studied and observed the germination of bunt species. He confirmed the
findings of Tillet by mixing the spores of fungus with clean seeds.

Discovered the life cycle of bunt fungus

He showed that the solution containing copper sulphate prevented the
germination of bunt spores and can be used for control of bunt diseases.

He mentioned the fungicidal and fungistatic properties of chemical treatments

CHRISTIAN HENDRICK PERSOON (1761-1831):

Persoon first published observations Mycologicae.

In 1801, he published “Synopsis methodica fungorum” for nomenclature
of Ustilaginales, Uredinales and Gasteromycetes.

He also published Mycologica Europica in 1822.

He gave the name to rust pathogen of wheat as Puccinia graminis.

ELIAS MAGNUS FRIES (1821):

He published three volumes of “Systema Mycologium” for nomenclature
of hymenomycetes.

Person and fries first time introduced binomial system of nomenclature to
classify the fungal organisms.

During 1830-1845, when late blight of potato was fast spreading in England,
Ireland and continental Europe, there was no one opinion among the scientists
about the disease- fungus relationship.

ANTON De BARY (Germany):

He was the father and founder of modern Mycology.

He was the founder of modern experimental plant pathology

In 1863, he studied the epidemics of late blight and renamed the casual
organism as Phytophthora infestans.

He discovered heteroecious nature of rust fungi (1865).

21

He gave detailed account on life cycles of downy mildew genera.

He studied about vegetable rotting fungi and damping off fungi.

He wrote a book named “Morphology and Physiology of fungi, lichens and
Myxomycetes” (1866).

He reported the role of enzymes and toxins in tissue disintegration caused by
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Students of Anton De bary
1. Marshal Ward (UK) -Studied coffee rusts and its epidemics
2. M.S. Woronin (USSR) -Studied about life cycle of club root fungi,
i.e, Plasmodiophora brassica
3. Farlow -Fungi and bibliography. He established Farlow cryptogamic
herbarium. Farlow, first introduced independent course of plant
pathology at Harward University.
4. Millardet-Discovered Bordeaux mixture for the control of
downy mildew of grapevine

Oscar Brefeld, a colleague of De Bary (Germany) -Pioneer in pure culture
techniques

E. J. Butler (Edwin John
Butler):

He was the father of modern plant pathology and father of Indian Mycology.

He worked at IARI for 20 years from 1901 to 1920

He was the founder and first director of imperial Mycological institute,

Kew, England (1920-35).

Monograph: Pythiaceous and allied fungi.

Books: a) Fungi and Disease in Plants (1918)
b) Fungi in India (with B.R.Bisby) and c)
Plant Pathology (with S.G.Jones).

E.C. STAKMAN

He studies the variability in rust fungus. Contributed valuable information
on physiological races of pathogen

He concluded that due to continuous evolution of races and biotypes in the
22
 species of the rust fungus its pathogenic capability goes on changing and as a
result the resistant capability of the host also changes.

T. J. BURRUILL (USA): He proved for the first time that fire blight of
apple and pear was caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia amylovora)

E.F.SMITH (U.S.A)

He gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be incitants of
plant diseases.

He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease. He
is also called as "Father of Phytobacteriology".

In 1981, he demonstrated for the first time that budding or grafting could be
another method of transmission of plant viruses.

He showed the contagious nature of peach yellows.

DOI AND ISHIE (JAPANESE)

They found that mycoplasma like organisms (MLO) could be responsible for
the disease of the yellows type.

Doi observed that MLO's are constantly present in phloem while Ishie
observed MLO's temporarily disappeared when the plants are treated with
tetracycline antibodies.

BEIJERINCK (Dutch)

Founder of virology

He proved that the virus inciting tobacco mosaic is not a living microorganism.

He believed it to be contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid)

W.H.STANLEY

In 1935, he proved that viruses can be crystallised. He got Nobel Prize.

He treated the sap from diseased leaves of tobacco with ammonium sulphate
and obtained a crystalline protein which, when placed on healthy tobacco
leaves, could reproduce the disease.

He finally proved that viruses are not living micro-organisms because no
living form can be chemically treated and crystallized and still remain viable.

BAWDEN F.E. and PIRIE (Britain): They found that the crystalline nature
of the virus contains nucleic acid and protein.

23

DIENER and RAYMER discovered the potato spindle tuber was caused by
small naked ssRNA which he called viroid.

INDIAN SCIENTISTS

B.B MUNDKUR:

He worked on the control of cotton wilt diseases.

He is responsible for the identification and classification of large number
of Indian smut fungi

He started Indian Phytopathological Society in 1948 and published a
journal Indian Phytopathology.

His book – Fungi and Plant diseases.

J.F.DASTUR:

First Indian plant pathologist who was credited for his detailed studies on
fungi and plant diseases.

He studied the characters of Phytophthora and Phytophthora diseases of
potato and castor.

He established Phytophthora parasitica from castor.

K.C. MEHTA – Life cycle of cereal rusts in India

T.S. SADASIVAN

Started the studies on bio-chemistry of host-parasite relationship at University
of Madras

Contributed to the concept of vivotoxins
Studied on mechanism of wilting in cotton by Fusarium vasinfectum.
The production of fusaric acid by this fungus outside the host was demonstrate.

Lecture 4 :

DIAGNOSIS AND DETECTION OF PLANT DISEASES

Part A: DIAGNOSIS BASED ON DISEASE SYMPTOMS

Disease diagnosis is very important for developing effective strategies for

disease management. Without diagnosis, there can be no disease management. Crop
disease diagnosis is an art as well as a science. The diagnostic process involves the

24
recognition of symptoms (which are associated with disease) and signs (which are not
outwardly observable) and requires intuitive judgment as well as the use of scientific
methods. Several conventional techniques are followed to diagnose disease incidence.
These techniques include visual inspection and recognition of symptoms and isolation
and examination of crop pathogens using microscopy. Such techniques are time-
consuming and may not be able to detect latent infections. Several diagnostic assays
have been developed for early and rapid diagnosis. These include immunoassays,
nucleic acid probe-based methods, and PCR-based techniques. The use of these
techniques in the diagnosis of fungal, bacterial, viral, viroid, and phytoplasma diseases is
described here.
Methods of diagnosis
In the field of human medicine, the doctors invariably use the diagnostic tools
(physical, chemical or serological) to be sure of the ailment before starting a line of
treatment. The symptoms provide the clues for possibilities, but confirmation comes
only after performing diagnostic tests. In plant diseases, visual observations of the
infected plant/ plants parts continue to be the dominant method. Several sophisticated
techniques are being used for observation, which include microscopy. Isolation and
identification of biotic agents associated, besides serology, immunological, bio-chemical
and physiological analyses and genome analysis.
I. Visual observation (symptoms)
Symptoms are the visible expression of host-pathogen interaction. The deviation
from normal morphology coupled with presence of pathogen structures form the
characteristic symptoms of sign, the basis for preliminary diagnosis.
Symptoms induced by parasitic fungi:
Diseases caused by biotic and mesobiotic agents are identified primarily by
symptoms and signs produced on host. The morphological features such as spores,
fructifications, or sporophores, which differ from one fungus species to another, form
important part of diagnostic programme. If desired structures of the fungus are not
readily visible on the infected host surface, the parasite may be induced to sporulate by
proper incubation of the infected tissue.
Some pathogens produce characteristic symptoms that can be easily recognized
in the field. The symptoms of fungus are blights, blast, mildews, rust, smuts, bunts, ergot
etc.
Symptoms induced by bacterial pathogens:

25
 Plant pathogenic bacteria induce water soaked lesions in the infected tissues at
the initial stages and these lesions turn necrotic late. Formation of bacterial ooze from
infected tissues is another distinguishing feature associated with bacterial diseases. As
infection progresses, leaf spots, blights, scabs, cankers, tumours, wilts, soft rots, etc.,
may be the prominent symptoms.
Symptoms induced by phytoplasmas:
The phytoplasmas cause general stunting or dwarfing of affected plant parts or
whole plants. Chlorosis and reduced leaves are also frequently observed. Phyllody and
proliferation of floral tissues- Floral parts are transformed into green leaf-like
structures. Partial or total sterility of infected plants may be commonly noted. These
symptoms are observed in plants infected by diseases such as aster yellows, little leaf of
brinjal, sesame phyllody and witche’s broom disease of potato, peanut and grain
legumes. Proliferation of auxiliary buds and formation of a large number of thin shoots
are observed prominently in little of brinjal, rice yellow dwarf and sugarcane grassy
shoot diseases. Reduction in leaf size and inter nodal length and tendency for the leaves
to stand out stiffly, giving a spike like appearance to the infected branches are the
distinguishing symptoms of sandal spike disease.
Symptoms induced by nematodes:
Nematodes infect both root and above ground portion of plants. Root symptoms
may be appear as root knots, root galls, root lesions, excessive root branching, injured
root tips and root rots when nematode infections are accompanied by parasitic or
saprophytic fungi and bacteria. These root symptoms are usually accompanied by non-
characteristic symptoms in the above ground parts of plants appearing primarily as
reduced growth, symptoms of nutrient deficiency, such as yellowing of foliage,
excessive wilting in hot or dry weather, reduced yield and poor quality of products.
Certain species of nematodes infect the above ground portions of plants. They cause
galls, necrotic lesions and rots, twisting and distortion of stem and leaves and abnormal
development of floral parts. Certain nematodes attack grains of grasses forming galls
full of nematodes in place of seed.

Symptoms induced by viruses and viroids:

Methods of diagnosis of virus include symptomatology, mode of transmission,
host-range, particle morphology, antigenicity and electrophoretic mobility in gels.

26
Because some of these techniques require special methodology and equipment for
confirmation, the symptoms and distribution patterns frequently suffice for preliminary
diagnosis. Plant viruses cause a variety of symptoms, depending on the host plant
species and different unrelated viruses may induce similar symptoms in the same host
plant species. The viruses induce primary symptoms on inoculated leaves, which exhibit
chlorotic or necrotic local lesion or vein clearing. Later when the virus becomes
systemic, secondary symptoms developed as colour changes, death or necrosis and
abnormal growth form. Colour changes may vary from mosaic on leaves to colour
breaking in flowers. Various kinds of changes in size and shape of plant part may be
seen as leaf roll, leaf curl, enation, leaf crinkle, galls and tumours.

27
 Lecture 5 : DIAGNOSIS AND DETECTION OF PLANT DISEASES

Part B : Detection of Plant Diseases

Conventional plant-pathological techniques need high expertise for routine

identification. In the case of latent infections in vegetative planting materials, seeds, and
fruit, conventional methods may not be useful to diagnose infection.

Detection and identification of diseases in crops could be realized via both direct
and indirect methods. Direct detection of diseases includes molecular and serological
methods that could be used for high-throughput analysis when large numbers of samples
need to be analyzed. In these methods, the disease causing pathogens such as bacteria,
fungi and viruses are directly detected to provide accurate identification of the
disease/pathogen. On the other hand, Indirect detection methods identify the plant
diseases through various parameters such as morphological change, temperature change,
transpiration rate change and volatile organic compounds released by infected plants.

A. DIRECT DETECTION OF DISEASES

I. DIAGNOSIS BY IMMUNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
Immunodiagnostic assays provide a fast method of confirming visible symptoms
as well as detecting pathogens that cannot be easily identified by other methods. They
permit early detection of plant pathogens and accurate identification of pathogens.
Because many fungicides are specific only to certain pathogens or groups of pathogens,
immunodiagnosis will be useful in the selection of the most appropriate treatment.
Viruses, bacteria, and fungi (especially those spreading as a sterile mycelium) can be
readily detected by these methods.

Immunoassays depend on the development of antibodies specific to the particular

pathogen. Cells of living animals, particularly mammals, have the ability to recognize
binding sites on proteins, glycoproteins, lipopolysaccharides, and carbohydrate
molecules that are not present in their bodies (i.e., foreign to that animal). Such
molecules, known as antigens, stimulate the immune system of the animal and this leads
to the production of specific antibodies, each of which specifically recognizes and binds
to its complementary antigen. The role of an immunoassay is to reveal the presence of

28
specific complexes between the antibody and an antigen that are unique to the pathogen.
The antibodies produced in an animal body can recognize the microbial antigen, which
is present on cell walls or found attached with them. In other words, the antibodies can
recognize the plant pathogen by recognizing the antigen specific to the pathogen. In
principle, immunoassays are based on the fact that antibodies react specifically with the
homologous antigen. However, the reaction is not easy to detect. Several techniques
have been developed to exploit this reaction in immunoassays as described below.

I a. Agglutination Test
This test can be carried out in slides or in test tubes. In the slide agglutination
test, drops of antigen and diluted antiserum containing antibodies are mixed together on
a glass microscope slide. Agglutination is observed by eye or microscope (if
ambiguous). In the test-tube agglutination test, the antigens are mixed with antibodies in
test tubes, and the aggregation of antigens and antibodies is monitored with a binocular
microscope.
I b. Precipitation Test
In this test, aliquot dilutions of antigen are layered over equal volumes of
antiserum diluted in normal serum in capillary, or other small tubes. The test is regarded
as positive if there is precipitation at the interface. When the antigens are layered over
the antibodies, the antigens are precipitated out of solution by the antiserum when
antigen and antibodies are related.
I c. Immunoelectrophoresis
By this method, mixtures of antigens are separated before immunodiffusion. A
narrow trough is cut in a layer of thin gel parallel to an electric current that passes close
to the antigens along the length of the gel. Each antigen moves in a separate wave at a
characteristic rate according to its distinct charge. As a result, proteins separate into
bands. Once the proteins have separated sufficiently, the current is switched off and
antiserum is added to the trough cut in the gel. Precipitin arcs composed of complexes of
antibodies and antigens form where the individual electrophoresced antigens have
reached.
I d. Direct Sandwich ELISA
In the direct sandwich ELISA method, 96-well immunoplates are coated with the
specific antibody (polyclonal or preferably monoclonal antibody) and incubated
successively with the antigen containing sample followed by a second enzyme labeled
29
specific antibody that is directly conjugated with an enzyme. This leads to a colored
product in proportion to concentration of pathogen.
I e. Double Antibody Sandwich ELISA
In the double antibody sandwich ELISA method, a specific capture antibody is
immobilized onto a solid surface, such as the wells of a microtiter plate. The infected
plant tissue sample is added, and unbound material is washed away. Bound antigen is
detected by the addition of a detecting antibody that has been conjugated with an
enzyme, and unbound material is again washed away. The presence of the detecting
antibody is determined through the addition of a substrate for the enzyme. The amount
of color that develops is proportional to the amount of antigen present in the sample, The
intensity of the color can be recorded by automated equipment.
I. f. Dot-blot ELISA
In this assay system, ELISA reactions are carried out on nitrocellulose
membranes. A drop containing the specific monoclonal antibody is absorbed as a “dot”
onto which a drop of the test sample is later added and blotted.
I. g Immunofluorescence
Two methods of immunofluorescence are used to diagnose plant diseases. In. the
direct immunofluorescence method, specific antibodies bound to their target antigens are
detected by using second antibodies conjugated with fluorescent dyes such as
fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or rhodamine isothiocyanate. Fluorescence, indicating
the presence of the target antigen, is visualized microscopically. The microscope should
have a special device for fluorescence using ultraviolet light (fluorescence microscopy).
I. h. Immunosorbent Electron Microscopy
This assay system is mostly used for the diagnosis of virus diseases. Electron
microscope grids coated with carbon strongly adsorb protein, and when they are floated
on a drop of antiserum containing antibodies to the pathogen, the antibodies become
attached. The grids are then floated on a drop of the sap of an infected plant. After
staining, the pathogen (particularly virus particles) adsorbed to the antibodies can be
seen under a transmission electron microscope.
II. NUCLEIC ACID PROBE-BASED METHODS
Both DNA and RNA probes are used for crop disease diagnosis.
PCR-Based Methodology
The polymerase chain reaction provides a powerful and rapid technique to
exponentially amplify specific DNA sequences by in vitro DNA synthesis. Three
30
essential steps to a PCR include (1) melting the target DNA, (2) annealing two
oligonucleotide primers to the denatured DNA strands, and (3) extending the primer via
a thermostable DNA polymerase. Newly synthesized DNA strands serve as targets for
sub- sequent DNA synthesis since the three steps are repeated up to 50 times. The
specificity of the method derives from the synthetic oligonucleotide primers, which
base-pair to and defines each end of the target sequence to be amplified. PCR uses a
thermostable Thermus aquatints (Taq) DNA polymerase to synthesize D A from
oligonucleotide primers and template DNA. The template D A may be genomic, first-
strand cDNA, or cloned sequences. Primers are designed to anneal to complementary
strands of the template such that DNA synthesis initiated at each primer results in
replication of the template region between the primers.
The PCR involves three distinct steps governed by temperature. DNA, primers,
deoxynucleotides, buffer, and Taq polymerase are combined in a microcentrifuge and
overlaid with mineral oil. The tube is placed in a thermocycler programmed to repeat a
set of short incubations at predetermined temperatures. In the first step, the template
DNA is denatured to separate the complementary strands. This is done at 95°C for 5
minutes. In the second step, the mixture is held at an annealing temperature to allow the
primers to hybridize to their complementary sequences. This is done at 55°C for 1 min.
A PCR primer may comprise two regions, a 3' (priming) region and a 5' (variable)
region. The most important region in determining the efficiency of annealing and
subsequent DNA synthesis during the PCR is the 3 region, which should be perfectly
complementary to the template sequence. The priming region should normally be 20 to
25 bases long. The Taq polymerase stabilizes these base-paired structures and initiates
DNA synthesis. In the last step, the reaction is heated to about 72°C for 1 to 5 minutes.
This process leads to a Taq polymerase-directed DNA synthesis. The cycle is repeated
by keeping the reaction tubes in a thermal cycler for more than 20 times. In the first
cycle each template gives rise to a newly synthesized complement. Thus, the number of
copies of the target region is doubled. Similarly, in each subsequent cycle, the DNA
concentration corresponding to the target region is almost doubled. About 20 cycles of
PCR would produce 106-fold amplification of the target DNA. The PCR product is
analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis: The PCR product from a defined band can be
recovered from agarose gel. The DNA generated in a PCR can be re-amplified and used
for sequencing.

