Matter in Our Surroundings

Matter in Our Surroundings

Everything in this universe is made up material which scientists have named “Matter”.
Example: Stones, Clouds, Stars, Plants and animals everything is made up of Matter.
Matter
Matter anything that occupies space, has mass and volume is known as matter.
History
Indian philosophers “Classified matter” in the form of five basic elements known as Panch Tatva
1. Air
2. Earth
3. Fire
4. Sky
5. Water
Modern Times
Modern day scientist classified matter on the basis of physical and chemical properties.
Physical Nature of Matter
• Matter is made up of Particles, which means matter is particulate in Nature
• The size of the particles of Matter is very small, they cannot be seen by naked eyes

Characteristics of Particles of Matter

1. Particles of Matter have space between them:
When we dissolve particles of salt in water, the salt get disappear in water, this happens
because particles of salt take up space between two particles of water and even there is No Rise
in water level, this proves that particles of water have space between them

2. Particles of Matter are continuously moving:

Particles of matter are continuously moving, that is they possess kinetic energy.
As the temperature rises, particles move faster so; we can say that, with increase in temperature
the kinetic energy of the particles also increases.
Diffusion: The mixing of one substance with another substance due to the movement or motion
of its particles is called diffusion.
Example: The smell of food being prepared in the kitchen reaches as (Because the particles of
food’s smell inter mix particles of Air)
Type of Diffusion
• Diffusion of solids into liquid: Mixing of sugar in water
• Diffusion of liquids into liquids: Mixing of Red ink into water
• Diffusion of gases into liquids: Presence of oxy 𝐶𝑂2 in water.

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 • Particles of Matter attract each other because of force of attraction:
Force of attraction between particles this attraction keeps the particles bonded together
this force of attraction between varies from one form of matter to another form.
Kinetic Energy
Energy which a body has due to it’s motion.

Fact! Solid State diffusion is very slow process

(°F)States of Matter

(1) Solid

(2) Liquid

(3) Gas
(4) Plasma

(5) Bose – Einstein condensate

• Classification of matter on the basis of force of attraction
• Force of attraction between particles of solid, liquids and gas is
Solids > Liquid > gas
Solid State
• The force of attraction between the particle is very strong so particles of solids are
closely packed
• Solids cannot be compressed
• The space between the particles is very less.
• We cannot compress solids, so they have tendency to maintain their shape.
• The kinetic energy of the particles is very less
Liquid State
• Force of attraction between particles is less then the force of attraction between the
solids.
• Liquids do not have a fixed shape but have a fixed volume; as it take up the shape of the
container in which water is poured.
• Space between the particles is more as compared to solids but sill very less as compound
• Kinetic energy of the particles is more than that of solids
• Liquids cannot be compressed much.
Gaseous State
• Force of attraction between the particles is negligible hence particles of a gas move freely
in all directions so, gases can mix into each other very easily that is diffusion.
• Gases neither have a definite shape Nora definite volume.
• The particles of gases are far apart each other.
• Gases can be compressed easily.
Example: The LPG cylinders used at home and CNG cylinders used in vehicles
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 Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of a gas can be compressed into small
cylinder
Plasma
• Plasma have an indefinite volume and shape
• Plasma has large amount of space between the particles.
• Plasmas are easily compressible due to presence of large gap between the particles
• Plasms are good conductor of electricity due to presence of ions.

Bose – Einstein Condensate

• Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose had done calculations for a fifth state of matter.
• Bose – Einstein condensate is formed by cooling a gas to super – low temperatures.

Can Matter Change its State?

• Water is present in three states of Matter.
→ Solid (Ice)
→ Liquid (Water)
→ Gas (Water Vapour)
• Matter can change its state
Effect of Change of Temperature
On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the particles increases, due to this
particles start vibrating, and the Heat energy we are supplying by heat overcomes the force of
attraction between the particles

• Melting Point: The minimum temperture at which a solid melts to become a liquid
at the atmospheric pressure is called it’s melting point.
• Boiling Point: The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as it’s Boiling Point.
• Fusion: Change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.
Eg. Ice → water
(solid)→ (liquid)
• Latent Heat
Hidden heat which breaks the force of attraction between the molecules is know as latent
Heat
• Latent Heat of Fusion
The heat energy required to convert 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure, at
its boiling point is know as the latent heat of vaporisation

Condensation of Liquefaction:
The process, in which a gas, on cooling turns into a liquid at a specific temperature is called
condensation or liquefication.

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Sublimation:
The change of state of a substance directly from a solid to gas, without changing into the liquid
state; is called sublimation.

Eg. Camphor or ammonium chloride

Freezing Point:
The temperature at which the state of a substance changes from a lquid to a solid is called
freezing point.

Temperature Scales:

Fahrenheit

Celsius (°C)

Kelvin (K)

• Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature

Conversion of °𝐂 into K

K = °C + 273

Eg. 30°C = 30 + 273 = 303K

30°C = 303K
Conversion of °𝐂 into K
5 9
°C = (°𝐹 − 32) × or °F = ( × °𝐶) + 32
9 5

Q. Convert the following temperatures to the Celsius scale.

(a) 293 K (b) 470 K. [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. (a) 293 K into °C

293 – 273 = 20°C

(b) 470 K into °C 470 – 273 = 197°C

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Q. Convert the following temperatures to the Kelvin scale.

(a) 25°C (b) 373°C. [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. (a) 25°C into K

25 + 273 = 298 K

(b) 373°C into K 4 373 + 273 = 646 K

Effect of Change of Pressure
• Gases can be liquefied by applying pressure and reducing temperature
• Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decreasing pressure to one
atmosphere without coming into liquid state
solid CO2 is also known as Dry ice.

Evaporation
The process of conversion of a substance from a liquid state to the gaseous state at any
temperature ture below its boiling point is called evaporation
Factors on which Evaporation depend
• Surface Area: If the surface area increases, the rate of evaporation increases
• Temperature: With the increase of temp, kinetic energy increases, and evaporation
increases.
• Humidity: With increase in Humidity evaporation decreases
• Wind Speed: With increase in wind speed, the particle of water vapour move away with
the wind, decreasing the amount of water Vapour
Evaporation Cause Cooling
The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surrrounding to regain the energy lost during
evaporation, this absorption of energy from the surrounding make the surrounding cold.

• When we pour acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm, the particles of acetone gain
energy from your palm and evaporate, causing the palm to fiel cool.
• People sprinkle H2 O on the root or open ground on hot sunny day, large latent heat of
vaporisation of water helps to cool the hot surface.
• We wear cotton cloths in summer, because as we perspire more, cotton cloths absorb
that sweat and during evaporation of that sweat and during evaporation of that sweat
cooling effect is created.
• We see water droplets on the outer surface of a glass containing ice – cold water, because
water vapour present in the air, on coming in contact with cold glass of water, loses
energy and gets converted to liquid state, which we see as water droplets

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 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Convert the following temperature to Celsius scale:
(a) 300 K (b) 573 K
Sol. (a) 300 – 273 = 27°C (b) 573 – 273 = 300°C
Q2. What is the physical state of water at:
(a) 250°C (b) 100°C
Sol. (a) 250°C = gas (b) 100°C liquid as well as gas
Q3. For any substance, why does the temperature remain constant during the change of
state?
Sol. During the change of state of any matter heat is supplied to the substance. The molecules of
this matter use heat to overcome the force of attraction between the particles, at this period of
time, temperature remains constant. This extra heat is acquired by the molecules in the form
of hidden heat called latent heat to change from one state of matter to the other state.
Q4. Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day?
Sol. The outer walls of the cooler get sprinkled by water constantly. This water evaporates due to
hot dry weather. Evaporation causes cooling of inside air of cooler. This cool air is sent in the
room by the fan.
Q5. How does the water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summer?
Sol. The earthen pot is porous with lot of pores on it, the water oozes out through these pores and
the water gets evaporated at the surface of the pot thereby causing cooling effect. This makes
the pot cold and the water inside the pot cools by this process.
Q6. Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on it?
Sol. Acetone, petrol or perfume evaporate when they come into contact with air. The evaporation
causes cooling sensation in our hands.
Q7. Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup?
Sol. Tea in a saucer has larger surface area than in a cup. The rate of evaporation is faster with
increased surface area. The cooling of tea in saucer takes place sooner than in a cup. Hence
we are able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup.
Q8. What type of clothes should we wear in summer?
Sol. We should wear light coloured cotton clothes in summer. Light colour because it reflects heat.
Cotton clothes because it has pores in it, which absorbs sweat and allows the sweat to
evaporate faster thereby giving cooling effect.

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 Is Matter Around us Pure
Matter

Pure Substance Mixtures

Elements Compound Homogeneous Heterogenous

s mixture mixtures
(Solutions) (Suspension
and colloids)

Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

• A pure usbstance is one which is made • A mixture is one which contain two
up of only one kind of particles, which or more different kind of particles
are same in their chemical Nature. Example: Milk, Sugar solution
• All elements and compounds are pure minerals, petroleum,
substances LPG, Tap water, Tea,
Example: Hydrogen oxygen gold, Coffee.
Silver carbondioxide,
Sodium chloride

Elements
According to Antoine Laurent Lavoisier element is the Basic form of Matter, that cannot be broken
down into simpler substances chemical reaction.
Cannot be split up into two or more simple substance because it is made up of one kind of Atom.
“Elements are normally divided into metals and Non-metals and Metalloids”
Metals
A Metal is a substance, that is Malleable, and ductile and conduct electricity.
Example: Iron, Copper, Aluminium, Zinc, Gold, Silver etc.
All the metals are solid except one metal that is mercury which is liquid.

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Properties of Metals
1. They have a lusture (Shine): Gold, Silver, Copper are shiny metals (most metals are silver – grey
column)
2. They conduct heat and electricity, It means metals are generally good conductor of Heat, silver
metal is best conductor of heat.
• Copper and Aluminium Metals are also very good conductors of Heat, this is the reason
why cooking utensils are made up of copper and Aluminium.
Poorest Conductor of Heat among the Metals are lead and Mercury electric wires are
made up of copper and Aluminium Metal because they are good conductor
3. Metals are Generally Hard:
Most of metals are hard except sodium, Potassium. Metals like iron, copper, Aluminium etc. are
very hard
4. Metals are Malleable:
This means that metals can be beaten into sheets with a hammer, without breaking.
• Aluminium, Copper, gold, silver are highly malleable metals.
Example: Aluminium foils are used for packing food items like Biscuits, Chocolates etc.
“Malleability is an important Characteristic Property”
5. Metals are Ductile:
This means that Metals can be stretched into thin wires, gold and silver are best ductile metals.
Cu and Al are also very ductile so used in making electrical wires.
6. They are Sonorous:
Metals make a ringing sounds when we strike them, this is why metals are used for making bells,
musical instuments etc.
7. Non-Metal:
A Non-Metal is an element that is neither Malleable nor ductile and does not conduct electricity
Example: Carbon, Sulphur, Hydrogen, Oxygen etc.
Properties of Non-Metals
1. Non-Metals are Not-Mallable:
Non-metals cannot be beaten into thin sheets with a Hammer; Non-metals are Brittle, when
beaten with a hammer, they break into small pieces.
“Brittleness is chracteristic property of solid Non-Metal”

2. Non-Metals are Not-Ductile:

Metals cannot be drawn into wires,

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 Example: Sulphur and phosphorus are Non-Metals and they are Not Ductile
“Non-Metals are Nither Malleable nor Ductile”.

3. Non-Metals are Bad Conductor of Heat and Electricity:

Non-Metals do not allow, Heat and Electricity.
Example: Sulphur and Phosphorus are Non-Metals and they are bad Conductor of
Electricity.

4. Non-Metals are Not Sororous:

Solid Non-Metals do not Make Ringing sounds.

5. Non-Metals are generally soft:

Most of the solid Non-metals are of they can be easily cut using knife, but diamond is the
Hardest Natural substance.
6. Comparison Among the Properties of Metal and Non-Metal:

Metal Non-Metal
1. Metals are Malleable and ductile 1. Non-Metals are Brittle.
2. Metals are good conductor of 2. Non-Metals are Bad Conductors of
Heat and Electricity. Heat and Electricity.
3. Metals are lustrous (Shiny) 3. Non-Metals are Non-lustrous
4. Metals are Sonorous 4. Non-Metals are not Sonorous

Metalloids
Which show some properties of Metals and some properties of Non-metal
Metalloids are also sometimes called semi-metals
The important examples of Metalloids are
• Boron
• Silicon
• Germanium
You know What !
• Eleven Elements are in gaseous state at Room temp
• Mercury and Bromine are liquid at Room temp
• Gallium and Cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature.
Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements, chemically combined with one
another in a fixed proportion.

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For example: Water (H2O) is a compound which is made up of two hydrogen and one oxygen
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is also a compound it is made up of one Nitrogen, four Hydrogen
and one Chlorine.
Difference Between Mixture and Compound
Mixtures Compound
1. A mixture can be separated into its 1. A compound cannot be
constituents by the physical process like separated into its constituents by
Filtration evaporation, sublimation etc. Physical process
2. A mixture shows properties of it’s 2. The properties of a compound
Constituents. are entirely different from
those of it’s constituents.
3. The composition of a mixture is variable, 3. The composition of a
the components can be present in any compound is fixed, Constituents are
proportion by mass present in fixed proportion by
mass

Mixtures
A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more elements or compounds are Not
chemically combined together.
Example: Air is a mixture of gases like oxygen, Nitrogen, argon, Carbondioxide
Type of Mixtures:
1. Homogeneous Mixture
2. Heterogeneous Mixture

Homogeneous Mixture
A mixture is said to be Homogeneous if all the components of the mixtures are uniformaly
mixed and there are No boundaries of separation between them.
Example: Sugar in water, Salt in water.