31
III. FLUORESCENCE IN-SITU HYBRIDIZATION
Another type of molecular detection technique is fluorescence in-situ
hybridization (FISH), which is applied for bacterial detection in combination with
microscopy and hybridization of DNA probes and target gene from plant samples. Due
to the presence of pathogen-specific ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences in plants,
recognizing this specific information by FISH can help detect the pathogen infections in
plants. In addition to bacterial pathogens, FISH could also be used to detect fungi and
viruses and other endosymbiotic bacteria that infect the plant.
IV. FLOW CYTOMETRY
Flow cytometry (FCM) is a laser-based optical technique widely used for cell
counting and sorting, biomarker detection and protein engineering. FCM is used for
rapid identification of cells while cells pass through an electronic detection apparatus in
a liquid stream. The advantage of this technology is the capability for simultaneous
measurement of several parameters. The technique uses an incident laser beam and
measures the scattering and fluorescence of the laser beam reflected from the sample
B. INDIRECT DETECTION METHODS
In addition to the direct methods discussed above, indirect methods based on plant stress
profiling and plant volatile profiling have also been used for the identification of biotic
and abiotic stresses as well as pathogenic diseases in crops. In this regard, new types of
optical sensors that detect biotic and abiotic stresses in plants have been developed .The
optical sensors provide detailed information based on different electromagnetic spectra
and thus, enable prediction of the plant health. Thermography, fluorescence imaging and
hyperspectral techniques are among the most favorable indirect methods for plant
disease detection.
1. Thermography
Thermography allows imaging the differences in surface temperature of plant
leaves and canopies. The emitted infrared radiation can be captured by thermographic
cameras and color difference can be analyzed.

2. Fluorescence Imaging
In this technique, the chlorophyll fluorescence is measured on the leaves as a
function of the incident light and the change in fluorescence parameters can be used to
analyze pathogen infections, based on changes in the photosynthetic apparatus and
photosynthetic electron transport reactions

32
3. Hyperspectral Techniques
Hyperspectral imaging can be used to obtain useful information about the plant
health over a wide range of spectrum between 350 and 2500 nm. Hyperspectral imaging
is increasingly being used for plant phenotyping and crop disease identification in large
scale agriculture.

4. Gas Chromatography
A completely different non-optical indirect method for plant disease detection
involves the profiling of the volatile chemical signature of the infected plants. The
pathogen infections of plants could result in the release of specific volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) that are highly indicative of the type of stress experienced by plants.

Detection of Plant Diseases Using Portable Sensors

A wide variety of sensors have been developed and commercialized for various
applications including environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics. Depending on
the operating principle of the sensor, the analytes could be detected using a sensor based
on electrical, chemical, electrochemical, optical, magnetic or vibrational signals. The
limit of detection could be enhanced by the use of nanomaterial matrices as transducers
and the specificity could be enhanced by the use of bio-recognition elements such as
DNA, antibody, enzymes etc.

Biosensor Platforms Based on Nanomaterials

Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology enable the preparation of various
nanoparticles and nanostructures with few technical hurdles. Nanoparticles display
fascinating electronic and optical properties and can be synthesized using different types
of materials for electronics and sensing applications.

33
 Lecture 6 :

How pathogens attack the plants? Mechanical forces exerted by pathogens, chemical
weapons of pathogens.

Inoculum potential: It is the inoculum needed for successful infection. It is a function of

inoculum density and their capacity.
The success of process of infection depends on
1. Host factors
Susceptibility of host: It is genetically controlled by DNA and it is an inheritable character
which is transmitted from parents to off springs.
Disease proneness of the host: It is decided by the external factors such as host nutrition,
i.e., more nitrogen application makes the host more susceptible and more potash application
leads to less susceptibility.
2. Pathogen factors
Virulence / aggressiveness of the pathogen: It is determined by genetic material which is
inheritable.
High multiplication rate of the pathogen: Chances of infection increases with high rate of
multiplication. High birth rate and low death rate is highly essential for successful infection.
Proper inoculum potential: In case of specialized pathogens very few or even one spore is
capable of causing infection successfully, whereas, non-specialized pathogens require high
density of inoculum on the surface of susceptible host for successful infection.
3. Environmental factors: Environmental conditions such as temperature, relative
humidity, moisture, etc., are very important for survival, dissemination and infection
process.
Process of infection can be grouped into three stages, i.e., pre-penetration, penetration and
post-penetration.

34
 Stages in the
t development of infection or disease
se cycle

ION: Depending upon the plant pathogen activity, the plant

1. PRE-PENETRATIO
pathogens are classified in to 2 categories

1. Active invaders and 2.Passive invaders

Active Invaders Passive Invaders
1. Pathogens which make
ake an aggressive 1.No aggressive effort
effort
ort to gain entry into intact
inta host cells.
2. They do not require help of any external 2. Require help of external agencies like
agency to gain entry into host cells. insect vectors or wounds caused by
agricultural implements.

2. PENETRATION: Pathogens penetrate plant surfaces by direct penetration or

indirectly through wounds or natural openings. Bacteria enter plants mostly through
wounds and less frequently through natural openings. Viruses, viroids, mollicutes,
fastidious bacteria enter through wounds made by vectors. Fungi, nematodes
ne and parasitic
higher plants enter through direct penetration and less frequently through natural
openings and wounds.

Indirect Penetration
1. Wounds: Wounds caused
aused by farm operations, hail storms, or insect punctures, etc., will
help in the entry of different
erent plant pathogens into the host cells. Organisms which cause
storage diseases and ripe rots will enter through the wounds caused by farm operations.
Ex. Rhizopus, Gloeosporium, Aspergillus, Penicilium, Colletotrichum, Diplodia,
Diplodia etc. Weak
parasites enter through
rough the wounds caused by hail storms
stor and freezing

35
2. Natural openings
a) Stomata: There is variation in the behaviour of germ tube at the time of penetration
through the stomata. In Puccinia graminis tritici, the uredospore germinates and forms a germ
tube which on approaching stoma swells at the tip to form an appressorium in the stomatal
aperture. From the appressorium a blade like wedge grows through the stomatal slits and swells
inside to form a sub-stomatal vesicle from which the haustoria penetrating the cells are produced.
b) Lenticels: Sclerotinia fructicola (Brown rot of fruits), Streptomyces scabies (Scab of
potato), Phytophthora arecae (Mahali disease of arecanut)
c) Hydathodes: Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Black rot of crucifers)
B) Direct penetration: Most fungi, nematodes and parasitic higher plants are capable of
penetrating the host surface directly. However, the plants are provided with different
mechanisms of defense which include structural features of the host, presence of
chemical coverings on the cell walls, and anti-infection biochemical nature of the
protoplasm. Hence, the pathogen should have mechanisms to overcome these barriers for direct
penetration.
a) Breakdown of physical barriers.
b) Breakdown of chemical barriers:
Through non-cutinized surfaces:
a) Seedlings: Grain smut of jowar (Sphacelotheca sorghi), Loose smut of jowar
(Sphacelotheca cruenta), Downy mildew of jowar and bajra (Sclerospora graminicola), Wheat
bunt disease (Tilletia caries, Tilletia foetida)
b) Root hairs: Wilt causing fungi (Fusarium sp.), Club root of cabbage (Plasmodiophora
brassicae), Root rot of cotton (Phymatotrichum omnivorum)
c) Buds: Pea rust fungi (Uromyces pisi), Witches broom of cherries (Taphrina cerasi)
d) Flowers: Loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici), Long smut of jowar
(Tolyposporium ehrenbergi), Bunt of rice (Neovossia horrida), Ergot of rye (Claviceps
purpurea)
e) Leaves: Basidiospores of white pine blister rust fungus (Cronartium ribicola)
germinate and grow down into branches and leaves, where aecia are produced.
d) Nectaries: Fire blight of apple (Erwinia ylovora)
e) Stalk ends: Penicillium italicum, Theilaviopsis paradoxa (Post harvest disease fungi)
Through cutinized surfaces:
a) Cuticle: Leaf spot of spinach (Cercospora beticola), early blight of solanaceous plants
(Alternaria solani), Tikka disease of groundnut (Cercospora personata)

36
3. POST PENETRATION
Invasion and colonization: Infection is the process by which pathogens establish contact with
the susceptible cells or tissues of the host and derive nutrients from them. A parasitic relationship
is formed between host cytoplasm and parasite cytoplasm. During infection, pathogens grow
and multiply within the plant tissues. Invasion of plant tissues by the pathogen, and growth
and reproduction of the pathogen (colonization) are two concurrent stages of disease
development.

ROLE OF ENZYMES IN PATHOGENESIS

Cutinases break cutin molecules and release monomers as well as oligomers from
insoluble cutin polymer. Cutinases reaches its highest concentration at penetrating point of the
germ tube and at infection peg of appressorium forming fungi
Ex: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Sphaerotheca pannosa, Venturia inaequalis,

Helminthosporium victoriae.

The enzymes that degrade pectic substances are known as pectinases or pectolytic
enzymes. Pectinases and pectolytic enzymes are pectin methyl esterases (PME’s),
polygalactouronases (PG’s) and pectin lyases (PL’s).

Cellulose is degraded by cellulases. Cellulase one (C1) attacks native cellulose by

cleaving cross-linkages between chains. A second cellulase (C2) also attacks native
cellulose and breaks into shorter chains. These shorter chains are then attacked by Cx
enzyme, which degrade them into disaccharide, cellobiose. Finally cellobiose is degraded by the
enzyme, β-glucosidase into glucose.

Cellulase degrading enzymes play a role in softening and degradation of cell wall
material and facilitate easy penetration and spread of pathogen in the host. Ex: Basidiomycetes

Hemicellulases degrade hemicelluloses and depending on the monomer released from

polymer on which they act, they are termed as xylanase, galactanase, glucanase,
arabinase, mannose, and so on. Ex: Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotinia fructigena.

37
 White rot fungi (Basidiomecetes) secrete one or more ligninases which enable them to utilize
lignin. Ex: Xylaria, Chaetomium, Alternaria, Cephalosporium, etc.
Proteins are degraded by means of enzymes, proteases or proteinases or peptidases.

Lipids: Various types of lipids occur in all plant cells. The most important ones are
phospholipids and glycolipids. These lipids contain fatty acids, which may be saturated or
unsaturated. Lipolytic enzymes, called lipases (phospholipases, glycolipases) hydrolyze
lipids and release fatty acids.

Starch: Starch is the main reserve polysaccharide found in plant cells. It is a glucose polymer
and exists in two forms: amylose, a linear molecule, and amylopectin, a highly branched
molecule. Starch is degraded by enzyme, amylases.

ROLE OF TOXINS IN PLANT PATHOGENESIS

Def: Toxin can be defined as a microbial metabolite excreted (exotoxin) or released by lysed
cells (endotoxin) which in very low concentration is directly toxic to the cells of the suscept
(host).
The term toxin is used for a product of the pathogen, its host, or pathogen host interaction which
even at very low concentration directly acts on living host protoplasm to influence disease
development or symptom expression.
Toxins are different from enzymes in that they do not attack structural integrity of host tissues
but affect the metabolism of the host because the toxins will act on protoplast of the cell.
1. Pathotoxins: These are the toxins which play a major role in disease production and
produce all or most of the symptoms characteristic of the disease in susceptible plants. Most
of these toxins are produced by pathogens during pathogenesis.
Ex: Victorin: Cochliobolus victoriae (Helminthosporium victoriae), the causal agent of
Victoria blight of oats. This is a host specific toxin.
a) Other examples of selective toxin
Tabtoxin or wild fire toxin: Pseudomonas tabaci
38
T- toxin: Helminthosporium maydis race T HC-toxin: Helminthosporium carbonum
HS- toxin: Helminthosporium sacchari Phyto-alternarin: Alternaria kikuchiana
PC- toxin: Periconia circinata
b) Non-selective
Tentoxin: Alternaria tenuis
Tabtoxin or wild fire toxin: Pseudomonas tabaci
Phaseolotoxin: Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola
c) Produced by plant or plant X pathogen interaction
Amylovorin: Erwinia amylovora (Fire blight of apple and pears)
2) Phytotoxins: These are the substances produced in the host plant due to host-pathogen
interactions for which a causal role in disease is merely suspected rather than established. These
are the products of parasites which induce few or none of the symptoms caused by the living
pathogen. They are non-specific and there is no relationship between toxin production and
pathogenicity of disease causing agent.
Ex: Alternaric acid – Alternaria solani
3) Vivotoxins: These are the substances produced in the infected host by the pathogen and /
or its host which functions in the production of the disease, but is not itself the initial inciting
agent of the disease.
Fusaric acid – Wilt causing Fusarium sp.
Classification based on specificity of toxins
1. Host specific / Host selective toxins: These are the metabolic products of the
pathogens which are selectively toxic only to the susceptible host of the pathogen
Ex: Victorin, T-toxin, Phyto-alternarin, Amylovorin
2. Non-specific / Non-selective toxins
These are the metabolic products of the pathogen, but do not have host specificity and affect
the protoplasm of many unrelated plant species that are normally not infected by the pathogen
Ex: Ten-toxin, Tab-toxin, Fusaric acid, Piricularin, Lycomarasmin and Alternaric acid

ROLE OF GROWTH REGULATORS IN PLANT PATHOGENESIS Growth

regulators
Growth regulators are of two types
1. Growth promoting substances and 2. Growth inhibiting substances
Auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins are growth promoting substances, whereas, dormin,
ethylene and abscissic acid are growth inhibiting substances. The imbalance in growth

39
promoting and growth inhibiting substances causes hypertrophy (excessive increase in cell
size) and atrophy (decrease in cell size). Symptoms may appear as tumors, galls, knots,
witches broom, stunting, excessive root branching, defoliation and suppression of bud growth.

a) Auxins: Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is the naturally occurring auxin. It is continuously

produced in young meristematic tissue and moves rapidly to older tissues. If auxin
concentration is more, its concentration is reduced by the enzyme, IAA oxidase.
Functions: IAA regulates cell elongation and differentiation, also affects permeability of the
membrane, increases respiration, and promotes synthesis of mRNA.
Increased IAA results in hypertrophy and decreased IAA results in atrophy. Increased
IAA may be due to inhibition of IAA oxidase.
b. Gibberellins: First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi (Conidial stage: Fusarium
moniliforme), the causal agent of bakanae or foolish seedling disease of rice. Infected
seedlings show abnormal elongation due to excessive elongation of internodes. Best known
gibberellin is Gibberellic acid.
Functions: Cell elongation, stem and root elongation, promote flowering and growth of fruits.
It also induces IAA synthesis. IAA and GA act synergistically. Ex: Sclerospora sacchari, the
causal agent of downy mildew of sugarcane induces GA production.
c) Cytokinins: Kinetin was the first compound isolated from herring sperm DNA and does
not occur naturally in plants. Cytokinins, such as zeatin and isopentenyl adenosine (IPA) have
been isolated from plants
Functions: Cytokinins are necessary for cell growth and differentiation. It inhibits
breakdown of proteins and aminoacids and thereby inhibit senescence and they have the
capacity to direct the flow of aminoacids and other nutrients towards high cytokinin
concentration. Cytokinin activity increases in club root, in crown galls and in rust
infected bean leaves. Ex: Green islands are formed around infection in bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) leaves infected by Uromyces phaseoli.
2. Growth inhibiting substances
a) Ethylene (CH2=CH2): Ethylene exerts a variety of effects on plants, viz., chlorosis, leaf
abscission, epinasty, stimulation of adventitious roots, fruit ripening and increased permeability
of cell membranes.
Ex: Ethylene is involved in premature ripening of fingers in banana infected by
Pseudomonas solanacearum, the causal agent of moko disease of banana. Ethylene was also
detected in leaf epinasty symptom of the vascular wilt syndrome. Ex: Fusarium oxysporum

40
f.sp. lycopersici (Wilt in tomato).

b) Abscissic acid: It exerts dormancy in seeds, closure of stomata, inhibition of seed

germination and growth and stimulated germination of fungal spores. It is one of the factors
involved in stunting of plants.