Heterogeneous Mixture
A mixture is said to be Heterogeneous if all the components of the mixture are Not uniformly
mixed and there are visible boundaries of separation between them.

What is a Solution ?
A solution is a Homogeneous Mixture of two or more substances.
Example: Lemonade, Sugar solution etc.

Components of Solution
1. Solvent 2. Solute

Solvent
The component of the solution that the dissolves the other component in it is called the solvent
(present in larger quantity)

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Properties of Solution
1. A solution is a Homogeneous mixture.
2. The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm in diameter which cannot be seen by
naked eyes.
3. They do not scatter a Beam of light passing through the solution, that is they don’t show
tyndall effect. (so, the path of light is Not visible in a solution)
4. The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.
5. The solution is stable and solute particles do not settle down when left undisturbed.

Type of a Solution

1. Solution of Solid in a Solid:

Metal alloys are the solutions of solid in solid For examples, Brass is a solution of Zinc in
Copper
Alloys are mixtures of two or more Metals or a Metal and a Non-Metal and cannot be
separated into their components by physical methods. But still an alloy is considered as
mixture, because it shows the properties of its constituents and can have variable
composition composition Brass is mixture of 30% Zinc, 70% Copper

2. Solution of solid in a Liquid:

• Sugar solution salt solution are the solution of solid in liquid.
• A solution of iodine in Alcohol called “Tincture of Iodine” is also a sol of solid in liquid.

3. Solution of liquid in a liquid:

Vingear is a solution of Acetic Acid in water

4. Solution of Gas in a liquid:

Soda-water is solution of carbondioxide gas in water.

5. Solution of Gas in Gas:

Air is a solution of gas like oxygen, argon carbondioxide and water vapour; in Nitrogen.
(Nitrogen is the solvent in Air and all other gases are solutes)

Concentration of a Solution:

1. Saturated Solution:
When no more amount of solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature; it is
called a saturated solution.

2. Unsaturated Solution:
When more amount of solute can be dissolved in a solution at a given temperature, it is
called a unsaturated solution.

3. Solubility:
The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at the given temp is called its
solubility.

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Concentration of Solution
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount of a solution
(mass/volume)

Dilute Solution
The solution having small amount of solute is said to have low concentration it is known as a
Dilute Solution.
Concentrated Solution
The solution having a large amount of solute is said to be high concentration, it is known as a
concentrated solution.
Various ways of expressing the concentration of a solution.

Various ways of Expressing the Concentration of a Solution

i. Mass by mass Percentage of a solution
mass of solute
m/m% = × 100
mass of solution
Mass of solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent
Volume of solute
ii. Volume by volume percentage of a solution = × 100
Volume of solution
Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility
1. The solubility of solid in liquids usually increases on increasing the temperature and decreases
on decreasing the temperature.
2. The solubility of solid in liquid Remains un affected by change in pressure
3. The solubility of gases in liquids usually decreases on increasing the temperature and increases
on decreasing the temperature.
4. The solubility of gases in liquid increases on increasing the pressure, and decreases on
decreasily the pressure.
Suspension
A suspension is a Heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain
suspended throughout the Bulk of the medium.
Example: Chalk in Water, Smoke in the Air
Properties of a Suspension
1. It is a Heterogeneous mixture
2. Particles of a suspension are visible to the Nacked eyes.
3. Size of the particles is greater than 100 nm
4. Solute settles down at the Bottom over a period of time.
5. If the solution is passed through filter paper, Solute and solvent gets separated.
6. A suspension seatlers a Beam of Light passing through it, (because its particles are quite large.)
that is it shows tyndall effect
7. But when the particles settle down, Suspension breaks and it does not scatler light any more.

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Colloids
Colloidal solution is Heterogeneous mixture in which the size of particle lies between true solution
and suspension.
Colloids appear to be Homogeneous, but actually they are found to Heterogeneous.
Properties of Colloidal Solution
1. The particles of colloid can’t be seen by Naked eyes individually.
2. It is a stable mixture particles do not settle down at the bottom over a period of time.
3. A colloidal solution appears to be Homogeneous but actully it is Heterogeneous.
4. Colloids are Big enough to scatter a Beam of Light passing through it and it’s path visible.
Tyndall Effect
The scattering of light by colloidal particles is know as Tyndall Effect
The Scattering of Light by Colloidal solution tell us that the colloidal particles are much Bigger than
the particles of true solution.
So a true solution can be distinguished from a colloidal solution by the fact that a true solution does
not scatter a Beam of light passing through it but a colloidal solution & scatters a beam of light
passing throught it.
Classification of Colloids
Colloids are classified according to the physical state of Dispersed phase (solute)
1. Sol:- Sol is a colloid in which tiny solid particles are dispersed in a liq medium.
Example: Soap solution, Milk of Magnesia, mud etc

2. Solid Sol:- Solid sol is a Colloid in which solid particles are dispersed in solid medium
Example: Colured gemstone (Ruby)
Milky glass.
3. Aerosol:- When solid or Liquid is dispersed in a gas.
Example: Smoke, Fog, Clouds, mist automobile

4. Emulsions:- An emulision is a colloid in which one liquid is dispersed in Another liquid

Example: Milk, Butter, Face cream etc.

5. Foam:- The Foam is a colloid in which a gas is dispersed in liquid medium

Example: Shaving cream.

6. Gel:- Semi- solid colloid in which there is a continuous network of solid particles dispersed in a
liquid.
Example: Jellies, Hairgels.

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Separation of Mixtures
• Different Methods of separation are used to get individual components from the mixture
• Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical
methods like
a) Handpicking b) Sieving c) Filtration
Separation Techniques
1) Evaporation 2) Centrifugation 3) Extraction
4) Chromatography 5) Distillation 6) Fractional Distillation
7) Crystalization 8) Magnetic Separation 9) Filtration
10) Sublimation.
Separation By Filtration
• The process of Removing insoluble solids from a liquid by using a filter paper is known as
Filtration.
• Filtration is used for separation insoluble substances from liquid.
a) A mixture of Sand and Water can also be Separated by filtration.
b) Sparation of used tea – leaves from prepared tea by the process of Filtration.
c) Water purification system in water works
i) The water from a River (Or lake) is pumped by the pumping station into a large reservoir
called sedimentation tank
ii) From sedimentation tank, water is sent tot
a loading tank; In loading tank some alum
is added to water and the suspended clay
particles in water get loaded with alum
particles, Become heavy and settle down at
the bottom of the tank.

d) Water is then passed through a

Filtration tank; Filtration tank has
three layers.
Fine Sand layer at the top, Coarse sand
layer in the middle and gravel at the
Bottom layer.
e) The clear water is then passed into a chlorination tank; chlorine is added to water to kill the
germs present in it.
f) The clean and disinfected water is then pumped by pumping station into a high storage tanks
from the high storage tanks, water is pumped to homes in the entire city.