Lecture 7 : How host defends pathogen attack?: Pre-existing and induced structural and
bio-chemical defenses.

In general plants defend themselves against pathogens by two ways: structural or

morphological characteristics that act as physical barriers and biochemical reactions that take
place in cells and tissues that are either toxic to the pathogen or create conditions that
inhibit the growth of the pathogen in the plant.
I. Structural defense mechanisms: These may be pre-existing, which exist in the plant even
before the pathogen comes in contact with the plant or induced, i.e, even after the pathogen
has penetrated the preformed defense structures, one or more type of structures are formed to
protect the plant from further pathogen invasion.
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A) Pre-existing structural defense structures
These include the amount and quality of wax and cuticle that cover the epidermal cells and
the size, location and shapes of natural openings (stomata and lenticels) and presence of thick
walled cells in the tissues of the plant that hinder the advance of the pathogen.
i) Waxes: Waxes on leaf and fruit surfaces form a hydrophobic or water repellent surface
preventing the germination of fungi and multiplication of bacteria.
ii) Cuticle and epidermal cells: A thick cuticle and tough outer wall of epidermal cells may
increase resistance to infection in diseases in which the pathogen enters its host only through
direct penetration. Ex: Disease resistance in Barbery species infected with Puccinia
graminis tritici has been attributed to the tough outer epidermal cells with a thick cuticle. In
linseed, cuticle acts as a barrier against Melampsora lini.
The silicification and lignifications of epidermal cells offers protection against
Pyricularia oryzae and Streptomyces scabies in paddy and potato, respectively.
iii) Sclerenchyma cells: The sclerenchyma cells in stems and leaf veins effectively blocks
the spread of some fungal and bacterial pathogens that cause angular leaf spots.
iv) Structure of natural openings:
a) Stomata: Most of the pathogens enter plants through natural openings. Some
pathogens like stem rust of wheat can enter its host only when the stomata are open. The wheat
varieties (Cultivar, Hope) in which stomata open late in the day are resistant as the germ tubes
of the spores germinating in the night dew desiccate owing to evaporation of the dew before
stomata begin to open. This can also be called as functional resistance. The structure of
stomata provides resistance to penetration by certain plant pathogenic bacteria.
Ex: The citrus variety, szinkum, is resistant to citrus canker because it posses a broad
cuticular ridge projecting over the stomata and a narrow slit leading to the stomatal cavity thus
preventing the entry of bacterial and fungal spores into the interior of the leaf.

b) Lenticels: The shape and internal structure of lenticels can increase or decrease the
incidence of fruit diseases. Small and suberised lenticels will offer resistance to potato scab
pathogen, Streptomyces scabies.
B) Post-infectional structural defense mechanisms/Induced structural barriers: These
may be regarded as histological defense barriers (cork layer, abscission layers and tyloses) and
cellular defense structures (hyphal sheathing).
i) Histological defense structures
a) Cork layer: Infection by fungi, bacteria, some viruses and nematodes induce plants to form

42
several layers of cork cells beyond the point of infection and inhibits the further invasion by
the pathogen beyond the initial lesion and also blocks the spread of toxin substances secreted
by the pathogen. Furthermore,
ore, cork layers stop the flow of nutrients and water from the healthy
to the infected area and deprive the pathogen of nourishment. Ex: Potato tubers infected by
Rhizoctonia; Prunus domestica leaves attacked by Coccomyces pruniphorae.
pruniphor

b) Abscission layers
An abscission layer consists of a gap formed between infected and healthy cells of a leaf
surrounding the locus of infection due to the disintegration of the middle lamella of
parenchymatous tissue.

Gradually, infected area shrivels, dies, and sloughs off, carrying with it the pathogen.
Abscission layers are form
med on young active leaves of stone fruits infected by fungi, bacteria
or viruses.
Ex: Xanthomonas pruni, and Closterosporium carpophylum on peach leaves

c) Tyloses
43
Tyloses are the overgrowths of the protoplast of adjacent living parenchymatous cells, which
protrude into xylem vessels through pits. Tyloses have cellulosic walls and are
formed quickly ahead of the pathogen and may clog the xylem vessels completely
blocking the further advance of the pathogen in resistant varieties. In susceptible
varieties, few or no tyloses are formed ahead of pathogen invasion.
Ex: Tyloses form in xylem vessels of most plants under invasion by most of the vascular wilt
pathogens.

ii) Cellular defense structures:

Hyphal sheathing: The hyphae penetrating the cell wall and growing into the cell lumen are
enveloped by a cellulosic sheath (callose) formed by extension of cell wall, which become
infused with phenolic substances and prevents further spread of the pathogen.
Ex: Hyphal sheathing is observed in flax infected with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini.

II) Biochemical defense mechanisms: These can be classified as pre-existing and

induced biochemical defenses.
1) Pre-existing chemical defenses:

44
a) Inhibitors released by the plant in its environment:
Plants exude a variety of leaf and root exudates which contain aminoacids, sugars,
glycosides, organic acids, enzymes, alkaloids, flavones, toxic materials, inorganic ions and
also certain growth factors. The inhibitory substances directly affect micro-organisms or
encourage certain groups to dominate the environment which may act as antagonists to pathogen.
Ex 1: Tomato leaves secrete exudates which are inhibitory to Botrytis cinerea
Ex 2: Red scales of red onion contain the phenolic compounds, protocatechuic acid and
catechol, which diffuse out to the surface and inhibits the conidial germination of onion
smudge fungus, Colletotrichum circinans. However, these fungitoxic phenolic compounds
are missing in white scaled onions.
Ex 3: Resistant varieties of apple secrete waxes on the leaf surface which prevents the
germination of Podosphaera leucotricha (powdery mildew of apples).
Ex 4: In Cicer arietinum (chickpea), the Ascochyta blight resistant varieties have more glandular
hairs which have maleic acid which inhibit spore germination.
Ex 5: Resistant varieties of linseed secrete HCN in roots which are inhibitory to linseed
wilt pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lini.
Ex 6: Root exudates of marigold contain α-terthinyl which is inhibitory to nematodes.
Ex 7: Chlorogenic acid present in sweet potato, potato and carrot inhibits
Ceratocystis fimbriata. Similarly caffeic acid and phloretin are present in sweet potato
and apple, respectively.
b) Inhibitors present in plant cells before infection:
Antimicrobial substances pre-existing in plant cells include unsaturated lactones,
cyanogenic glycosides, Sulphur containing compounds, phenols, phenolic glycosides and
saponins
Several phenolic compounds, tannins, and some fatty acid like compounds such as dienes,
which are present in high concentrations in cells of young fruits, leaves or seeds are
responsible for the resistance of young tissues to Botrytis. These compounds are potent
inhibitors of many hydrolytic enzymes.
Ex: Chlorogenic acid in potato inhibits common scab bacteria, Streptomyces scabies,
and to wilt pathogen, Verticillium alboatrum
Saponins have antifungal membranolytic activity which excludes fungal pathogens that lack
saponinases. Ex: Tomatine in tomato and Avenacin in oats
Similarly, lectins, which are proteins that bind specifically to certain sugars and occur in large
concentrations in many types of seeds, cause lysis and growth inhibition of many fungi.

45
Plant surface cells also contain variable amounts of hydrolytic enzymes such as
glucanases and chitinases which may cause breakdown of pathogen cell wall.

2) Post inflectional or induced defense mechanisms:

a) Phytoalexins (Phyton = plant; alexin = to ward off)
Muller and Borger (1940) first used the term phytoalexins for fungistatic compounds produced
by plants in response to injury (mechanical or chemical) or infection.
Phytoalexins are toxic antimicrobial substances produced in appreciable amounts in plants
only after stimulation by phytopathogenic micro-organisms or by chemical or mechanical
injury.
S.No. Phtoalexin Host Pathogen
1 Pisatin Pea Monilinia fructicola
2 Phaseolin French bean Sclerotinia fructigena
3 Rishitin Potato Phytophthora infestans
4 Gossypol Cotton Verticillium alboatrum
5 Cicerin Bengalgram Ascochyta rabiei
6 Ipomeamarone Sweet potato Ceratocystis fimbriata
7 Capsidol Pepper Colletotrichum capsici

b) Hypersensitive response (HR)

• The term hypersensitivity was first used by Stakman (1915) in wheat infected by rust
fungus, Puccinia graminis.
• The hypersensitive response is a localized induced cell death in the host plant at the
site of infection by a pathogen, thus limiting the growth of pathogen. In the infected
plant part, HR is seen as water soaked large sectors which subsequently become
necrotic and collapsed.
• c) Plantibodies: Transgenic plants have been produced which are genetically engineered
to incorporate into their genome, and to express foreign genes, such as mouse genes that
produce antibodies against certain plant pathogens. Such antibodies, encoded by animal
genes, but produced in and by the plant, are called plantibodies. Ex: Transgenic plants
producing plantibodies against coat protein of viruses, such as, artichoke mottle crinkle
virus have been produced.

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 Lecture 8 :

Survey and Surveillance of crop diseases, Forwarning systems, concepts and their application
with examples.

CROP MONITORING FOR DISEASE PREVALENCE

Monitoring, surveillance and recording are all activities concerned with the collection and
management of information. They are an indispensable and integral component of management
planning: without information there can be no planning.

Survey: Making a single observation to measure and record something.

Surveillance: Making repeated standardised surveys in order that change can be detected. This is
quite different to, but often confused with, monitoring. Surveillance lacks the ‘formulated
standards’ that are so important in monitoring. Surveillance is used to detect change but does not
differentiate between acceptable and unacceptable change.

PLANT DISEASE FORECASTING/ Forwarning systems

It is actually applied epidemiology.

Forecasting of plant disease occurrence involves all the activity in ascertaining and notifying the
growers of a community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that
application of disease management measures will result in economic gain or that the amount of
disease excepted is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for
disease management.

Practical Advantages of Forecasting:

It can predict the crop yield.

It is helpful in better management of plant diseases.

It warns the farmers for plant diseases.

Importance of forecasting

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  Since the forecasting involves ascertaining the conditions of an agro-climatic zone, it
informs the growers about when the conditions are going to be sufficiently favourable for
economically important diseases in that zone. This helps growers apply disease
managements timely that results in economic gain.

 Forecasting informs the grower’s weather the conditions are not favourable and the disease
is unlikely to be intense enough. This helps growers to save the expenditure in terms of
time, energy and money by not applying unnecessary management measures.

 Forecasting helps growers to plan advance preventive measures against likely losses due to
the occurrence of economically important severe diseases.

 Govt. and other organizations initiate necessary steps for timely stocking of chemicals,
equipments, etc. when they are timely warned of the possibility of an epidemic by the
forecasting.

Requirements for forecasting

 The disease is economically important and must cause significant damage in terms of yield
loss or quality, e.g. late blight of potato, rusts of wheat, blast of rice, coffee rust.

 The incidence of disease varies with time due to the influence of climatic factors, i.e. the
timing of first infections and subsequent rates of progress of the disease must vary each
season.

 Experimental studies have determined which climatic factors affect the pathogen and the
disease.

 Disease management measures are available at economically acceptable costs.

 For successful disease monitoring and application of disease management crop measures,
there should be sufficient coordination among forecasting stations, agromet observatories,
mass media, plant protection specialists, village panchayats and growers.

UTILITY OF DISEASE FORECASTING:

More useful for the diseases which can cause more economical loss (Quality & quantity).

More useful for the diseases which are much more influenced by environmental factors.

48

More useful for the diseases for which suitable & effective control measures are well
known.

More useful for the diseases for which the information on influence of environment is
known (Disease cycle as well as Life cycle of the pathogens).

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR EFFECTIVE DISEASE FORECASTING

Weather data in relation to disease: Temperature, Humidity, Sunshine, Wind, Rainfall, Moisture
etc.

Crop Information: Variety, Susceptibility, Crop Stage, Disease Proneness, Density of Cultivar,
Cropping Pattern etc.

Pathogen Awareness: Infection Chain, Primary & Secondary Inoculum, Behavior of Pathogen in
the Field, Stage of the Pathogen etc.

Protocol for Disease Forecasting Model:

Collection of data on weather condition during crop season (For several years)

Record of the pattern of the disease incidence, supported by laboratory study

Correlation between weather and disease

Generate the information regarding prediction of the disease

Types of Disease Forecasting:

Short term Forecasting:

During the crop season or just before the crop season. (Required few years information on
limited weather variables)

Easy to generate the information

Long term Forecasting:

Prediction of a disease being made well in advance. (Required many years information on
large number of weather variables)

Very difficult to prepare the prediction model.

49

Much more effective

Disease Forecasting based on:

1. Weather conditions during the intercrop period

2. Weather conditions during the crop season

3. Amount of disease in the young plants

4. Amount of inoculum in air, soil or planting material

Methods of disease forecasting

Disease forecasting requires field observations on the pathogen characters, collection of weather
data, variety of the crop and certain investigations and their correlations. Usually the following
methods are employed in disease forecasting.
1. Forecasting based on primary inoculums
Presence of primary inoculum, its density and viability are determined in the air, soil or planting
material. Occurrence of viable spores or propagules in the air can be assessed by using different air
trapping devices (spore traps). In the case of soil-borne diseases the primary inoculum in the soil
can be determined by monoculture method. Presence of loose smut of wheat, ergot of pearlmillet
and viral diseases of potato can be detected in the seed lots at random by different seed testing
methods. Seed testing methods can be used to determine potential disease incidence and enable
decision to be made on the need for chemical seed treatment. The extent of many virus diseases is
dependent on the severity of the preceding winter which affects the size of vector population in the
growing season. e.g., Sugarbeet yellows virus.
2. Forecasting based on weather conditions
Weather conditions viz.,temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, light, wind velocity etc., during the
crop season and during the inter crop season are measured. Weather conditions above the crop and
at the soil surface are also recorded.
3. Forecasting based on correlative information
Weather data of several years are collected and correlated with the intensity of the diseases. The
data are compared and then the forecasting of the disease is done. Forecasting criteria developed
from comparisons of disease observation with standard meteorological data have been provided for
diseases like Septoria leaf blotch of wheat, fire blight of apple and barley powdery mildew.
4. Use of computer for disease forecasting

50
In some advanced countries forecasting of disease is made by the use of computers. This system
gives the results quickly. One such computer based programmes in the USA is known as ‘Blitecast’
for potato late blight. Examples of well developed forecasting systems are given below.

BLITECAST(WISDOM) Late blight on Tomato and potatoes

TOMCAST Alternaria ( Septoria , Anthrachnose )
FAST Alternaria solani on tomato
EPIDEM Alternaria blight on potatoes
Maryblight Fire blight of apple
EPICORN Southern corn blight
EPIVEN Scab on apples

Data requirements for Disease Forecasting:

 Temperature: Maximum/ minimum for the day

 Relative Humidity for the day

 Rain fall in mm for the day

 Dry bulb Temperature for the day

 Wet bulb Temperature for the day

 Sun shine record for the day

 Wind velocity

 Wind direction

 Soil moisture (Percent)

 Moisture at crop canopy (Percent)

 Soil Temperature

 Temperature at crop canopy

Limitation of Disease Forecasting:

Variation in crop canopy may influence

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Weather data outside the field and within crop canopy is different

Irrigation and fertilization influence greatly

Generalized disease forecast for whole area may not be correct.

Lecture 9:

Principles of Plant Disease Management – Introduction, Concepts and Principles, Disease

Management through Biological & Cultural Methods.

Disease Management:

“Disease management is an essential integral component of crop production; it employs a logical

system of technologies and requires accurate understanding of the destructive potential of disease.
Thus, disease management is the selection and use of appropriate techniques to suppress disease to
a tolerable level”.

Disease management is a continuous process which is based not only on the principle of
eradication of the pathogen but mainly on the principle of minimizing the damage or loss below
economic injury level.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT :

1. Avoidance of the pathogen: Avoiding disease by planting at times when, or in areas where,
inoculum is ineffective due to environmental conditions, or is rare or absent.

2. Exclusion of pathogen / inoculum: Preventing the inoculum from entering or establishing in the
field or area where it does not exist.
52
3. Eradication of pathogen: Reducing, inactivating, eliminating or destroying inoculum at the
source, either from a region or from an individual plant in which it is already established.

4. Protection (Protective measures): Preventing infection by creating a chemical toxic barrier

between the plant surface and the pathogen

5. Disease resistance (Immunization) OR Development of plant resistance in disease

management: Preventing infection or reducing effect of infection by managing the host through
improvement of resistance in it by genetic manipulation or by chemical therapy.