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Separation By Centrifugation
Centrifugation is a method for separating the suspended particles of a substances from a liquid in
which the mixture is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge Machine

The principle is that the denser particles are forced to the Bottom and lighter particles stay at
the top when spun rapidly.
Applications
➢ Used in Diagnostic lasoratories for Blood and Urine test
➢ Used in dairies and Home to separate Butter from cream.
➢ Used un washing Machines to squeeze out water from wet cloths.

Separation By Evaporation
➢ The changing of liquid into vapours is called evaporation.
➢ Evaporation is used to separate a solid substance that has dissolved in water/any liquid.
1. Common salt dissolved in water can be separated by the process of evaporation.
2. We can obtain coloured component (dye) from Ink.
i) Fill Half a Beaker with water
ii) Put a watch glass on the Mouth of the Beaker
iii) Put a few drops of ink on the watch glass
iv) Now start Heating the Beaker, we do not want the Heat the ink directly, you
will see the evaporation is taking place the water glass
v) Continue Heating as the evaporation goes on and Stop Heating, when you do not see any
further change on the water glass

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Separation By Extraction
A mixture of two immiscible liquid can be separated by using a separating funnel.

The Basic principle involve is the difference between the densities of two liquid form to separate
layer.
Steps of Separating Kerosene oil and water:-
1. Pour the mixture of Kerosene oil and water in separating Funnel.
2. Let it Stand undisturbed for sometime so that separate layers of oil and water are formed.
3. Open the stopcock of the separating funnel and pour out the lower layer of water carefully
Application
1. To separate mixture of oil and water
2. In the extraction of iron from it’s ore the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to
leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnance.
Separation By Crystallisation
The process of cooling a Hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain crystals called
crystallisation.
1. Used to remove impurities from solid and purify it.
2. It separate a pure solid from mixture in form of crystals.
3. This process is used in the purification of salt sea water.
Separation By Sublimation
1. This process is used to separate mixture that contain a sublimable volatile component from a
Non-Sublimable impurity
2. Sublimation is process where a substance directly changes from solid to gaseous state on
Heating.

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3. Ammonium chloride, Camphor, Naphthalene, Anthracene are some examples, which can
sublime easily.

Chromatography
1. Used to separate those solute, which dissolve in the same solvent.
2. Used for separation of colours.
3. The colours which are more soluble in water rises faster and colours get separated into layers.

Application
To separate
1) Colours in a dye
2) Pigments from Natural Colours.
3) Drugs from Blood
Separation By Distillation
Distillation is used for separation of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that Boils without
decomposition and have sufficient difference in their Boiling points.
Example: Mixture of Acetone and Water is separated by this method.

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Distillation is the process of Heating a liquid to form vapour and then cooling the vapour to get
liquid Balk.
Separation By Fractional Distillation
• Fractional distillation is the process of Separating two (or more) miscible liquid by
Distillation, for which the difference in Boiling point is less than 25K
• For fractional, distillation, a tube packed with glass beads are used (known as fractional
Column) is used
• Beads provide surface for the vapours to cool and condense Repeatedly.
Example: We can separate mixture of Alcohol and Water by Fractional distillation
• Boiling point of Alcohol in 78oC and the Boiling point of water is 100oC, and the gap
between the two liquids are 22oC

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Application of Fractional Distillation
1. Fractional Distillation is used to separate mixture of miscible liquid.
2. Fractional Distillation is used to separate crude oil “Petroleum”
3. Fractional distillation (of liquid air) is used to separate gases of the air.

Q. Name the technique to separate NCERT Exercise

(i) butter from curd,
(ii) salt from sea-water,
(iii) camphor from salt.
Sol. (i) Centrifugation,
(ii) Evaporation,
(iii) Sublimation.
Separation of Gas of the Air
Air is a mixture of gases like Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Carbondioxide, Helium, Neon, Krypton and
xenone etc.

• Major component of Air is Nitrogn, and Second major component of Air is Oxygen.
• The various gases of Air are Separated from one Another by the fractional distillation of
liquid Air.
• Liquid Air is an extremely cold liquid
• Liquid Air contains all the components of gases in the liquid form.
1. Air is first filtered to remove dust then water vapours and carbondioxide are removed.
2. Air is compressed to a High pressure and then cooled, Ultimately, the Air get so cold that it turn
into liquid.
3. The liquid Air is Fed into a tall fractional Distillation Coloumn
4. Liquid Nitrogen (present in liquid air) has lowest boiling point of −196°𝐶, so on warming liquid
nitrogen boils first to form nitrogen
5. Liquid oxygen has higher boiling point so, liquid oxygen boils of the last.

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Separation By a Magnet
Iron is attracted by a magnet.
This property of Iron is used to separate it from mixture. So, if a mixture contains iron as one of the
constituents, it can be separated by using magnet.

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 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. What is meant by a substance?
Sol. A pure substance consists of a single type of particles.
Q2. List the points of differences between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
Sol.
Homogeneous mixtures Heterogeneous mixtures
It has uniform composition. It does not have a uniform composition.
No visible boundaries of separation. Show visible boundaries of separation.
They consist of only one phase. They consist of more than one phase.
Example : Sugar + water → sugar Example : Sugar + sand
solution

Q3. To make a saturated solution, 36 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 100 g of water at

293 K. Find its concentration at this temperature.
Sol. Mass of solute (sodium chloride) = 36 g
Mass of solvent (water) = 100 g
Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent
= 36 g + 100 g = 136 g
Mass of solute
Concentration = 100
Mass of solution

36
= 100 = 26.47%
136
Q4. Name the technique to separate
(i) butter from curd,
(ii) salt from sea-water,
(iii) camphor from salt.
Sol. (i) Centrifugation,
(ii) Evaporation,
(iii) Sublimation.
Q5. What type of mixtures are separated by the technique of crystallisation?
Sol. Crystallisation technique is used to purify solid with some impurities in it. Example: Salt
from sea-water.

15
 Atoms & Molecules
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space is called matter. A matter is made up of Tiny particles
these particles are invisible to Naked eye.

• Maharishi kanada, Postulated that if we go on dividing matter, we shall get smaller and smaller
particle ultimately, a stage will come, when we shall come across the smallest particles beyond
which Further division will not be possible.
• Atom(uncut): Is the smallest particle of an element that take part in chemical reaction.
“The Basic Building Block of Matter”
• Molecules: Molecule is made up of group of atoms. Molecules are formed by combination of
atoms of same (homoatomic) or different (Heteroatomic) element.
• Antoine L. Lavoisier laid foundation of chemical sciences by establishing two important laws
of chemical combination.
“Father of chemistry → Antoine L. Lavoisier”
Law of chemical Combination
1. Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier)
“Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor be destroyed in a
chemical reaction” that is total mass of product remain equal to the total mass of reactant.
mass of 𝑨 + mass of 𝑩 → mass of 𝑨𝑩
(Reactant) (Product)
𝑺 + 𝑭𝒆 → 𝑭𝒆 𝑺
𝟑𝟐 𝒈 𝟓𝟔 𝒈 𝟖𝟖 𝒈

2. Law of Constant Proportions (Joseph Proust)

“In a chemical substance, the elements are always present in definite proportion by mass.”
Pure water obtained from different sources such as river, well, sea etc. always contain
hydrogen and oxygen combined together in the ratio 1 ∶ 8
“If 𝟗 𝒈 of water is decomposed, 𝟏 𝒈 of hydrogen and 𝟖 𝒈 of oxygen are always obtained”

1
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton Provided the Basic theory about the Nature of matter known as Dalton’s Atomic
theory. According to Dalton atomic theory, all matter whether an element, a compound or a mixture
is composed of small particles called atoms.

Postulates of Dalton Atomic Theory

• All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which participate in chemical reaction.
• Atoms are the ultimate particles of matter and cannot be further sub-divided into smaller
particles.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
• Atoms of Different elements have different masses, sizes and also chemical properties.
• Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole number to form compounds.
• The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

Drawback of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

• Atoms have been found to be made of sub-atomic particles. The important out of these are
electrons protons and neutron.
• Atoms of different element may not always combine in simple whole number ratio to form
molecule of a compound.
Example:

Sugar Simple Ratio

𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝟏𝟏 𝑪∶𝑯∶𝑶

𝟔 ∶ 𝟏𝟏 ∶ 𝟓. 𝟓

Atom
“An atom is the smallest particle of an element that take part in chemical reaction.”

Relative Size of Atom

• Atoms are very small, more than millions of atoms when stacked would make a layer as
thick as this sheet of paper.
• Hydrogen atom is the smallest.
• The Radius of Hydrogen atom is Nearly 1×10–10 m
• Atoms are so small that these cannot be seen even by the most powerful microscope.

Symbols of Elements
• Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbol for elements

2
 Symbol for some elements as proposed by Dalton
• In the Beginning, the names of elements were derived from the name of the place, where
they were found for the first time.
Iron Fe Ferrum

Sodium Na Natrium

Copper Cu Cyprus

Potassium K Kalium

• Some names are taken from the Specific Colour

• Example : Gold → yellow
• Now; IUPAC approves names of element, symbol and units.
• First letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter and second letter as a small
letter
Name of Name of
Symbol Symbol
Element Element
1 Hydrogen H 16 Sulphur S
2 Helium He 17 Chlorine Cl
3 Lithium Li 18 Argon Ar
4 Beryllium Be 19 Potassium K
5 Boron B 20 Calcium Ca
6 Carbon C 21 Barium Ba
7 Nitrogen N 22 Bromine Br
8 Oxygen O 23 Cobalt CO
9 Fluorine F 24 Gold Au
10 Neon Ne 25 Iodine I
11 Sodium Na 26 Iron Fe
12 Magnesium Mg 27 Lead Pb
13 Aluminium Al 28 Uranium U
14 Silicon Si 29 Zinc Zn
15 Phosphorus P

Name of Element Latin Name Symbol

Silver Argentum Ag
Copper Cuprus Cu

3
 Gold Aurum Au
Iron Ferrum Fe
Potassium Kalium K
Sodium Natrium Na
Lead Plumbum Pb
Antimony Stibium Sb
Tungsten Wolfram W

Atomic Mass
Atom is so small in size that it may not be possible to isolate single atom and then weigh it. The
mass of the atom of an element is also extremely small, so gram or kilogram is a very big unit to
express the mass of an atom of a particular element.
“The mass of an Atom of an element is called it’s atomic mass.”

Atomic mass Unit (Amu)

Atomic masses are very small. To express atomic mass (amu) unit called atomic mass unit is
commonly used but according to latest IUPAC recommendation it is now written as u(unified
mass)
“The atomic mass unit is defined as the quantity of mass equal to 1/12th of mass of an atom of
carbon–12”
1 amu=1/12𝑡ℎ (mass of one C–12 atom)
Mass of and C–12 atom is =1.99×10–23 g

1 amu=
1
12
(1.99 10−23 g ) =1.66×10–24
1 amu=1.66×10–27 kg
Element Atomic Mass
Hydrogen 1𝑢
Carbon 12 𝑢
Nitrogen 14 𝑢
Oxygen 16 𝑢
Sodium 23 𝑢
Magnesium 24 𝑢
Sulphur 32 𝑢
Chlorine 35.5 𝑢
Calcium 40 𝑢

4
Q. Why Carbon – 12 isotope was chosen as the standard reference for measuring
atomic mass? NCERT Exercise

Sol. Initially, Scientists used 1/16 of the mass of an atom of Naturally occurring oxygen
because

i) Oxygen reacted with a large number of element to form compound

ii) This gave the masses of most elements as whole number.
However, in 1961 Carbon – 12 isotope is considered as standard reference for measuring
atomic mass. Reasons for choosing C – 12 as our ref.
i) C – 12 isotope is very Abundant in Nature
ii) Least Reactive
iii) C – 12 = 99% on earth crust.

How Do Atom Exist

• Atoms of most elements are not able to exist
independently; because atoms of most of the elements
are very reactive.
• Only the atoms of Noble gases (He, Ar, Kr, Xe) are
chemically unreactive and can exist in the free state as
single atom.
• Atoms of all other element Combine together to form
molecule or ion.

Molecules
“Group of two or more atoms that are chemically Bonded together”
A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that is capable of an independent existence.

Example: 𝐻2 𝑂 is the smallest particle of water which shows all the

properties of water.
• Hydrogen gas consists of 𝑯𝟐 molecule
• Nitrogen gas exist in the form of 𝑵𝟐 molecule
• Oxygen gas exist in the form of 𝑶𝟐 molecule
• Chlorine gas exist in the form of 𝑪𝒍𝟐 molecule

Atomicity
“The number of Atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity”
• Atomicity of inert gases (𝑯𝒆, 𝑵𝒆, 𝑨𝒓, 𝑲𝒓) and metals like 𝑳𝒊, 𝑵𝒂, 𝑲, 𝑪𝒖 etc. is 1 (one)

5
 • Molecules of some elements contain 2 atoms these are diatomic, i.e. their atomicity is 2
Example: 𝑯𝟐 , 𝑶𝟐 , 𝑵𝟐 , 𝑪𝒍𝟐 etc.
• The ozone (𝑶𝟑 ) molecule containing 3 atoms and so, it’s atomicity is 3. (Triatomic)
• Phosphorus molecule (𝑷𝟒 ) are tetra atomic, its atomicity is 4 (Tetraatomic)

Molecules of Compounds
“Atoms of different elements join together in definite proportion to form molecules of
compound.”
Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass
Water (𝐻2 𝑂) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1∶8
Ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 ) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14 ∶ 3
Carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ) Carbon, Oxygen 3∶8

Formation of ions
A cation (Positively Charge ion) is Formed when an atom loses one or more electron and get
positive charge on it
Example: When sodium (𝑁𝑎) loses an electron, sodium ion is formed (𝑁𝑎+ ).
𝑵𝒂+ is a cation because it has positive charge on it.
An Anion (Negatively charged ion) is formed when an atom gain one or more
electrons and get negative charge on it.
𝑪𝒍(𝒈) + 𝒆− → 𝑪𝒍− (𝒈)
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝑨𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏

Chemical Formula
“It is the Symbolic Representation of the composition of a compounds.”
Characteristics of Chemical Formula
• The charges on ion must balance.
• When, symbol of metal comes first
Example: 𝐶𝑎𝑂, 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
• When polyatomic ions are used, the ions are enclosed in Brackets before writing the
number to show the ratio
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 , (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4
Valency
• A chemical compound is formed by the combination or more elements in a definite
proportion by weight the combining capacity of all the elements are not same.
• It is observed that one atom of an element combines with a definite number of atoms of
other elements to form a stable compound, valency is defined as combining capacity of
any element.
Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of an element will combine with the
atoms of another element to for chemical compound.