6. Therapy of diseased plants (curative measures)

I. AVOIDANCE:

These methods aim at avoiding the contact between the pathogen and susceptible stage of the crop.
This is achieved by

a. Proper selection of geographical area b. Proper selection of the field

c. Adjusting time of sowing d. Disease escaping varieties e. Proper selection of seed and planting
material

a) Proper selection of geographical area: Many fungal and bacterial diseases are more severe in
wet areas than in dry areas. Cultivation of bajra in wet areas is not profitable due to the diseases,
smut (Tolyposporium penicillariae) and ergot (Claviceps microcephala).

b) Proper selection of the field: Proper selection of field will help in the management of many
diseases, especially the soil borne diseases. It is advisable to avoid that field (wherein the pathogen
is present) for some years, i.e. suitably through rotation of crops.

Ex: Wilt of redgram, red rot of sugarcane (Colletotrichum falcatum), root knot diseases are the best
examples.

c) Adjusting time of sowing: Alteration of date of sowing (early or late sowing) can help in
avoidance of favourable conditions for pathogen.

Ex: Rhizoctonia root rot of redgram is more severe in the crop sown immediately after the rains.
Delayed sowing will help in reducing the incidence of disease.

Ex: Infection of black stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis tritici) is more in late sowing, hence,
early sowing wheat crops helps in reduction of stem rust incidence.
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d) Disease escaping varieties: Certain varieties of crops escape the disease damage because of their
growth characteristics. Ex: Early maturing varieties of wheat or pea escape the damage due to
Puccinia graminis tritici and Erysiphe polygoni (powdery mildew-pea), respectively.

e) Proper selection of seed and planting material: Generally, the plant diseases are introduced
through the seeds or propagating materials (cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, rhizome, setts). So,
selection of seed and seedling material from healthy sources will effectively manage the diseases
such as loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda tritici), bunchy top of banana (Banana virus-1),
Panama wilt of banana (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense), red rot of sugarcane (Colletotrichum
falcatum).

f) Modification of cultural practices:

II. EXCLUSION :

The aim of this principle is to prevent the contact between the pathogen and the seed materials in
the filed, i.e., to prevent spread of the disease. These measures aim at preventing the inoculum from
entering or establishing in the field or area where it does not exist. The disease free seed materials
can be obtained through, OR Different methods of exclusion are seed treatment, ceed inspection &
certification, and plant quarantine regulation.

a) Seed treatment:

This method is used for exclusion of pathogen by eradication. To exclude pathogen present in
or upon seed materials (seeds; tubers; grafts; bulbs; cuttings; setts; ) heat, or gas, or chemical
treatments are given. The seed treatment increases germination count and lowers disease
incidence in the field (as the quantity of pathogen, i.e. inoculum load of the seed materials is
very much reduced). Treated seed materials help in preventing entry of the pathogen(s) in
newer areas.
b) Crop inspection and certification: Crops grown for seed purpose are inspected periodically for
the presence of diseases that are disseminated by seed. Necessary precautions are to be taken to
remove the such diseased plants in early stages, and then the crop is certified as disease free. This
practice will help in the prevention of inter and intra regional spread of seed borne diseases.

c) Plant quarantine regulation / Quarantine procedure: Plant quarantine is defined as “a legal

restriction on the movement of agricultural commodities for the purpose of exclusion, prevention
or delaying the spread of the plant pests and diseases in uninfected areas”.

54
III. ERADICATION OF PATHOGEN: These methods aim at breaking the infection chain by
removing the foci of infection and starvation of the pathogen (i.e., elimination of the pathogen from
the area by destruction of sources of primary and secondary inoculum). It is achieved by :

a) Rouging : The presence of diseased plants in the fields or orchards is a source of continuous
release of inoculums for recurrence of diseases. Therefore, as far as practicable, such plants or their
affected organs should be removed and destroyed carefully to reduce the amount of inoculum and
spread of disease. This is called ‘ROUGING’. Eg: During 1927- 1935, to eradicate citus canker
bacterium in USA, 3 million trees were cut down and burnt.

b) Eradication of alternate and collateral hosts: Eradication of alternate hosts will help in
management of many plant diseases.

Ex: Barbery eradication programme in France and USA reduced the severity of black stem rust of
wheat.

Ex: Eradication of Thalictrum species in USA to manage leaf rust of wheat caused by Puccinia
recondita.

Eradication of collateral hosts, such as Panicum repens, Digitaria marginata will help in the
management of rice blast disease (Pyricularia oryzae).

c) Crop rotation: Continuous cultivation of the same crop in the same field helps in the
perpetuation of the pathogen in the soil. Soils which are saturated by the pathogen are often
referred as sick soils. To reduce the incidence and severity of many soil borne diseases, crop
rotation is adopted. Crop rotation is applicable to only root inhabitants and facultative saprophytes,
and may not work with soil inhabitants (means survive for a long period of time). eg. Cumin crop
is difficult to be raised in North Gujarat fileds due to wilt disease and prevalence of wilt disease in
South Gujarat fields prevents Tur (arhar) cultivation.

Ex: Panama wilt of banana (long crop rotation), wheat soil borne mosaic (6 yrs) and club root of
cabbage (6-10 yrs), etc.

d) Crop sanitation: Collection and destruction of plant debris from soil will help in the
management of soil borne facultative saprophytes as most of these survive in plant debris.
Collection and destruction of plant debris is an important method to reduce the primary inoculum.

IV. PROTECTION:

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The inocula (singular: inoculum) of many fast spreading infectious diseases is shifted/transported
by various agencies from field to field irrespective of distance. To destroy or inactivate such
inocula different adopted protective measures include:
1. Chemicals in suppressing disease development:
Relatively few chemicals are used extensively in practical disease management. Most are
applied to foliage of vegetables, fruits, or ornamentals. The chemicals providing such
protective covering are called protective chemicals. On the other hand eradicant chemicals,
upon their application, destroy already established parasites on the host surface. The same
chemical may be protective as well as eradicant.
2. Chemical control of insect vectors:
Various insects act as virus-vectors. Destruction of such insect-vectors in ‘seconds’ through
chemicals stop transmission of virus diseases is of almost importance.
3. Modification of environments:
The environments in the field (especially the micronutrients) and storage conditions.

4. Modification of host nutrition:

Deficiencies or excesses of certain vital macro and micro – elements in crops lead to the
development of various plants diseases in the field. The examples are:

a. Potash: if less, it renders leaves susceptible to water soaking

b. Nitrogen: if high, it favours many leaf diseases.
c. Calcium: if high, it imparts resistance against wilt diseases (pectic substances in the cell
walls of host tissues impart resistance).

V. DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT RESISTANCE IN DISEASE DEVELOPMENT:

Use of resistance plants is one of the most effective approaches to suppressing plant disease.
Resistance is the characteristics of a plant, which suppresses pathogen and disease development.
The magnitude of resistance can range from very small (in which case, the pathogen development
is suppressed very slightly ) to very large ( in which case, the pathogen does not complete
pathogenesis).

VII. THERAPY OF DISEASED PLANTS (curative measures):

In most herbaceous crops once damaged by diseases cure is not possible. In certain crops and
fruits trees, the pathogens could be eradicated as under by application of chemicals and physical
therapy.
56
 1. Chemotherapy:
Chemicals like systemic fungicides and antibiotics translocate through tissues of diseased
plants and there by curing (eradicating the pathogen) such plant tissues.
2. Heat therapy:
These treatments are especially used for seeds, tubers, bulbs, grafts, setts, cuttings. Through
heat therapy (air and water) the pathogen is destroyed by heat when thermal inactivation
point is achieved in the plants materials under treatments i.e. Ratoon stunting and various
virus diseases.
3. Tree therapy:
After removing all damaged on affected parts of a tree, the prunned areas (wounds) are
covered by fungicidal paste (e.g. Bordeaux paste) to protect them from infection. Examples
are pink disease of apple, gummosis of citrus.

Cultural practices:

If the following cultural practices are suitably modified, the disease incidence and crop losses
may be greatly minimized;
a. Distance: Groundnut rosette is minimized, if plant to plant distance is reduced.
b. Seed rate: Tobacco damping off disease is less when seed rate is low.
c. Amount of irrigation: Powdery mildew of peas is more under heavy irrigation.
d. Quantity and quality of fertilizer: Bacterial blight of paddy increases by increased
quality of nitrogenous fertilizer.
e. Organic manures: Soil borne diseases are reduced by organic manures.
f. Time and method of planting: Downy mildew of isabgul is less when the crop is sown
late.
g. Mixed cropping: Tur (arhar) wilt is less when jowar is sown as a mixed crop.
h. Depth of sowing: Decay of groundnut seeds is more when seeds are sown more deep.
i. Soil amendements: Application of lime (2500 Kg/ha) reduces the club root of cabbage
by increasing soil pH to 8.5. Application of Sulphur (900 Kg/ha) to soil brings the soil
pH to 5.2 and reduces the incidence of common scab of potato (Streptomyces scabies).
BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF PLANT DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Def: Biological control is the reduction of inoculum density or disease producing activity of a
pathogen or a parasite in its active or dormant state by one or more organisms accomplished
naturally or through manipulation of the environment of host or antagonist by mass introduction of
one or more antagonists (Baker and Cook, 1974)
57
Mechanisms of biological control :

1. Competition: Pseudomonas fluorescens (known as pseudobactins or pyoveridins) helps in the

control of soft rot bacterium, Erwinia caratovora.

2. Antibiosis: Antagonism mediated by specific or non-specific metabolites of microbial origin, by

lytic agents, enzymes, volatile compounds or other toxic substances is known as antibiosis.

Ex: Gliocladium virens produces gliotoxin that was responsible for the death of Rhizoctonia solani
on potato tubers.

Ex: Colonization of pea seeds by Trichoderma viride resulted in the accumulation of significant
amount of the antibiotic viridin in the seeds, thus controlling Pythium ultimum.

Ex: Some strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens produce a range of compounds, viz., 2,4- diacetyl
phloroglucinol (DAPG), phenazines, pyocyanin, which have broad spectrum activity against many
plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi

b. Bacteriocins: These are antibiotic like compounds with bactericidal specificity closely related to
the bacteriocin producer. Ex: The control of crown gall (caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens) by
the related Agrobacterium radiobacter strain K 84 is by the production of bacteriocin, Agrocin
K84.

3. Hyperparasitism: Direct parasitism or lysis and death of the pathogen by another micro-
organism when the pathogen is in parasitic phase is known as hyperparasitism.

Ex: T. harzianum parasitize and lyse the mycelia of Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium.

Biocontrol agents for the management of plant pathogens :

Biocontrol agent Pathogen/disease/Nematode

1. Ampelomyces quisqualis Powdery mildew fungi

2. Darluca filum, Verticillium lecanii Rust fungi

3. Pichia gulliermondii Botrytis, Penicillium

4. Pasteuria penetrans (Bacteria) Juvenile parasite of root knot nematode

5. Paecilomyces lilacinus (Fungus) Egg parasite of Meloidogyne incognita

58
Lecture 10:

Disease Management-Host plant resistance, Regulatory /Legislative methods.

HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (IMMUNIZATION)

Disease resistance: It is the ability of a plant to overcome completely or in some degree the effect
of a pathogen or damaging factor.

Susceptibility: The inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor.

59
Advantages of resistant varieties:

1. Resistant varieties can be the most simple, practical, effective and economical method of plant
disease management.

2. They not only ensure protection against plant diseases but also save the time, energy and money
spent on other measures of control

3. Resistant varieties, if evolved can be the only practical method of control of diseases such as
wilts, viral diseases, rusts, etc.

4. They are non-toxic to human beings, animals and wild life and do not pollute the environment

5. They are effective only against the target organisms, whereas, chemical methods are not only
effective against target organisms but also effective against non-target organisms.

6. The resistance gene, once introduced, is inherited and therefore permanent at no extra cost.

Disadvantages:

1. Breeding of resistant varieties is a slow and expensive process

2. Resistance of the cultivar may be broken down with the evolution of the pathogen

Types of resistance:

1. Vertical resistance: When a variety is more resistant to some races of the pathogen than others,
the resistance is called vertical resistance (race-specific resistance, qualitative resistance,
discriminatory resistance). Vertical resistance is usually governed by single gene and is unstable.

2. Horizontal resistance: When the resistance is uniformly spread against all the races of a
pathogen, then it is called horizontal/generalized/non-specific/field/qualitative resistance.
Horizontal resistance is usually governed by several genes and is more stable.

60
Cross protection: The phenomenon in which plant tissues infected with mild strain of a virus are
protected from infection by other severe strains of the same virus. This strategy is used in the
management of severe strains of Citrus Tristeza virus

: Plant quarantine is defined as “a legal

Plant quarantine regulation / Quarantine procedure:
pr
restriction on the movement of agricultural commodities for the purpose of exclusion, prevention
or delaying the spread of the plant pests and diseases in uninfected areas”. Plant quarantine laws
were first enacted in France (1660), followed by Denmark (1903) and USA (1912). These rules
were aimed at the rapid destruction or eradication of barbery bush which is an alternate host of
Puccinia graminis tritici (black rust of wheat).
wheat)

In India, plant quarantine rules and regulations were issued under Destructive Insects and Pests
Act (DIPA) in 1914. In India, 16 plant quarantine stations are in operation by the “Directorate of
plant protection and quarantine” under the ministry of food and agriculture, government of India.
India

Plant quarantine measures

easures are of 3 types.
1. Domestic quarantine: Rules and regulations issued prohibiting the movement of insects
and diseases and their hosts
ho from one state to another state in India is called domestic
quarantine. Domestic quarantine in India exists for two pests (Rooted scale and Sanjose scale)
and three diseases (Bunchy top of banana, banana mosaic and wart of potato).
Bunchy top of banana: It is present in Kerala, Assam, Bihar, West
W Begal and Orissa.
61
 Transport of any part of Musa species excluding the fruit is prohibited from these states to
other states in India.
Banana mosaic: It is present in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Transport of any part of Musa
species excluding the fruit is prohibited from these states to other states in India.
Wart of potato: It is endemic in Darjeeling area of West Bengal, therefore seed tubers are not to
be imported from West Bengal to other states.
2. Foreign quarantine: Rules and regulations issued prohibiting the import of plants, plant
materials, insects and fungi into India from foreign countries by air, sea and land. Foreign
quarantine rules may be general or specific. General rules aim at prevention of introduction of
pests and diseases into a country, where as the specific rules aim at specific diseases and
insect pests. The plant materials are to be imported only through the prescribed ports of entry.
1. Airports: Bombay (Santacruz), Calcutta (Dum Dum), Madras (Meenambakam), New delhi
(Palam, Safdarjung) and Tiruchurapally.
2. Sea ports: Bombay, Calcutta, Vishakapatnam, Trivandrum, Madras, Tuticorin, Cochin and
Dhanushkoti.
3. Land frontiers: Hussainiwala (Ferozpur district of Punjab), Kharla (Amritsar district of
Punjab) and Sukhiapokri (Darjeeling district of West Bengal)
3. Total embargoes: Total restriction on import and export of agricultural commodities.
Phytosanitary certificate: It is an official certificate from the country of origin, which
should accompany the consignment without which the material may be refused from entry.
Plant diseases introduced into India before/after enforcement of plant quarantine laws:

S.No. Disease Year Introduced into From

1 Late blight of potato 1883 India Europe
2 Coffee rust 1879 India Srilanka
3 Flag smut of wheat 1906 India Australia
4 Downy mildew of grapes 1910 India Europe
5 Bacterial blight of rice 1964 India Phillippines
6 Rice blast 1918 India (Madras) South East Asia
7 Downy mildew of maize 1912 India (Madras) Java
8 Ergot of bajra 1957 India (Bombay) Africa
9 Panama wilt of banana 1920 India Panama canal
10 Bunchy top of banana 1940 India Srilanka
11 Wart of potato 1953 India Netherlands

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12 Golden cyst nematode of potato 1961 India Europe

Diseases not entered into India: Swollen shoot of cocoa, leaf blight of rubber and many viral
diseases.

Lecture 11:

Disease Management - Physical methods and Chemical control methods: advantages and
disadvantages, characteristics of a good fungicide

PHYSICAL METHODS: Physical methods include soil solarization and hot water treatments.

i. Soil solarization: Soil solarization or slow soil pasteurization is the hydro/thermal soil heating
accomplished by covering moist soil with polyethylene sheets as soil mulch during summer months
for 4-6 weeks. Soil solarization was developed for the first time in Israel (Egley and Katan) for the
management of plant pathogenic pests, diseases and weeds.

ii. Soil sterilization: Soil can be sterilized in green houses and sometimes in seed beds by aerated
steam or hot water. At about 500C, nematodes, some oomycetous fungi and other water molds are
killed. At about 60 and 720C, most of the plant pathogenic fungi and bacteria are killed. At about
820C, most weeds, plant pathogenic bacteria and insects are killed. Heat tolerant weed seeds and
some plant viruses, such as TMV are killed at or near the boiling point (95-1000C).

iii. Hot water or Hot air treatment: Hot water treatment or hat air treatment will prevent the seed
borne and sett borne infectious diseases. Hot water treatment of certain seeds, bulbs and nursery
stock is done to kill many pathogens present in or on the seed and other propagating materials. Hot
water treatment is used for controlling sett borne diseases of sugarcane [whip smut, grassy shoot
and red rot of sugarcane (520C for 30 min)] and loose smut of wheat (520C for 10 min).

Chemical Control Methods :

PROTECTION: Use of chemicals for the control of plant diseases is generally referred to
as protection or therapy.
Protection: The prevention of the pathogen from entering the host or checking the further
development in already infected plants by the application of chemicals is called
protection and the chemicals used are called protectants.
Therapy means cure of a disease, in which fungicide is applied after the pathogen is in

63
contact with the host. Chemicals used are called therapeutants.
Fungicide: The word ‘fungicide’ originated from two latin words, viz., ‘fungus’ and ‘caedo’. The
word ‘caedo’ means ‘to kill.’ Thus ,the fungicide is chemical which has the ability to kill the
fungus
Fungistat: Some chemicals which do not kill fungi, but simply inhibit the fungus growth
temporarily.

Antisporulant: The chemical which inhibits spore production without affecting

vegetative growth of the fungus.

Fungicides are classified into three categories: Protectants, eradicants and therapeutants.
1. Protectants: These are the chemicals which are effective only when used before
infection (prophylactic in behavior). Contact fungicides which kill the pathogen present
on the host surface when it comes in contact with the host are called protectants. These
are applied to seeds, plant surfaces or soil. These are non-systemic in action (i.e, they
cannot penetrate plant tissues). Ex: Zineb,sulphur, captan, Thiram, etc.
2. Eradicants: Those chemicals which eradicate the dormant or active pathogen from the
host. They can remain on/in the host for some time. Ex: Lime sulphur, Dodine.
3. Therapeutants: These are the agents that inhibit the development of a disease
syndrome in a plant when applied after infection by a pathogen. Therapy can be by
physical means (solar and hot water treatment) and chemical means (by use of systemic
fungicides, i.e., chemotherapy).
Characters of good fungicide :

Biologically efficient: high selectivity (on target), fast action, optimal residual effect,
good plant tolerance, low risk of resistance development.

User friendly: low acute and low chronic toxicity, good formulation characteristics,
safe packaging, easy application method, long storage stability.

Environmentally sound: low toxicity for non-target organisms, fast degradation
in the environment, low mobility in soil, no relevant residues in food and fodder,
low application rate.

Economically viable: good cost-profit ratio for the farmer, applicability in Integrated
Crop and Pest Management, innovative product characteristics, competitive and patentable.

Advantages of Chemical control of plant diseases :

64
1. Efficient method when compared to other methods

2. It gives quick result

3. Some of the diseases cannot be managed by other methods

4. May not be harmful when used with correct dosages

5. Though the cost of production increases , it gives higher cost benefit ratio with respect to high
remunerative crops.

Dis advantages of chemical farming :

1. Leads to chemical pollution of soil, water, air and food products

2. Leads to development of resistance in the plant pathogens against fungicides

3. It is an not eco-friendly strategy for management of plant diseases

4. It is increases cost of production

5. Leads to fungicide treadmill

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Lecture: 12

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGICIDES BASED ON CHEMICAL NATURE

Many fungicides have been developed for purpose of managing crop diseases which may
be used as sprays, dusts, paints, pastes, fumigants, etc. The discovery of Bordeaux
mixture in 1882 by Professor Millardet, University of Bordeaux, France led to the
development of fungicides. Major group of fungicides used include salts of toxic metals
and organic acids, organic compounds of sulphur and mercury, quinones and heterocyclic
nitrogenous compounds. Copper, mercury, zinc, tin and nickel are some of the metals
used as base for inorganic and organic fungicides. The non metal substances include,
sulphur, chlorine, phosphorous etc. The fungicides have been classified based on their
chemical nature as follows
COPPER FUNGICIDES: Copper fungicides can be classified as preparatory and
proprietory copper compounds.
PREPARATORY COPPER FUNGICIDES
Common name Chemical composition Diseases managed
1. Bordeaux It is prepared by suspending 5 Downy mildew of grapes, Coffee rust,
Mixture Kg of copper sulphate and 5 Tikka leaf spot of groundnut, citrus
Kg of lime in 500 liters of canker, citrus scab, etc.

66
2.Bordeaux paste It is prepared by mixing 1 Kg It is a wound dressing fungicide and can
of copper sulphate and 1 Kg be applied to the pruned parts of the host
of lime in 10 liters of water plants such as fruit crops and ornamentals.
Ex: Citrus gummosis, Stem bleeding of
3.Burgundy Sodium carbonate is used in Downy mildew of grapes, Coffee rust,
Mixture place of lime. It is prepared Tikka leaf spot of groundnut, citrus
by mixing 1 Kg of copper canker, citrus scab
sulphate and 1 Kg of sodium
4.Cheshunt It is a compound prepared by It is used for soil drenching only.
compound mixing 2 parts of copper Sclerotial wilt diseases of chilli, tomato
sulphate and 11 parts of and groundnut. Fusarial wilt diseases.
ammonium carbonate Damping-off diseases of solanaceous
5.Chaubattia It is a compound prepared by Pink disease of citrus, stem canker and
Paste mixing 800g of copper collar rot of apple and pears
sulphate and 800g of red lead
in 1 liter of lanolin or linseed

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Proprietary copper fungicides or Fixed or insoluble copper fungicides: In the
fixed or insoluble copper compounds, the copper ion is less soluble than in
Bordeaux mixture. So, these are less phytotoxic than Bordeaux mixture but are
effective as fungicides.
Common name Trade name Dosage Disease managed
1. Copper oxy Blitox-50, 0.3 to 0.5% for foliar Anthracnose of grapevine,
Chloride Blue copper- application, Tikka leaf spot of
50, Cupramar- 25 to 35 Kg/ha for groundnut, Sigatoka leaf
50 dusting spot of banana, citrus
canker, black arm of cotton

2. Cuprous oxide Fungimar and 0.3% for foliar spray Anthracnose of grapevine,
Perenox Tikka leaf spot of
groundnut, Sigatoka leaf
spot of banana, citrus
canker, black arm of cotton

3. Copper hydroxide Kocide 0.3% for foliar spray Blister blight of tea, False
smut of rice, Tikka leaf spot
of groundnut

SULPHUR FUNGICIDES
Sulphur is probably the oldest chemical used in plant disease management for the
control of powdery mildews and can be classified as inorganic sulphur and
organic sulphur. Inorganic sulphur fungicides include lime sulphur and
elemental sulphur fungicides. Organic sulphur fungicides, also called as
carbamate fungicides, are the derivatives of dithiocarbamic acid.
INORGANIC SULPHUR FUNGICIDES
Common name Trade name Dosage Disease managed
Preparatory sulphur compounds

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1. Lime sulphur It is prepared by 10-15 liters in 500 Powdery mildew of
mixing 20 Kg of liters of water apple, Apple scab,
rock lime and 15 Kg bean rust
of sulphur in 500
liters of water

2. Sulphur dust Kolo dust, Mico- 4-5g/Kg seed for Common scab of
999 ST, 10-30 Kg/ha for potato, Grain smut
dusting on crops, of jowar, Powdery
100 Kg /ha for soil mildew of tobacco,
application in chilli, rose, mango,
tobacco, 500 Kg/ha grapes, etc.
for furrow
3. Wettable sulphur Sulfex, Thiovit, 0.2-0.4 % for foliar Powdery mildews of
Cosan Spray various crops

ORGANIC SULPHUR COMPOUNDS

Organic sulphur compounds are derived from dithiocarbamic acid and are widely used as
spray fungicides. In 1931, Tisdale and Williams were the first to describe the fungicidal
nature of Dithiocarbamates. Dithiocarbamates can be categorized into two groups, viz.,
dialkyl dithiocarbamates (ziram, ferbam and thiram) and monoalkyl dithiocarbamates
(nabam, zineb, vapam and maneb).

Common name Trade name Dosage Diseases managed

Dialkyl Dithiocarbamates
1. Ziram Ziride, Hexazir, 0.15 to 0.25% Anthracnose of pulses,
Milbam, Zerlate for foliar spray tomato, beans, tobacco, etc.,
2. Ferbam Coromet, Ferbam, 0.15 to 0.25% Fungal pathogens of fruits
Fermate, for foliar spray and vegetables, leaf curl of
Fermocide, peaches, apple scab, downy
Hexaferb, Karbam mildew of tobacco
Black

69
3. Thira Arasan, Hexathir, 0.15 to 0.2% as Soil borne diseases caused
Tersan, Thiram, foliar spray, 0.2- by Pythium, Rhizoctonia
Thiride 0.3% as dry seed solani, Fusarium, etc. Rust
treatment, 15- of ornamental crops, Scab
25Kg/ha as soil on pears and Botrytis spp.
Monoalkyl dithyiocarbamates
1. Nabam Chembam, 0.2% as foliar Used as foliar spray against
Dithane D-14, Spray leaf spot diseases of fruits
Dithane A-40 and and vegetables. Also used
Parzate liquid against soil borne
pathogens, Fusarium,
2. Zineb Dithane Z-78, 0.1 to 0.3% for Chilli die-back and fruit rot,
Hexathana, foliar application Apple scab, Maize leaf
Lanocol and blight, early blight of potato
3.Vapam or Chem-vape, 1.5 to 2.5 liters Fungicide with fungicidal,
Metham sodium vapam, vitafume, nematicidal and insecticidal
per 10 m2 area
VPM properties. Soil fungal
pathogens like Fusarium,
4. Maneb Dithane M22, 0.2% to 0.3% as Early and late blight of
Manzate and foliar application potato and tomato, rust
MEB. diseases of field and fruit
Mancozeb (78% crops
Maneb + 2% zinc

HETROCYCLIC NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS

The group of heterogeneous fungicides includes some of the best fungicides like captan,
folpet, captafol, vinclozoline and Iprodione. Captan, folpet and captafol belong to
dicarboximides and are known as pthalamide fungicides. The new members of
dicarboximide group are Iprodione, vinclozolin, etc.

Common name Trade name Dosage Diseases managed

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1.Captan Captan 50W, 0.2 to 0.3% for dry Onion smut, Chilli
(Kittleson’s killer) Captan 75 W, Esso seed treatment, 0.2 die-back and fruit
fungicide, Orthocide to 0.3% for foliar rot, Damping off of
406, Hexacap, spray, 25 to 30 beans, chilli and
Vancide 89 Kg/ha for furrow tomato, seed rots
2. Folpet Phaltan 0.1 to 0.2% for Apple scab, tobacco
spraying brown spot, rose
3.Captafol Difosan, Difolaton, 0.15 to 0.2% for Sorghum
Sanspor, Foltaf spraying, 0.25% for anthracnose, cotton
seed treatment, seedling diseases,
0.15% for soil seed rot and
drenching seedling diseases of
rice, downy mildew
4. Iprodione Rovral, Glycophene 0.1 to 0.2% for Diseases caused by
foliar application Botrytis, Monilinia,
Alternaria,
Sclerotinia,
5. Vinclozolin Ornalin, Ronilan, 0.1 to 0.2% for Effective against
Vorlan foliar application sclerotia forming
fungi like Botrytis,
Monilinia and
MISCELLANEOUS FUNGICIDES
Common name Trade name Dosage Diseases managed
1. Chlorothalonil Bravo, Daconil, 0.2 to 0.3% for A broad spectrum
Kavach, Thermil, foliar application contact fungicide
Exotherm, often used in
Safegaurd greenhouses for
control of Botrytis
on ornamentals and
for several molds
and blights of
tomato. Also used
for the control of

71
2. Dinocap Karathane, 0.1 to 0.2% for It is a good
Arathane, Capryl, spraying acaricide and
Mildex, Mildont and contact fungicide
crotothane and it controls
powdery mildews of
fruits and
ornamentals
effectively. This can
be safely used on
sulphur sensitive
3. Dodine Cyprex, Melprex, 0.075% for spraying Apple scab, black
Guanidol and Syllit spot of roses and
cherry leaf spot

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SYSTEMIC FUNGICIDES
The systemic fungicides were first introduced by Von Schelming and Marshall
Kulka in
1966. The discovery of Oxathiin fungicides was soon followed by
confirmation of systemic activity of pyrimidines and benzimidazoles. A systemic
fungicide is capable of managing a pathogen remote from the point of
application. On the basis of chemical nature these fungicides are classified as
follows
Common name Trade name Dosage Diseases managed
ACYLALANINES
1. Metalaxyl Ridomil 25 3-6 g/Kg seed for It is highly effective
% WP, Apron 35 seed treatment, 1 against Pythium,
SD, Subdue, to 1.5 Kg a.i/ha Phytophthora and
Ridomil MZ-72WP for soil many downy mildew
application, 0.1 fungi
2. Benalaxyl Galben 25% WP 0.1 to 0.2% for Blue mold of tobacco,
and 5% G foliar spray, 1 to late blight of potato
1.5 Kg a.i/ha for and tomato, downy
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
1. Chloroneb Demosan 0.2% for seed Seedling diseases of
treatment cotton , peanut, peas
and cucurbits caused
by species of Pythium,
Phytophthora,
BENZIMIDAZOLES
1. Carbendazim Bavistin 50WP, 0.1% for foliar Effectively controls
MBC, Derosol spray, 0.1% for anthracnose, powdery
60WP, Agrozim, soil drench, mildews and rusts
Zoom 0.25% for ST, caused by various
500-1000ppm for fungi. It is also used as
post-harvest dip a soil drench against
of fruits wilt diseases and for
post harvest treatment

73
2. Benomyl Benlate 50WP 0.1 to 0.2% for Effective against
ST, 50-60g/100 powdery mildews of
L for foliar spray, cucurbits, cereals and
50-200ppm for legumes. It is highly
soil drenching, effective against
12-45 Kg a.i/ha diseases caused by the
for soil species of Rhizoctonia,
broadcast, 100- Theilaviopsis and
500 ppm for post Cephalosporium.
harvest fruit dip Benomyl has no effect
3. Thiabendazole Mertect 60WP, 0.2 to 0.3% for Blue and green molds
Mycozol, Arbotect, spraying, 1000 of citrus, loose smut of
Tecto and Storite ppm for fruit dip wheat, Tikka leaf spot

ALIPHATICS
1. Prothiocarb Previcur, Dynone 5.6 Kg a.i/ha for Highly active against
soil application soil borne Oomycetes
like Pythium and
Phytophthora

2. Propamocarb Previcur-N, 3.4 and 4.8 Kg Effective against

Dynone-N, Prevex, a.i/ha for soil against soil borne
Benol application Oomycetes like
Pythium and
Phytophthora
OXATHINS or CARBOXIMIDES
1. Carboxin Vitavax 75WP, 0.15 to 0.2% for Highly effective
Vitaflow seed treatment, against smut diseases.
0.5% for Commonly used for the
spraying control of loose smut
of wheat, onion smut,
grain smut of sorghum.

2. Oxycarboxin Plantavax 75 WP, 0.1 to 0.2% for Highly effective

Plantavax 20EC, foliar spray, 0.2 against rust diseases.
Plantavax 5% liquid to 0.5% for ST Commonly used for the
control of rusts of
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IMIDAZOLES

1. Imazalil Fungaflor, Bromazil 0.1 % as post Blue and green molds

and Nuzone harvest dip of citrus

2. Fanapanil Sistane 25 EC 0.05% foliar Spot blotch of barley,

Spray loose and covered smut
MORPHOLINES

1. Tridemorph Calixin 75EC, 0.1% for foliar Powdery mildew of

Bardew, Beacon Spray cereals, vegetables and
ornamentals. Rusts of
pulses, groundnut and
coffee, Sigatoka leaf
spot of banana, pink
ORGANOPHOSPHATES
1. Iprobenphos Kitazin 48EC, 30-45 Kg of Fungicide with
Kitazin 17G, granules/ha, insecticidal properties.
Kitazin 2% D 1 to 1.5 liters of Highly specific against
48% EC in 1000 rice blast, stem rot and
2. Ediphenphos Hinosan 30 and 400 to 500 ppm Highly specific against
50% EC, Hinosan for spraying, 30 rice blast, stem rot and
ALKYL PHOSPHONATES
1. Fosetyl-Al or Aliette 80WP 0.15% for foliar Ambimobile fungicide.
Aluminium Tris spray, 0.2% for Specific against

PYRIMIDINES
1. Fenarimol Rubigan 50% WP, 2g/Kg seed as Powdery mildew of
12%EC ST, 20 to 40 cucurbits, apple,
ml/100 liters of mango, roses, grapes
water for and ornamental crops
THIOPHANATES
1. Thiophanate Topsin 50WP, 0.1 to 0.2% for Powdery mildew of
Cercobin 50WP spraying cuurbits and apple,
club root of crucifers,

75
2.Thiophanate Topsin M 70WP, 0.1% for Blast and sheath blight
Methyl Cercobin M 70WP spraying of rice, sigatoka leaf
spot of banana,
powdery mildew of
TRIAZOLES
1. Triadimefon Bayleton, Amiral 0.1 to 0.2% for Highly effective
spraying, 0.1% against powdery
for seed mildews and rusts of
treatment several crops. Effective
against diseases caused
by species of Erysiphe,
Sphaerotheca,
2. Tricyclazole Beam 75WP, Baan 2g/Kg seed for Highly effective
75WP, Trooper ST, 0.06% for against blast of rice
3. Bitertanol Baycor and Sibutol 0.05 to 0.1% for Powdery mildews and
foliar spray rusts of various crops,
apple scab, Monilinia
on fruit crops, late leaf
spot of groundnut and
4. Hexaconazole Contaf 5%EC, 0.2% for Sheath blight of rice,
Anvil spraying powdery mildew and
rust of apple, rust and
tikka leaf spot of
5. Propiconazole Tilt, 25% EC, 0.1% for foliar Sheath blight of rice,
Desmel application Sigatoka leaf spot of
banana, brown rust of
6. Myclobutanil Systhane 10WP 0.1 to 0.2% for Apple scab, cedar
spraying apple rust and powdery
STROBILURINS
1. Azoxystrobin Amistar, Quadris 0.1% for Broad spectrum
spraying fungicide
2.Kresoxim methyl Ergon, Discus, 0.1% for Commonly used for
Stroby spraying control of ornamental
diseases

76
Based on general uses
The fungicides can also be classified based on the nature of their use in managing the
diseases.