6
Rules for writing Chemical Formulas
1. We have to first write symbols of elements which form a compound
2. Below the symbol of each element, we should write their valency.
3. Now cross over the valences of combining atom.
Non-
Polyatomic Symbol
Valency Name of ion Symbol metallic Symbol
ions
element
1 Sodium 𝑁𝑎+ Hydrogen 𝐻+ Ammonium 𝑁𝐻4+
Potassium 𝐾+ Hydride 𝐻− Hydroxide 𝑂𝐻 −
Silver 𝐴𝑔+ Chloride 𝐶𝑙 − Nitrate 𝑁𝑂3−
Copper (I)* 𝐶𝑢+ Bromide 𝐵𝑟
Hydrogen 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
Iodide 𝐼−
Carbonate
2 Magnesium 𝑀𝑔2+ Oxide 𝑂2− Carbonate 𝐶𝑂32−
Calcium 𝐶𝑎2+ Sulphide 𝑆 2− Sulphite 𝑆𝑂32−
Zinc 𝑍𝑛2+ Sulphate 𝑆𝑂42−
Iron (II)* 𝐹𝑒 2+
Copper (II)* 𝐶𝑢2+
3 Aluminium 𝐴𝑙3+ Nitride 𝑁 3− Phosphate 𝑃𝑂43−
Iron (III)* 𝐹𝑒 3+

Formula of Simple Compound

1. Formula of Hydrogen Chloride

2. Formula of Hydrogen Sulphide

3. Formula of Carbon tetrachloride

4. Formula of Magnesium Chloride

5. Barium Chloride

7
 6. Calcium Nitride

7. Ferric Sulphide

8. Cuprous Sulphate

9. Potassium Carbonate

10. Aluminium Oxide

11. Ammonium Sulphate

Molecular Mass
It is the sum of atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of that substance
Example: Molecular Mass of 𝐻2 𝑂 = 2 × Atomic mass of Hydrogen +1 × Atomic
Molecular Mass of 𝐻2 𝑂 = 2 × 1 + 16 × 1
= 2 × 16 = 32
Q. A gas containing 1.7 g of Ammonia gas. Calculate the molar mass of Ammonia gas.
NCERT Exercise
Sol. 𝑁𝐻3
= 14 + 3 × 1
=14 + 3 = 17 g
Q. Calculate the molecular mass of 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 . NCERT Exercise
Sol. 𝐻𝑁𝑂3
1 + 14 + 3 × 16 = 63u

8
Formula Unit Mass
The molecular of some substances are made up of ion. e.g. 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 is made up of 𝑁𝑎+ and 𝐶𝑙 − in
these compound, we can also use the term formula unit mass in place of molecular mass.
Example: A formula unit of sodium chloride (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙)
has formula unit mass = (23 + 35.5)
= 58.5 𝑢
A unit of Potassium carbonate (𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 ) has formula unit = (2 × 39 + 12 + 3 × 16) = 138 𝑢
Q. Calculate the formula unit mass of 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 . NCERT Exercise
Sol. Atomic mass of Ca + 2 × Atomic mass of Cl
40 + 2 × 35.5 = 111 u
= 14 + 3 = 17 g
Mole Concept
A group of 6.022 × 1023 particles of a substance is called one mole of that substance.
1 mole of Atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms
1 mole of molecules = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
“According to Avogadro’s Hypothesis, under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules”.
Avogadro’s Number
“The Number of particles present in one mole of a substance is known as Avogadro’s
Number.”
It is equal to 6.023 × 1023 ; It is represented by No and it is named in honour of Italian scientist
Amedo Avogadro
Relationship between mole, Avogadro number and mass
1. 1 mole of carbon atom = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of carbon and 6.022 × 1023 atom of carbon
= 12𝑔 of carbon atom
2. 1 mole of hydrogen atoms = 6.022 × 1023 of hydrogen = 1 𝑔 of Hydrogen atom
3. 1 mole of any particle = 6.022 × 1023 no.
4. 1 mole of molecule = 6.022 × 1023 number of molecule
= Molecular mass in grams

Formulas
Given mass
1. No. of moles =
Molar mass
Given mass
2. No. of Atoms/molecules =
Molar mass
× NA
N
3. No. of moles =
N0

9
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Calculate the number of moles for the following:
i. 𝟓𝟐 𝒈 of 𝑯𝒆 (finding mole from mass)
ii. 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑯𝒆 atoms (finding mole from number of particles).

Sol. No. of moles = n

Given mass = m
Molar mass = M
Given number of particles = N
Avogadro number of particles = N0
i. Atomic number of 𝐻𝑒
Molar mass of 𝐻𝑒
Thus, the number of moles
Given mass
=
Molar mass
m 52
⇒𝑛= = = 13
M 4
ii. we know,
1 mole = 6.022 × 1023
given number of particles
=
Avogadro number
23
N 12.044×10
=𝑛= = 23 = 2
N0 6.022×10
Q2. Calculate the mass of the following:
i) 𝟎. 𝟓 mole of 𝑵𝟐 gas (mass from mole of molecule)
ii) 𝟎. 𝟓 mole of 𝑵 atoms (mass from mole of atom)
iii) 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑵 atoms (mass from number)
iv) 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 number of 𝑵𝟐 molecules (mass from number)

Sol. i) mass = molar mass × number of moles

⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 28 × 0.5 = 14 𝑔
ii) mass = molar mass × number of moles
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 14 × 0.5 = 7 𝑔
iii) The number of moles, 𝑛
given number of particles N
= =
Avogadro number N0
23
3.011×10
= 23
6.022×10
23
3.011×10
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝑛 = 14 × 23
6.022×10
= 14 × 0.5 = 7 𝑔
N
iv) 𝑛 =
N0

10
 23
N 6.022×10
⇒𝑚=𝑀× = 28 × 23
N0 6.022×10
= 28 × 1 = 28 𝑔

Q3. How many moles of oxygen atom are there in 𝟑𝟐 𝒈 of oxygen?