1. Seed protectants : Eg. Captan, thiram, organomercuries carbendazim, carboxin etc.

2. Soil fungicides (preplant) : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy

chloride, Chloropicrin, Formaldehyde Vapam, etc.,

3. Soil fungicides : Eg. Bordeaux mixture, copper oxy chloride (for growing plants),
Capton, PCNB, thiram etc.
4. Foliage and blossom : Eg. Capton, ferbam, zineb, protectants mancozeb,
chlorothalonil etc.

5 Fruit protectants : Eg. Captan, carbendazim,mancozeb

6 Eradicants : Eg. Organomercurials, lime sulphur, etc.
7 Tree wound dressers : Eg. Boreaux paste, chaubattia paste, etc.
8 Antibiotics :

Antifungal antibiotics

1. Aureofungin

It is a hepataene antibiotic produced in sub-merged culture of Streptoverticillium

cinnamomeum var. terricola. It is absorbed and translocated to other parts of the plants
when applied as spray or given to roots as drench. It is sold as Aurefungin-Sol.
Containing 33.3% Aureofungin and normally sprays at 50-100 ppm. The diseases
controlled are citrus gummosis caused by several species of Phytophthora, powdery
mildew of apple caused by Podosphaera leucotricha and apple scab (Venturia
inaequalis), groundnut tikka leaf spot, downy mildew, powdery mildew and anthracnose
of grapes, potato early and late blight.

2. Griseofulvin

This antifungal antibiotic was first discovered to be produced by Penicillium

griseofulvum and now by several species of Penicillium, viz., P.patulum, P.nigricans,
P.urticae, and P.raciborskii. It is commercially available as Griseofulvin, Fulvicin and
Grisovin. It is highly toxic to powdery mildew of beans and roses, downy mildew of

77
cucumber. It is also used to control Alternaria solani in tomato Sclerotinia fructigena in
apple and Botrytis cinerea in lettuce.

3. Cycloheximide

It is obtained as a by-product in streptomycin manufacture. It is produced by different

species of Streptomyces, including S.griseus and S. nouresi. It is commercially available
as Actidione, Actidione PM, Actidione RZ and Actispray. It is active against a wide
range of fungi and yeast. Its use is limited because it is extremely phytotoxic. It is
effective against powdery mildew of beans (Erysiphe polygoni), Bunt of wheat (Tilletia
spp.) brownnot of peach (Sclerotinia fructicola) and post harvest rots of fruits caused by
Rhizopus and Botrytis spp.

78
4. Blasticdin It is a product of Streptomyces griseochromogenes and specifically used
against blast disease of rice caused by Pyricularia oryzae. It is commercially sold as
Bla-s. 5. Antimycin

It is produced by several species of Streptomyces, especially S. griseus and S.

Kitasawensis. It is effectively used against early blight of tomato, rice blast and seeding
blight of oats. It is commercially sold as Antimycin.

6. Kasugamycin

It is obtained from Streptomyces kasugaensis. It is also very specific antibiotic against

rice blast disease. It is commercially available as Kasumin.

7. Thiolution

It is produced by Streptomyces albus and effectively used to control late blight of potato
and downy mildew of cruciferous vegetables.

8. Endomycin

It is a product of Streptomyces endus and effectively used against leaf rust of wheat and
fruit rot of strawberry (Botrytis cinerea).

9. Bulbiformin

It is produced by a bacterium, Bacillus subtills and is very effectively used against wilt
diseases, particularaly redgram wilt.
10. Nystatin

It is also produced by Streptomyces noursei. It is successfully used against anthracnose

disease of banana and beans. It also checks downy mildew of cucuribits. As a post
harvest dip, it effectively reduces brown rot of peach and anthracnose of banana in
stroage rooms. It is commercially marketed as Mycostain and Fungicidin.

11. Eurocidin

It is a pentaene antibiotic produced by Streptomyces anandii and called as pentaene G-8.

It is effectively used against diseases caused by several species of Colletotrichum and
Helminthosporium

79
Fungicide formulations:

Commercially available fungicides usually consist of a mixture of active

ingredient (a.i.) and other substances including diluents, wetting agents, stickers,
emulsifiers, etc. Formulations containing mixtures of different active ingredients
(especially mixtures of protectant and systemic fungicides) are also widely used
nowadays. Different formulations incorporating the same active ingredient may be used
for distinct purposes like seed treatment, foilar application etc.

Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC)

These are liquid formulations which can be diluted with water before application. The
active ingredient is dissolved in a solvent. The fungicides and solvents will often not
mix with water, so an emulsifying agent or water dispersible oil is mixed. When these
emulsifiable concentrate is added to water, a milky mixture is formed which is a
suspension of active ingredient and emulsified solvent in the water.

Wettable Powders (WP)

Wettable powder is a very common formulation for most of the fungicides, which is
used for spray mixtures. The modern wettable powders are water-dispersible which have
the quality to wet easily and disperse well in water. They are also called as Water-
Dispersible Powders (WDP). The active ingredient is incorporated, usually at the rate of
30-80%, with a finely ground inert dust (filler) such as Kaolin, a wetting agent and a
suspending agent.

Dusts (D)

Dust formulations usually contain 1-10% active ingredient for direct application in dry
forms. They are manufactured in such a way that they are light enough to be carried by a
slight breeze for a considerable distance. The finely divided particle of active ingredient
is carried on a carrier particle. The commonly used carriers (diluents) are attapulgite,
kaolin, talc, pyrophylite, diatomaceous earth, bentonite, calcium silicate, hydrated silica,
calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, gypsum, lime etc.

Granules (Pellets)
80
Pellets are the formulations of the fugicide with inert materials formed into particles
about the size of coarse sugar. The granules normally contain 3-10% of the active
ingredient. Due to their size, the granules do not drift but have limited application being
confined to soil and seed treatments. Granules have the advantage they can be measured
in dry form more easily and acurately than dusts or wettable powders.

Suspension or slurries

These are formulation in which a dry form of the active ingredient is mixed with a
liquid. Such formulations usually contain a high percentage of active ingredient similar
to wettable powders. They are mixed with water for final use and require agitation.
These are mostly used as seed dressers in seed processing companies.

Solutions

True solutions are formulations in which active ingredient or a combination of active

ingredients and a solvent is dissolved in water Solutions have the advantage of requiring
no agitation after formulation is added in water.

Nowadays, the manufacturers are concentrating to develop new formulations to increase

the efficacy of the chemicals. Some new formulations developed are: Soluble Liquid
(SL), Soluble Powder (SP), Water Soluble Concentrate (WSC), Suspension Concentrate
(SC) and Aqua Flow (AF).

Adjuvants

In spraying method, the toxicant is made into a suspension in water. In order to increase
the efficacy of the water mixed sprays, certain substances like wetting agents, dispersing
agents, spreaders, stickers, etc. are added during the formulation of fungicides. These
auxillary spray materials are also called adjuvants, which are usually inert materials
added to improve the physical characteristics of the toxicant and its carrier.

Dispersing agents (Deflocculating agents)

These are the substances which keep fine particles away from each other to prevent
deflocculation. These materials, when added to formulations, ensure uniform suspension
and retard sedimentation of particles in the spray suspension. These are also called as
deflocculating agents. Eg. Gelatin, plant gums and milk products.

Emulsifying agents

81
Many surface active substances like soap, function as emulsifying agent, which retard
the settling out of droplets of waterimmiscible liquids like oils. This helps in uniform
mixing of substances in water suspensions

Wetting agent (Wetters)

These are the materials which are added to ensure that there will be no layer of air
between a solid and a liquid as they reduce the surface tension of the particles. Wetting
agents, when added to aqueous fungicidal preparation, help in easy deposition on leaves.
Eg. Polyethylene oxide condensat, esters of fatty acids and flour.

Spreading agent (Spreaders)

Spreaders are the materials added to establish improved contact between the spray
materials and plant surface and thus ensuring a good coverage of fungicide. Wetting
must precede spreading and this is the only distinction between wetting and spreading.
Spreaders also reduce the surface tension and thus improve contact. Eg. Soap, flour,
sulphated amines, soapamines, mineral oils, glyceride oil, terpene oil, resinates and
petroleum sulphonic acids.

Stickers (Adhesives)

The materials which are added to spray or dust to improve the adherence to plant
surfaces are called as stickers. They increase the tenacity of the fungicidal preparations,
thus increasing the residual action. Eg. Polyvinyl acetate, polybutanes, fish oil, linseed
oil, milk casein,gelatin, dextrines, polyethylene polysulphide, starch, gum arabic,
hydrocarbon oils and bentonite clays; Milk casein, gelatin also act as good spreading and
wetting agents besides acting as stickers.

Safeners

A Chemical which reduces the phytotoxicity of another chemical is called safener. For
example copper sulphate is phytotoxic to plants, but with addition of lime its toxicity is
reduced. Lime is, therefore, a safener. Lime is used universally with chemicals to
prevent the formation of, or to neutralise arsenic, which is phytotoxic to plants.
Glycerine oils are also used as safeners.

82
Lecture 13: Disease Management - Bactericides and Nematicides- their classification ,
mode of action and formulations.

ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotic is defined as a chemical substance produced by one micro-organism which is

low concentration can inhibit or even kill other micro-organism. Because of their
specificity of action against plant pathogens, relatively low phytotoxicity, absorption
through foliage and systemic translocation and activity in low concentration, the use of
antibiotic is becoming very popular and very effectively used in managing several plant
diseases. They can be grouped as antibacterial antibiotics and antifungal antibiotics.
Most antibiotics are products of several actinomycetes and a few are from fungi and
bacteria.

I. Antibacterial antibiotics

1. Streptomycin sulphate

Streptomycin is an antibacterial, antibiotic produced by streptomyces griseus.

Streptomycin are streptomycin sulphate is sold as Agrimycin,-100, Streptomycin
sulphate, Plantomycin, Streptocycline, Paushamycin, Phytostrip, Agristrep and
Embamycin, Agrimycin -100 contains 15 per cent streptomycin sulphate + 1.5 percent
terramycin (Oxy tetracycline). Agristerp contains 37 percent streptomycin sulphate.
Phytomycin contains 20 percent streptomycin. Streptocycline and paushamycin contains
9 parts f streptomycin and 1 part of tetracycline hydrochloride.

83
This group of antibiotics act against a broad range of bacterial pathogens causing
blights, wilt, rots etc. This antibiotic is used at concentrations of 100-500 ppm. Some
important diseases controlled are blight of apple and pear (Erwinia amylovora), Citrus
canker (Xanthomonas campestris p.v. citri), Cotton black arm (X.c. p.v. malvacearum),
bacterial leaf spot of tomato (Pseudomonas solanacearum), wild fire of tobacco
(Pseudomonas tabaci) and soft rot of vegetables (Erwinia carotovora). In addition, it is
used as a dip for potato seed pieces against various bacterial rots and as an disinfectant
in bacterial pathogens of beans, cotton, crucifers, cereals and vegetables. Although it is
an antibacterial antibiotic, it is also effective against some diseases caused by
Oomycetous fungi, especially foot-rot and leaf rot of betelvine caused by Phytophthora
parasitica var. piperina.
2. Tetracyclines

Antibiotics belonging to this group are produced by many species of Streptomyces. This
group includes Terramycin or Oxymicin (Oxytetracycline). All these antibiotics are
bacteriostatic, bactericidal and mycoplasmastatic. These are very effective against seed-
borne bacteria. This group of antibiotic is very effective in managing MLO diseases of a
wide range of crops. These are mostly used as combination products with Streptomycin
sulphate in controlling a wide range of bacterial diseases. Oxytetracyclines are
effectively used as soil drench or as root dip controlling crown gall diseases in rosaceous
plants caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Nematicides:

Most soil nematicides are also registered as insecticides or fungicides and are discussed
in greater detail elsewhere in this volume. This broad-spectrum activity is a result of the
difficulty in discovering or designing compounds capable of movement through the soil.
In addition, the small size of the commercial market for nematicides in comparison to
other pesticides dictates that nematicide discovery is often an appendage to
research programs pursuing controls for other organisms. Compounds included in the
following compilation of chemical nematicides are not necessarily registered for usage
in the United States or elsewhere, particularly when viewed through their ever-changing
regulatory context.

FUMIGANTS

D-D

84
This mixture of 1,2-dichloropropane and 1,3-dichloropropene had widespread use as an
effective nematicide until problems with groundwater contamination resulted in its
withdrawal from use in 1984. The 1,2-dichloropropane component was relatively
inactive as a nematicide at concentrations used in agricultural fields.

1,3-Dichloropropene

Because of the relative lack of nematicidal activity in 1,2-dichloropropane and the desire
to eliminate groundwater contamination by a compound not useful for nematode control,
1,3-D became a highly successful nematicide. Although it also has fungicidal activity
and insecticidal activity against wireworms in particular, the primary use of the
compound is as a nematicide. On a weight basis, 1,3-D is the sixth most abundantly used
pesticide in the United States (11); 1,3-D is classified as a possible or probable human
carcinogen. Commercial formulations are liquids and contain two isomers. In one series
of experiments, aqueous trans-1,3-D was 60% as toxic as the cis isomer, whereas in the
vapor phase, trans-1,3-D was 90% as toxic as cis-1,3-D. In laboratory experiments
simulating field situations, the trans isomer was completely ineffective against the
potato cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis.

Ethylene Dibromide

Once the most abundantly used nematicides in the world, use of EDB was prohibited in
the United States in 1983 because of groundwater contamination. It was available in
liquid formulations and is regarded as a probable human carcinogen.

1,2-Dibromo-3-Chloropropane
Liquid formulations of this fumigant with substantial nematode-specific activity were
once popular. The compound was notable because of its usefulness in postplant
applications. The discovery that over one-third of the male workers at a DBCP
manufacturing plant in California were sterile led to the immediate 1977 prohibition of
its use in the United States, except for usage in pineapple production (14). Sterility
problems were also reported among some DBCP applicators (14). All uses
were prohibited in the late 1980s. DBCP is classified as a possible or probable human
carcinogen.

Methyl Bromide

85
Methyl bromide is a broad-spectrum fumigant toxic to nematodes. Research pursuing
the development of nematicidal methyl bromide alternatives has been intensive, but no
single compound appears likely to substitute for it.

Chloropicrin

One of the oldest soil fumigants, chloropicrin’s primary agricultural use in soils is as a
fungicide, although it does have herbicidal and nematicidal activity. It is often added to
1,3-D formulations in order to increase their fungicidal activity. The compound is
acutely toxic and is used in liquid formulations. In 1997, it was the 25th most
abundantly used U.S. pesticide (11).

Metam Sodium, Dazomet, and Methyl Isothiocyanate (MITC)

Metam sodium is a soil fumigant used to control nematodes, fungi, insects, and weeds; it
is the third most commonly used U.S. pesticide (11). When applied to soils, metam
sodium is converted to MITC, which is the active biocidal agent. MITC is no longer
registered for use as a soil pesticide in the United States, except as a wood preservative.
Metam sodium and related compounds have provided excellent control of nematodes in
some circumstances but not in others (8,16,17). Dazomet is one of the few compounds
with activity as a fumigant that is supplied as a granular formulation. Research on the
use of isothiocyanates as nematicides began in the 1930s (18). Several brassicaceous
plants contain nematicidal isothiocyanates or glucosinolates that release isothiocyanates
when incorporated into soils.

Sodium Tetrathiocarbonate

Sodium tetrathiocarbonate is more recently registered preplant soil fumigant active

against fungi, insects, and nematodes. It is supplied as a liquid formulation and may be
applied via drip or surface irrigation. Sodium tetrathiocarbonate rapidly degrades in soil
into carbon disulfide, sodium hydroxide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur. Carbon disulfide
is the active principle. Although carbon disulfide has a long history as a fumigant, its
flammability is legendary. Carbonates and sulfates are the terminal degradation
products. Unlike other commonly used fumigants, sodium tetrathiocarbonate does not
readily move through soil air and requires a high level of soil moisture when applied in
order to be distributed throughout the soil.

CARBAMATES
86
Aldoxycarb

Aldicarb is oxidized in soils to aldicarb sulfone, which is available in some parts of the
world as the insecticide/ nematicide aldoxycarb. A flowable formulation is available.

Carbofuran

Carbofuran is another systemic insecticidal/nematicidal carbamate available in granular

and liquid formulations. Because use of carbofuran granules was associated with bird
kills, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) prohibited the use of carbofuran
granules in 1994.

Oxamyl

Like carbofuran, oxamyl is a carbamate that is manufactured in liquid and granular

form, but the latter is no longer registered in the United States because of concerns about
its consumption by birds. Oxamyl is the only nematicide with downward-moving
systemic activity and thus has registered foliar nematicidal applications; foliar
applications did reducePratylenchus penetrans on lily (20). Oxamyl is widely used
throughout the world and is less persistent in soil than is aldicarb (8).

ORGANOPHOSPHATES

While this review is being written, the U.S. EPA is actively reviewing the uses of all
organophosphates. It is possible that several of the following compounds will face
mandatory or voluntary withdrawals from use in the United States.

Ethoprop

Introduced in the 1960s, ethoprop is a nonsystemic insecticide/nematicide. The mobility

of ethoprop in soil and its half-life are strongly dependent on soil organic matter (21). It
is not known to be carcinogenic and is available as granules or emulsifiable
concentrates.

Fenamiphos

Also introduced in the 1960s, fenamiphos does have some systemic insecticidal activity.
It is widely used as a nematicide. Like ethoprop, it is strongly adsorbed onto organic
matter. It is acutely toxic but not shown to be a carcinogen.
87
Cadusafos

This nonsystemic organophosphate not registered for U.S. usage is used to control
nematodes and soil insects on bananas and other crops in several countries.The U.S.
EPA has granted tolerances for cadusafos in imported bananas, where it provides
excellent control of the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis (22). Cadusafos
reportedly possesses reduced risk for contaminating groundwater and provided good
control of the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans(23). Cadusafos is
commercially available in granular and microencapsulated formulations.

Fosthiazate

Fosthiazate is a somewhat recently developed (1992) systemic organophosphorus

nematicide with broad-spectrum activity (24). A clay-based microgranule formulation is
available. Fosthiazate provided control of the lesion nematode Pratylenchus
penetrans on potato (25) and root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) on tobacco (26)
and M. arenaria on peanut (27), but it failed to control M. javanica on tobacco
and Rotylenchulus reniformis on pineapple as well as fumigation with 1,3-D (28,29). It
is not registered for U.S. usage.

Other Organophosphates

Terbufos is a less widely used organophosphate with insecticidal and a few nematicidal
uses. It is available in granular formulations. Fensulfothion is a systemic previously but
not currently registered for insecticidal and nematicidal activity in the United States.
Granular and emulsifiable concentrate formulations were available. Phorate is primarily
used as a soil insecticide but has nematicidal uses. Its current U.S. reregistration process
involves the use of several risk mitigation measures. Organophosphate nematicides with
limited worldwide use but not registered in the United States include thionazin,
fosthietan, and isazofos.

88
Lecture 14: Disease Management – antiviral principles, botanicals in management
of plant diseases.

ANTI Viral PRINCIPLE (AVP)

Plants are also known to contain some compounds which are inhibitory to virus. They
are called Anti-Viral Principles (AVP) or AntiViral Factors (AVF). The leaf extracts of
sorghum, coconut, bougainvillea, Prosopis juliflora and Cyanodon dactylon are known
to contain virus inhibiting principles.

Preparation of AVP extract

Dried coconut or sorghum leaves are cut and powdered. Twenty kg of leaf powder is
0
mixed with 50 litres of water and heated at 60 C for one hour. It is filtered and volume is
89
made upto 200 litres. This gives 10 per cent extract. Five hundred litres of extract is
required to cover one hectare.

The 10 per cent AVP extract is very effective in controlling groundnut ring mosaic virus
(bud necrosis). Two sprays are to be given at ten and twenty days after sowing.
Similarly of percent leaf extracts of P. juliflora and C. dactylon effectively reduced the
tomato spotted wilt virus in tomato. The leaf extracts are known to contain some
proteinaceous substances which induce virus inhibition in the plants.

Botanicals

Plant products play an important role in evolving an ecologically sound and

environmentally acceptable disease management system. Plant products have been
found to have fungicidal, bactericidal and antiviral properties. It is well established that
about 346 plant products have fungicidal properties, 92 have bactericidal and 90 have
antiviral properties. This clearly indicates that the plant kingdom is a vast storehouse of
chemicals that can check several plant pathogens. As many of them have more than one
type of activity there is a less chance for development of resistance and moreover, the
plant products are saferto non-target organisms.

NEEM PRODUCTS

Among the plant products, the neem derivatives are reported to be effective in
controlling several diseases. The neem tree (Azadirachta indica), popularly called as
china berry, crackjack, Nim, Indian lilac, margosa and paradise tree, contains several
active principles in various parts. The important active principles are Azadirachtin,
Nimbin, Nimbidin, Nimbinene, Nimbridic acid and Azadirone which have aiitifungal
and insecticidal properties.

(i) Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE)

It is prepared by soaking 5 kg of powdered neem seed kernel (in a gunny bag) in 100
litres of water for 8 hours. The gunny bag is then removed afterthorough shaking. Then,
100 ml of teepol is mixed thoroughly, before spraying. The quantity of extract required
for a liectare is 500 litres,

(ii) Neem oil solution

One hundred nil of teepol is mixed first with 100 litres of waterThen, 3 litres of neem oil
is slowly added to this solution with constant shaking. The milky solution formed is
ready for spray. The spray volume is 500 litres/ha.
90
(iii) Neem cake extract

Ten kg of powdered neem cake in a gunny bag is soaked in 100 litres of water for 8
hours. The gunny bagis removed after thorough shaking. Then, 100 ml of sticker is
added and mixed well. The quantity of spray fluid required is 500 litres / ha.

(iv) Neem cake

Powdered neem cake is directly applied to the field at the time of last ploughing. The
quantity applied is 150 kg/ha. Diseases controlled by neem products

(a) Paddy: Tungro (virus) (Vector: Nophotettix virescens)

Neem cake is applied at 150 kg/ha as basal dose. In addition, 3% neem oil or 5% NSKE
@) 500 l/ ha can be sprayed. If one jassid is noticed in a plant. Three sprays have to be
given at 15 days interval.

(b) Paddy : Sheath rot (Acrocyfindrium oryzae)

Five per cent NSKE or 3% neem oil can be sprayed @ 500 lit/ ha at the time of grain
emergence.

(c) Paddy: Blast (Pyricularia oryzae)

Spraying 5% neem oil is effective

(d) Paddy: Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani)

Application of 150 Kg of neem cake/ha

(e) Groundnut : Rust (Puccinia arachidis)

Application of 3% neem oil @ 500 lit/ha. The first spray should be given immediately
on noticing the symptom and second 15 days later.

(f) Groundnut : Foot rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) Application of 1 % neem oil is effective.

(g) Coconut: Wilt (Ganoderma lucidum)

Application of 5 kg of neem cake/ tree/ year during the rainy season.

(h) Black gram: Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni)

Two sprays with 3% neem oil or 5% NSKE, starting first spray at the initiation of the
disease and second 15 days later are effective.

91
(i) Black gram: Root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) Application of neem cake @ 150
kg/ha

(j) Black gram: Yeliow mosaic (Virus)

Application of 3% neem oil is effective.

(k) Soybean: Root rot (M. phaseolina) Application of neem cake @ 150 kg/ha.

OTHER PLANT PRODUCTS

In addition to the neem products, products from several other plant species are also
found to be effective in disease management. The leaf extract of tuisi (Ocimum sanctum)
is found effective against Helminthosporium oryzae (paddy brown spot). The leaf and
pollen extracts of vilvam (Aegle marmolos) effectively reduced early blight of tomato
(Altenaria solani) and blight of onion (A. porri). A. solani is also effectively checked by
flower extract

of periwinkle (Catheranthus roseus) and bulb extract of garlic (Allium sativum). Rice
discolouration caused by Drechslera oryzae is effectively reduced by leaf extract of mint
(Mentha piperita). The bulb extract of garlic is also effective in reducing leaf blight of
finger millet (H. nodulosum) and blast of paddy (Pyricularia oryzae). The root exudates
of kolinji and rhizome extract of banana are effectively used against Ganoderma
lucidum, the pathogen of Thanjavur wilt of coconut. The seed oil of pinnai (Calophyllum
inophyllum) is effective against Puccinia arachidis causing groundnut rust. Leaf extract
of nochi (Vitex negundo) effectively reduced, Rice Tungro viruses by checking the
vector, Nephotettix virescens.

Lecture 15:Pesticide equipments and safety issues in pesticide uses.

The common plant protection appliances are sprayers and dusters

A. Sprayer: Sprayer is a mechanical device in which the liquids are broken up in to

tine droplets and discharged with some force so as to distribute on the required sites
as quickly as possible. It consists of following essential parts
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Tank or container: It is a metallic container plastic bucket! cement tank to hold the
spray liquid.

Pump: It is meant for creating pressure in the tank and it may be pneumatic or hydraulic
type Discharge line or delivery line: It. is meant for discharging the spray liquid and
consists of delivery hose, lance and nozzle (which consists of swirl plate, swirl chamber
washer, jet bearing apparatus) and agitators.

Types of sprayers:

I. Manually operated sprayers: It works on the system of air compression. Hand

sprayer: automiser, pneumatic knapsack or back sprayer Hydraulic sprayer: It
works on principle of hydraulic pressure- Foot sprayer, bucket sprayer, rocking
sprayer, knapsack sprayer, syringe.
II. Power operated sprayers: It consists of a petrol engine and a frame work in
addition to other standard components of sprayer- small portable hydraulic
energy power sprayer, tractor mounted large sprayers, compression sprayers.
motorized knapsack sprayer, knapsack mist blower.
B. Soil injectors: It is used to inject volatile chemicals in to the soil
C. Dusters: Appliances used for distributing fine particles of dry dust formulations.
The essential parts are container, blower, agitator, feed mechanisms, level regulator
and discharge line.
I. Hand dusters: Racking or container dusters, hand pumps, shoulder mounted
knapsack, bellow type dusters. rotor hand dusters.

II. Power dusters: Motorized power dusters, motorized knapsack duster.

D. Seed treatment mercenaries: They consists of drum fitted on stand which can be
rotated with the help of handle provided at one end of the drum. The drum has a large
opening to introduce the seeds and chemical for treatment and to take the seeds after
treatment. Ex. Motorized seed dresser, gravity seed dresser, slurry seed dresser, grain
treating machinery

Safety Uses In Pesticides Usage

A. Purchase
1. Purchase only JUST required quantity e.g. 100, 250, 500 or 1000 g/ml for single
application in
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specified area.
2. Do not purchase leaking containers, loose, unsealed or torn bags.
3. Do not purchase pesticides without proper/approved LABELS.
B. Storage
1. Avoid storage of pesticides in the house premises.
2. Keep only in original container with intact seal.
3. Do not transfer pesticides to other container.
4. Never keep them together with food or feed/fodder.
5. Keep away from the reach of children and livestock.
6. Do not expose to sun-light or rain water.
7. Do not store weedicides along with other pesticides.
C. Handling
1. Never carry/transport pesticides along with food materials.
2. Avoid carrying bulk - pesticides (dusts / granules) on head, shoulders or on the back.
D. Precautions for Preparing Spray Solution
1. Use clean water.
2. Always protect your NOSE, EYES, MOUTH, EARS and HANDS.
3. Use hand gloves, face mask and cover your head with cap.
4. Use polyethylene bags as hand gloves, handkerchiefs or piece of clean cloth as mask
and a cap or towel to cover the head (Do not use polyethylene bag contaminated with
pesticides).
5. Read the label on the container before preparing spray solution.
6. Prepare spray solution as per requirement.
7. Do not mix granules with water.
8. Concentrated pesticides must not fall on hands etc. while opening sealed containers.
Do not smell the sprayer tank.
9. Avoid spilling of pesticide solution while filling the sprayer tank.
10. Do not eat, drink, smoke or chew while preparing solution.
11. The operator should protect his bare feet and hands with polyethylene bags.
E. Equipments
1. Select right kind of equipment.
2. Do not use leaky, defective equipment.
3. Select right kind of nozzle.
4. Don’t blow/clean clogged- nozzle with mouth. Use old tooth- brushes tied with the
sprayer and

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clean with water.
5. Do not use same sprayer for weedicide and insecticide.
F. Precautions for applying pesticides
1. Apply only at recommended dose and dilution.
2. Do not apply on hot sunny day or strong windy condition.
3. Do not apply just before the rains and also after the rains.
4. Do not apply against the wind direction.
5. Emulsifiable concentrate formulations should not be used for spraying with battery
operated ULVsprayer.
6. Wash the sprayer and bucket etc with soap water after spraying.
7. Containers, buckets etc. used for mixing pesticides should not be used for domestic
purposes.
8. Avoid entry of animals and workers in the fields immediately after the
the spraying.
G. Disposal
1. Left over spray solution should not be drained in ponds or water lines etc. Throw it in
barren isolated area, if possible.
2. The used/empty containers should be crushed with a stone / stick and burned deep
into soil away from water
ater source.
3. Never re-use
use empty pesticide container for any purpose.

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Lecture 16: Case studies of important IDM practices for field crops with examples.

Development of integrated disease management in field crops such as

cereals,pulses,oilseed & commercial crops involve use of cultural,physical,resistant
varieties,biological and chemical methods.It also involves use of biotechnological
approaches such as application of transgenic crop varieties and varieties developed
through marker assisted selection.In this chapter we will discuss one or two important
IDM practices of crops.The concept of Integrated Disease Managment (IDM) revolves
around development of IDM practices of diseases of a crop or developing IDM practices
for a key disease of crop.The classification of key diseases has been done by looking
into economic loss caused by such disease.

Case Study 1:

IDM of Sorghum Diseases:

Economic Important Diseases of Sorghum:

DISEASES OF SORGHUM
1. Sorghum downy mildew Peronosclerospora sorghi = Sclerospora sorghi

2. Crazy top downy mildew Sclerophthora macrospora

=Sclerospora macrospora

3. Grain Smut / Covered/ Sporisorium sorghi = Sphacelotheca sorghi

Kernel/Short Smut

4. Head Smut Sphacelotheca reiliana = Sporisorium holci-

sorghi

5. Loose/ kernel Smut, Sporisorium cruentum = Sphacelotheca cruenta

6. Long smut Tolyposporium ehrenbergii

7. Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid.

8. Fusarium head blight, root and Fusarium moniliforme (teleomorph: Gibberella

stalk rot fujikuroi), Fusarium spp.

9. Pokkah Boeng (twisted top) Gibberella fujikuroi var subglutinans (anamorph:

Fusarium moniliforme var. subglutinans)

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10. Acremonium wilt Acremonium strictum = Cephalosporium
acremonium

11. Damping off and seed rot Aspergillus spp., Exserohilium sp., Fusarium
spp., Penicillium spp., Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia
spp., and other species

12. Pythium root rot Pythium spp. , P. Graminicola

13. Seedling blight and seed rot Colletotrichum graminicola

Exserohilum turcicum
Fusarium moniforme
Pythium spp. P. aphanidermatum

14. Milo disease(Periconia root rot) Periconia circinata

15. Anthracnose (foliar, head, root Colletotrichum graminicola

and stalk rot) (teleomorph: Glomerella graminicola )

16. Rust Puccinia purpurea

17. Leaf blight Setosphaeria turcica (anamorph: Exserohilum

turcicum = Helminthosporium turcicum)

18. Oval leaf spot* Ramulispora sorghicola

19. Gray leaf spot Cercospora sorghi

20. Zonate leaf spot and sheath Gloeocercospora sorghi

blight

21. Rough leaf spot Ascochyta sorghi

22. Target leaf spot Bipolaris 97ookie = Helminthosporium 97ookie

23. Latter leaf spot Cercospora fusimaculans

24. Sooty stripe Ramulispora sorghi

25. Tar spot* Phyllachora sacchari

26. Ergot* Sphacelia sorghi

27. Grain storage mold Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. And other
species

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A. BACTERIAL DISEASES

1. Bacterial leaf stripe Pseudomonas andropogonis

2. Bacterial leaf spot Pseudomonas syringae

3. Bacterial leaf streak Xanthomonas campestris pv. holcicola

B. VIRAL DISEASES

1. Maize chlorotic dwarf Maize chlorotic dwarf virus

2. Maize dwarf mosaic Maize dwarf mosaic virus

3. Sugarcane mosaic Sugarcane mosaic virus

C. MYCOPLASMALIKE ORGANISM (MLO) DISEASES

1. Yellow sorghum stunt Yellow sorghum stunt MLO

D. NEMATODE DISEASES

1. Awl nematode Dolichodorus spp.

2. Dagger nematode, American Xiphinema americanum

3. Lesion nematode Pratylenchus spp.

4. Needle nematode Longidorus africanus and other species

5. Pin nematode Paratylenchus spp.

6. Reniform nematode Rotylenchus spp.

7. Ring nematode Criconemella spp.

8. Root-knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

9. Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus spp.