Sol. 16 𝑔 of oxygen = 1 mole

32 𝑔 = 2 moles

Q4. Convert into moles:-

i) 𝟏𝟐 𝒈 of oxygen gas
ii) 𝟐𝟐 𝒈 of carbondioxide
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Sol. i) mole =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Molar mass of oxygen gas (𝑂2 ) = 16 × 2 = 32
12
= = 0.375
32
given mass
ii) mole =
Molar mass
Molar mass of 𝐶𝑂2 = 44 𝑔
22
= = 0.5 moles.
44
Q5. Which of the following correctly represents 𝟑𝟔𝟎 𝒈 of water ?
i) 𝟐 moles of 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
ii) 𝟐𝟎 moles of water
iii) 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 molecules of water
iv) 𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 molecules of water
a) only (i) b) (i) and (iv)
c) (ii) and (iii) d) (ii) and (iv)
Thinking Process
𝟏 mole = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 atoms/molecules/ions of a substance = gram molecular
mass
Sol. (ii) and (iv) points correctly represent 360 𝑔 of water.
(ii) From point,
∵ 1 mole of water = molar mass of water = 18 𝑔
∴ 20 moles of water = 18 𝑔 × 20 = 360 𝑔
(iv) From point,
∵ 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water = 1 mole = 18 𝑔 of water
18 𝑔×1.2044×1025
∴ 1.2044 × 1025 molecules of water = = 360 𝑔
6.022×1023
Therefore, points (ii) and (iv) represent 360 𝑔 of water.
Students can check other points also, as
Students can check other points also, as

11
 (i) 1 mole of water = molar mass of water = 18𝑔 of water.
∴ 2 mole of water = 18 × 2 = 360 𝑔
(ii) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water = 18 𝑔 water.

Q6. The chemical symbol for sodium is

a) So b) Sd c) NA d) Na
Sol. The chemical symbol for sodium is derived from its Latin name ‘Natrium’. In a ‘two letter’
symbol, the first letter is the ‘capital letter’ but the second letter is the ‘small letter’.
Therefore, its symbol is ‘Na’.

Q7. Which of the following has maximum number of atoms?

a) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 b) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑶𝟐
c) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑪𝑶𝟐 d) 𝟏𝟖 𝒈 of 𝑪𝑯𝟒
Thinking Process
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
Number of atoms = × 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 × 𝑷
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
Where, P = number of atoms in the molecule
Sol. Option (𝑑) is the correct answer, i.e., 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 has maximum number of atoms.
As,
18
a) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐻2 𝑂 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 3
18
= 18.066 × 1023 = 1.8066 × 1024
18
b) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝑂2 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 2
32
= 3.387 × 1023 × 2 = 6.774 × 1023
18
c) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝑂2 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 3 = 7.390 × 1023
44
18
d) Number of atoms in 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 = × 6.022 × 1023 × 5 = 3.387 × 1024
16
Thus, 18 𝑔 of 𝐶𝐻4 contains the maximum number of atoms.

Q8. Which of the following represents a correct chemical formula? Name it.
a) 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍 b) 𝑩𝒊𝑷𝑶𝟒
c) 𝑵𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 d) 𝑵𝒂𝑺
Thinking Process
i) Option (a) has correct formula − 𝑪𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐 − Calcium Chloride
ii) Option (c) has correct formula − 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒 − Sodium sulphate
iii) Option (d) has correct formula − 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑺 − Sodium sulphide
Sol. 𝐵𝑖𝑃𝑂4 , is the correct formula, its name is bismuth phosphate.

Q9. Write the molecular formulae for the following compounds

a) Copper (II) bromide b) Aluminium (III) nitrate
c) Calcium (II) phosphate d) Iron (III) sulphide
e) Mercury (II) chloride f) Magnesium (II) acetate

12
Sol. a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Q10. Which of the following symbols of elements are incorrect? Give their correct
symbols.
a) Cobalt 𝑪𝑶 b) Carbon 𝒄
c) Aluminium 𝑨𝒍 d) Helium 𝑯𝒆
e) Sodium 𝑺𝒐
Ans. a) Cobalt 𝐶𝑂 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐶𝑜.
b) Carbon 𝑐 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐶.
c) Aluminium 𝐴𝑙 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝐴𝑙.
e) Sodium 𝑆𝑜 is incorrect symbol. Its correct symbol is 𝑁𝑎. (It is derived from Latin name
‘Natrium’).
d) Helium, 𝐻𝑒 is the correct symbol.

13
 Structrue of Atom
Dalton considered atom to be an indivisible particle but this concept is rejected at the end of
19th Century. When Scientists contributed in revealing the presence of charge particle in an
atom.
These particles were called the Sub-Atomic particle.
• Discovery of Electrons J.J Thomson
• Discovery of Protons Rutherford
• Discovery of Neutron Chadwick
• Discovery of Canal Rays E. Goldstein

Particle Charge Mass

𝑒− −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔

𝑝+ +1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 1.67 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔

𝑛 No charge 1.67 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔

Canal Ray (Or Anode Rays)

Stream of Positively charged particles, which move towards negatively charge electrode.

Structure of an Atom
Thomson’s Model of an Atom
• Compared to Christmas Pudding: Electrons are dry fruits of Christmas pudding, inside
the positive sphere.

• Compared with Watermelon: Red part of watermelon is positive part of Atom and
electrons are studded in positive part in the water melon.

1
Postulates of Thomson
• An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons and embedded in it.
• The negative and positive charges are equal in Magnitude, so atom as a whole is
electrically Neutral.
“Thomson’s Model explained that atom are electrically neutral”
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Rutherford is famous for -Ray scattering experiment. Fast moving -particles were made to
fall on a thin gold foil.
Observation made by Rutherford in his experiment.
• Most of -particles passed via gold foil undeflected.
• Some of the -particles deflected by foil by small angle.
• One out of every 12000 particles appeared to Rebound

Conclusion
• Atom consists of empty space as most of -particles passed through gold Foil
undeflected.
• Since, some of the -particles were deflected by the foil by small angle and very few
bounced back this lead to conclusion that most of the space in an atom is empty.
• Atom contain nucleus in the center of Atom (Carrying positively charged particles) i.e.
one in 12000 bounced back.
• Size of nucleus was about 10−5 times the size of the atom.
Features of Rutherford proposed Model of Atom
• There is positively placed nucleus in an atom. Nearly all the mass present in Nucleus
(Proton + Neutrons)
Mass No. = No. of Proton + No. of Neutrons

Eg. No. of Neutrons present in the Nucleus = 6

No. of Neutrons present in the Nucleus = 6
Mass No. = 6 + 6 = 12
• Electrons Revolve around the Nucleus in well defined orbit.
• Size of Nucleus is very small as compared to the size of atom.

Drawback of Rutherford’s Model

Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability of the atom
this is because according to Rutherford’s model an atom consist
of a small heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre and
the electrons are revolving around it. These revolving electrons
would lose energy as they are charged particles and due to
acceleration charged particle would Radiate energy. Ultimately
the e− should fall into the Nucleus.