10. Sting nematode Belonolaimus longicaudatus

11. Stubby-root nematode Paratrichodorus spp., P. minor

12. Stunt nematode Tylenchorhynchus spp., Merlinius brevidens

E. PHANEROGAMIC PARASITES

1. Striga/Witch weed Striga spp.

*Not known to occur naturally.

Among the above diseases ,the key diseases are grain mould,downy mildew,charcoal
rot,foliar fungal diseases and Sorghum stripe virus.

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The IDM practices are as follows:

Management:

1.For the management of both soil borne and other fungal diseases deep ploughing and
regular rouging of diseased plants reduces resistant structures of pathogen i.e oospore
densities in case of downy mildew pathogen.

2.Seed treatment with metalaxyl 25 WP or Apron 35 SD@ 1-2 g.a.i. /kg of seeds for the
management of downy mildew of sorghum, Seed treatment with sulphur 4g per kg of
seed for the management of smut disease while Seed treatment with Trichoderma
bioagent @ 4g per of seed has been recommended for the management of charcoal rot of
rabi sorghum.

3.Harvesting at physiological maturity and drying under shade has been the
recommendation for the management of grain mould of sorghum. Immersion of seeds in
0.5% formalin for 2 hrs and drying under shade or immersing in copper sulphate
(CuSO4) solution @0.5-3.0% for 10-15 min has been found effective. It also helps to
manage smut diseases.

4. Cultural control: Avoiding cultivars that mature when there is likelihood of rains is a
precaution that can be used to avoid grain molds. Harvesting of genotypes at
physiological maturity and drying also reduces mold incidence. Delay in harvesting of
matured crop should be avoided.
5.Chemical control: Effective control can be obtained by three sprays on the Earheads
with Aureofungin (200ppm) and 0.2% Captan, starting from flowering with 10 days
interval. But it is impracticable and uneconomical, except in seed plots. Spraying three
times with Captan (0.3%) + Dithane M‐45 (0.3%) at 10 days interval from flowering
period can also manage grain molds.
1) 5. For the management of charcoal rot of sorghum practices such as (1) Minimal
doses of nitrogen fertilizer and low plant densities reduce charcoal rot; (2) Crop
rotation also reduces the disease. Sorghum as a mixed crop also suffers less damage
by charcoal rot than sole crop; (3) Moisture conservation practices like wheat straw
mulch will provide marginal advantage in checking the disease symptoms; (4)
Growing varieties and hybrids resistant to predisposing stress conditions is of more
economical value such as Resistant varieties/genotypes such as SPV-34, CSH-13R,
CSV-5R, 296-B, 9-13, GRS-1, RS-29,SPV 2217 etc,recommended from University
(5) Soil treatment with Thiram @ 4.5 kg ha‐1 at sowing reduces the charcoal rot by
15%.
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6.One spray of metalaxyl (Ridomil 25 WP) @ 2 g a. i. /litre of water at 10, 40 or 20, 50
days after emergence for management of downy mildew of sorghum.

7.Sorghum lines IS 8283, IS 8607 are multiple disease resistant to rust, anthracnose,
zonate leaf spot, grain mold and gray leaf spot besides downy mildew. IS 1547, IS 4696,
IS 5665, IS 5743 and IS 18737 have been found free from downy mildew.

8.For the management of long smut of sorghum, Since the pathogen is airborne it is
difficult to manage disease completely and no seed or soil treatment gives effective
control. Adjustment of sowing dates helps to avoid the disease. Crop rotation and field
sanitation bring down the level of inoculum.

9.For management of sorghum anthracnose, Destruction of plant debris or susceptible

collateral weed hosts such as S. Halepense. Resistant varieties/genotypes such as IS-
9189 and IS-9569 etc.

10.For management striga,the following practices have been advocated:

1) Hot summer ploughing and light irrigation to activate and kill the parasite.
2) Avoid movement of dispersal agents (implements/animals).
3) Use of trap crops (nonhosts-legumes)
4) Use of resistant genotypes SAR-1 and SAR-2 (ICRISAT vars.)
5) Chemical protection by 2, 4-D, Aldicarb or MPCA selective weedicides.
Case Study 2:

Important Diseases of Soybean:

More than 100 pathogens are known to affect soybean crop, about 35 of these are
economically important.

Pathogens like fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasma, spiroplasma and

nematodes can cause disease in soybean.

Annual yield losses in soybean due to diseases are in the tune of 12% of
total production.

Yield losses can be minimised by proper diagnosis and effective management.

Important Diseases of Soybean

S. No. Disease Pathogen
1. Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Rhizoctonia bataticola)
2. Collar rot Sclerotium rolfsii
3.A. Rhizoctonia Root Rot Rhizoctonia solani
3.B. Rhizoctonia Aerial Blight Rhizoctonia solani
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4. Bacterial Pustule Xanthomanas campestris pv. glycines
5. Bacterial Blight Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. glycinea
6. Fusarium Rot / Wilt Fusarium species
7. Soybean Mosaic Virus Soja virus I
8. Soybean Yellow Mosaic
Mungbean yellow mosaic virus
Virus
9. Bud Proliferation/ No
Phytoplasma
Podding
9. Myrothecium Leaf Spot Myrothecium roridum
10. Frogeye Leaf Spot Cercospora sojina
11.A. Cercospora Leaf
Spot/Blight Cercospora kikuchii
11.B. Purple Seed Stain Cercospora kikuchii
12. Rust Phakopsora pachyrhizi
13. Alternaria Leaf Spot Alternaria species
14. Brown Spot Septoria glycine
15. Target Leaf Spot Corynespora cassicola
16. Phoma Leaf Blight Phoma medicaginis
17. Cotyledonary Spot A number of fungi are involved
18. Indian Bud Blight A strain of Groundnut bud necrosis virus
29. Powdery Mildew Microsphaera diffusa
20. Anthracnose Colletotrichum truncatum
21. Pod And Stem Blight Diaporthe phaseolorum var. sojae
22. Wilt Complex -
23. a.Colletotrichum truncatum
Pod Diseases/ Blight
b. Myrothecium roridum
c. Macrophomina phaseolina
d. Phomopsis species
e. Fusarium species
f. Cercospora species
24 Choanephora infundibulifera
Choanephora Leaf Blight
25 Colonectria species
Red Crown Rot
26 Helminthosporium species
Helminthosporium
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 Leaf Spot

27 Fusarium species
Sudden Death Syndrome
28 Pythium spp.
Seed Rot
Phytophthora spp.

The economically important diseases are seedling diseases,root rot complex,charcoal

rot,YMV,rust and Pod blight & hemibiotrphic foliar fungal diseases are econimcally
important.Following are the recommendations.

1.For the management of collor rot of soybean; the following practices hasve been
recommended, Deep tillage practices, use of tolerant variety NRC 37,seed treatment
with Trichoderma viride @5 g/kg or with fungicide thiram+carbendazim 2:1 or combi
product of carboxin & thiram @3 g/kg and optimum seed rate2 years rotation or
intercropping with maize/sorghum.

2. The Alternaria leaf spot can be controlled by - Cultivation of moderately resistant

varieties like PK 327, MACS 124, KHSb 2, NRC 2, PK 327, PK 1042, Himso 1563, JS
80-21, Pusa 37, VLS 21 etc. Seed treatment with thiram + carbendazim (2:1) @ 3 g/kg
seed. Roguing of infected plant parts. Spray of carbendazim or thiophanate methyl @
400 g/ha or zineb or mancozeb @ 2000 g/ha over the infected crop.

3. The anthracnose can be controlled by - Use of clean and healthy seeds. Burning of
infected plant debris. Cultivation of moderately resistant varieties like Bragg, Himso
1563, Hardee, PK 472, JS 80-21, Pusa 37, VLS 21, NRC 12 etc. Seed treatment with
thiram +carbendazim (2:1) or captan @ 3g/Kg seed and spray of zineb or mancozeb
0.2% on infected crop.

4. The Cercospora blight/Purple seed stain can be controlled by - Use of clean &
certified seeds. Cultivation of less susceptible varieties like JS 80-21 and Bragg etc.
Seed treatment with thiram + carbendazim (2:1) or captan @ 0.3% and subsequent spray
of benomyl @ 0.1% or thiophenate methyl@ 0.05% over infected crop.

5. The charcoal rot disease can be controlled by - Crop rotation or mixed cropping with
cotton or cereals. Timely use of optimum doze of fertilizers. Use of less susceptible
varieties like NRC 2, NRC 37, JS 71-05, LSb 1, MACS 13 etc. Maintenance of low
plant population in the field where disease appear in severe form to have vigorous

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plants. Flooding of field 3-4 week before sowing or maintaining high soil moisture by
irrigation, if possible, during crop growth. Seed treatment with captan or thiram @ 3
g/kg seed or use of Trichoderma harzianum or T. viride @ 4 to 5 g/kg seed.

6. Bud blight can be managed as no resistant varieties and suitable chemical control are
available. However, following measures will keep the disease less severe with reduced
yield loss- Less susceptible varieties viz. JS 71-05, JS 79-81, KHSb 1 etc. should be
cultivated. Crop should be kept free of broad-leaved weeds. Roguing and burning of
disease infected plants or plant parts. Seed treatment with Imidacloprid @ 5 g/kg and
spray of nuvacron (0,01%) or rogor (0.01%) or any other systemic insecticides.

7. No podding syndrome can be controlled by - Sprays of chlorpyrifos 1.5 lit. or

triazophos 800 ml or methomyl 1 kg or ethion 1.5 lit. or quinalphos 1.5 lit. or
ethofenprox 1 lit. per hectare at 18-20 and at 28-30 days after sowing (spray solution
required is 800 lit./ha) for hot spot areas. In other areas one spray at 28-30 days after
sowing. The other recommended package of practices as mentioned below should also
be followed : Soil application of Phorate 10 G @ 1 kg a.i./ha at the time of planting.
Seeds from affected fields are not to be used for sowing purpose. Use of optimum seed
rates (65 to 80 kg/ha for small and bold seeded varieties, respectively) to avoid the high
plant population, which acts as predisposing factor for insect incidence. If possible,
avoid cultivation of crops such as sun-hemp and sesame, which may harbour insect
vectors and phytoplasma.

8. The pod and stem blight can be controlled by- i)Ploughing down crop residues.
ii)Using healthy seed and crop rotation technique. iii)Use of moderately resistant
varieties viz. Bragg, KHSb 2, Himso 1563, JS 71-05, JS 80-21, NRC 37, PK 262, VLS 2
etc. iv)Seed treatment with thiram + carbendazim (2:1) @ 3 g/kg. v)Maintenance of
adequate potash in the field minimizes the chances of seeds becoming mouldy. vi)Spray
of benomyl or thiophanate methyl @ 0.1%.

9. Sclerotium rot/collar rot/root rot can be managed by Pathogen perpetuate through soil,
crop residues and weeds therefore, field sanitation, deep summer ploughing to bury
debris and sclerotia to a depth of 15 to 25 cm help in reducing the collar rot disease.
Crop rotation with maize, sorghum etc. helps in containing the disease to some extent.
Use of less susceptible variety NRC 37 will reduce the yield loss. Roguing and burning
of infected plants check the spread of disease. Seed treatment with thiram + carbendazim
(2:1) @ 3 g/Kg or Trichoderma viride @ 4-5 g/Kg seed is effective. Soil application of

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neem cake @ 2.5 t/ha or soil drench with Chloroneb @ 20 kg/ha in disease hot spot
areas is recommended.

10. Rust can be managed by - Deep ploughing during summer. No summer and rabi
cultivation of soybean and rouging of self sown soybean plants in these seasons.
Roguing and burning of infected plants, crop and crop residues during the season.
Intercropping of soybean with other rainy season crops of the area. Rust resistant
varieties like DSb 21,DSb 23 are recommeded.Cultivation of rust tolerant varieties like
Ankur, PK 1024, PK 1029, JS 80-21, Indira soybean 9, MAUS 61-2 or early maturing
varieties. Two to three sprays of hexaconazole (Contaf) or propiconazole (Tilt) or
triadimefon (Bayleton) or oxycarboxin (plantvax) @ 0.1% or kresoxim methyl@ 1ml
per lit or triflyxtsrobin + tebuconazole 1g per lit are found effective (fig. 42 shows
sprayed and healthy crop on foreground and unsprayed and infected crop in
background). To enable entering soybean field for spray at least after every 15 rows a
strip of about 1.50 m be left vacant in the field. One protective spray of any above
fungicides over the crop at 35 to 40 DAS in rust hot spot areas.

sLecture 18: Implementation and impact of IDM modules- Benefits and

Limitations:

Integrated plant protection: why?

IDM of Plant protection (against pests, diseases and weeds) determines the
effectiveness of other inputs (seed bed preparation, seed, seeding time, fertilizer, water,
growth hormones) in crop production. ó Exclusive reliance on pesticides, fungicides and
herbicides resulted in pesticide and herbicide, resistance, pest resurgence, residues and
environmental pollution. This led to the development of integrated plant protection
strategies, which are components of sustainable agriculture with a sound ecological
foundation.
Integrated plant protection should be understood as an ideal combination of various
methods of plant protection against entire complex of pests, diseases and weeds in a
specified farming ecosystem, with the object of bringing down their infestation to
economically insignificant levels with minimum interference on the activity of natural
beneficial organisms. The essence of integrated plant protection concept lies in the

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harmonious integration of compatible multiple methods use singly or in combination
against insect pests, pathogens and weeds.

Methods of mitigating loses due to diseases IDM include fungicides, Organo-mercurial,

chemotherapy, thermotherapy, cultural methods and host resistance No single method is
effective in controlling a disease, therefore, integrated disease management (IDM)
became imperative for effective disease control.
Integrated disease management?
Integrated disease management in organic farming combines the use of various
measures. The usefulness of certain measures depends on the specific crop -pathogen
combination. In many crops, preventative measures can control diseases without the
need of plant protection products. However, for certain disease problems, preventative
measures are not sufficient. For example, organic apple production strongly depends on
the multiple uses of plant protection
Central Idea of IDM:
Integrated disease management (IDM) aims at prevention or reduction in the incidence
or severity of the disease incited by the plant pathogen. Hence the central idea revolves
around the tactical management of the host, the pathogen, and the environment (the
three factors of a disease triangle) so as to keep the damage or loss below the economic
threshold level.
The strategy utilizes host-plant resistance together with other possible tactics in harmony
with the natural regulatory factors of the ecosystem to keep the disease inciting
pathogens below the economic threshold level.
Management of the host involves the practices directed to improve plant vigour and host
resistance through nutrition, induction of genetic resistance through conventional plant
breeding and through genetic engineering, and providing protection against attack by
chemical means.
Management of the pathogen involves avoiding contact between the pathogen and the
host, eradication, and protective application of chemicals to prevent infection.
Management of the environment involves water management, soil management, and
crop management.
Criteria of Priority:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has been interested in
developing integrated pest/disease management since 1963 and has developed and
implemented several field projects in different parts of the world. This organization

105
recommended for global programme to be undertaken on the basis of programme
priority. Criteria of programme priority have been ascertained that point out the
necessity of IPM/IDM.
These criteria are the following:
1. Crop must be of vital national and regional importance.
2. Serious losses are caused by pests/pathogens.
3. Inadequate control by use of organic pesticides.
4. Use of pesticide is generating more problems, but the same cannot be given up
otherwise food production will not be stepped up.
5. An integrated approach can be developed, which will yield desirable results and be
acceptable to growers.
Emphasis has been laid on major crops namely, rice, maize, sorghum, cotton, etc.
Potato, sugarcane, grain legumes, tapioca, coconut, etc., have also been considered as
second order of priority.
Benefits of IDM:
1.It increases crop yield and farmers income.
2. The use of insecticides may be reduced up to 80% 0f total use of crop yield may be
increased upto 10% through IDM.
3.IDM conserves ecosystem and envles reliability and stability of ram output.
4.IDM reduces the risk of farmers and the public.
5.It helps the farmers to become self reliant.
6.It helps to reduce the national expenditure on pesticides.
7.IDM reduces health care cost.
8.It increases saving of the farmer.
9.It directly helps to increase farmers income.
Disadvantages of IDM:
IDM have some disadvantsges they include:
1.It involves more planning.
2.It is more of family decision making.
3.It demands more lawn and garden care.
4.More resources needed as substitute for pesticides.
5.It requires greater amount of outside knowledge.
6.It is time and enery consuming.
7.It involves more of technicalities of methods employed.

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