2
Q. Element ‘X’ has a proton number of 𝟕. It also have seven neutrons.
a) Deduce the number of electrons and nucleons of ‘X’
b) Represent ‘X’ by writing the chemical symbol [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. 𝑝 = 7, 𝑛 = 7
a) Number of electrons = Number of protons = 7
Number of nucleons = number of 𝑝 + number of 𝑛
= 7 + 7 = 14
14
b) 7𝑋

Bohr’s Model of Atom

To overcome drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model, Neil Bohr in 1912 proposed modified structure
of Atom.

Postulates of Bohr Model

1. Only certain special orbit known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the
atom.
2. While revolving in discrete orbit, electrons do not radiate energy.
3. These orbits or shells are called Energy

These orbits OR shells are Represented by the letters

𝐾, 𝐿, 𝑀, 𝑁 or numbers 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4

Mass Number
• It is denoted by ‘A’
• Mass number of total sum of total number of protons and no. of Neutrons lying in the
nucleus of an atom.
• Mass number = No. of Protons + No. of Neutron

Atomic Number
“Total number of protons present in the Nucleus of any Atom is called the atomic Number.”
→ Atomic Number is denoted by ‘z’.

Distribution of electrons in various shells

Distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by
“Bohr – Bury Scheme”

3
1. Filling of electrons in an atom is done by 2n2 Rule where n = no. of shell.
If 𝑛 = 1, K (1st shell) = 2𝑛2
= 2 × (1)2
= 2 × 1 = 2𝑒 −
If 𝑛 = 2, K (2nd shell) = 2𝑛2
= 2 × (2)2
= 2×4
= 8𝑒 −
2. The outermost shell; Can’t hold more than 8 electrons
Name of Element Atomic No. Electronic Configuration
1 𝐻 1 𝐾(1)
2 𝐻𝑒 2 𝐾(2)
3 𝐿𝑖 3 𝐾(2) 𝐿(1)
4 𝐵𝑒 4 𝐾(2) 𝐿(2)
5 𝐵 5 𝐾(2) 𝐿(3)
6 𝐶 6 𝐾(2) 𝐿(4)
7 𝑁 7 𝐾(2) 𝐿(5)
8 𝑂 8 𝐾(2) 𝐿(6)
9 𝐹 9 𝐾(2) 𝐿(7)
10 𝑁𝑒 10 𝐾(2) 𝐿(8)
11 𝑁𝑎 11 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(1)
12 𝑀𝑔 12 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(2)
13 𝐴𝑙 13 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(3)
14 𝑆𝑖 14 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(4)
15 𝑃 15 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(5)
16 𝑆 16 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(6)
17 𝐶𝑙 17 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(7)
18 𝐴𝑟 18 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(8)
19 𝐾 19 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(8), 𝑁(1)
20 𝐶𝑎 20 𝐾(2), 𝐿(8), 𝑀(8), 𝑁(2)

Valency
“Combining capacity of any Element is known as Valency”
• From Bohr – Bury Scheme, we also know that If outermost shell of an atom has of 8e− in
outermost shell it become very stable.
• It means if in any Element outermost shell contain 8 electron, It is already stable so, it
will not combine with other element so it’s valency will be zero.
• These Elements are know as inert Elements.
• In case of Helium, It has two electrons in it’s outer-most shell, due to small size of
Helium. We cannot comp. it’s octate so 𝐻 and 𝐻𝑒 are exceptions of octate Rule.

4
 Octate Rule Duplet Rule
The tendency of atom of prefer Duplet Rule, states that an elements is stable if its
to have eight electrons in atom has 2 electrons in it’s outermost shell and to
outermost shell. When atoms attain this state, elements lose, gain or share electrons
have fewer than 8e− s, they tend and form Chemical Bond.
to React and form more stable The only elements known to follow this Rule are
compound Hydrogen, 𝑯𝒆 , 𝑳𝒊

You know what!

Protons + Neutrons = Nucleons

Protons and Neutrons are Collectively known as Nucleons.

Representation of an Atom
A
A Represent mass number
Z Represent atomic number X
X Represent element Z

14
N 14 is mass number of Nitrogen
7 7 is Atomic number of Nitrogen

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of same element, having same atomic number and different mass number.
Eg. a) 126C and 146C b) 35
17Cl and 17Cl
37

Uses of Isotopes
• Uranium isotopes is used as fuel in Nuclear Rector
• Isotopes of Cobalt is useful in treatment of cancer
• An isotope of Iodine is used in the treatment of goiter.
Isobars
Isobars are the atoms of those elements, which have same mass number but different atomic
number are called Isobars.
Eg. (1) Ca40
20 and Ar18 have same mass number and different atomic Number.
40

Average Atomic mass

The Average atomic mass of an element is the sum of the masses of it’s isotopes, each
multiplied by it’s natural abundance.
Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 𝑢 and 37 𝑢 in the ratio of 3 ∶ 1.
The average atomic mass of chlorine atom, on the basis of above data, will be
75 25 105 37 142
[(35 × 100 + 100) = ( 4 + 4 ) = 4 = 35.5 𝑢]

5
Q. The average Atomic mass of sample of an element ‘𝑿’ is 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐 𝒖. What are the % age
of isotopes 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝑿 and 𝟏𝟖𝟖𝑿 in the sample? [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. Let the % age of isotope 168𝑋 = 𝑋 % age of isotope 188𝑋 = 100 − 𝑋
Average atomic mass
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 168𝑋×𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 168𝑋+𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 188𝑋×𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 188𝑋
= 100
𝑥×16+(100−𝑥)×18
= 16.2 = 100
16𝑥+1800−18𝑥
= 16.2 = 100
= 1620 = 16𝑥 + 1800 − 18𝑥
1620 = −2𝑥 + 1800 or 2𝑥 = 1800 − 1620
2𝑥 = 180
180
∴𝑥= = 90
2

Thus % of isotope 168𝑋 = 90%

% of isotope 188𝑋 = (100 − 90) = 10%

Notes End

6
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Which of the following are true for an element?
i) Atomic number = number of protons + number of electron.
ii) Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
iii) Atomic number = number of protons = number of neutrons
iv) Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
a) (i) and (ii) b) (i) and (iii)
c) (ii) and (iii) d) (ii) and (iv)
Sol. Points (ii) and (iv) are correct.
Q2. Will 𝟑𝟓𝑪𝒍 and 𝟑𝟕𝑪𝒍 have different valencies? Justify your answer.
Sol. No. 35𝐶 𝑙 and 37𝐶 𝑙 have same valency. 35𝐶 𝑙 and 37𝐶 𝑙 are the isotopes. So, they have same
number of protons and electrons and have the same atomic number viz. 17

𝐾 𝐿𝑀
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 7

Valency 8 − 7 = 1

Therefore, both of them have valency = 1

Q3. Why did Rutherford select a gold foil in his 𝜶-ray scattering experiment?
Sol. Gold is a heavy metal with high mass number. A light metal cannot be used because on
being hit by fast moving 𝛼-particle, the atom of light metal will be simply pushed forward
and no scattering can occur. Moreover, gold is the best malleable metal. A very thin foil
(≈ 1000 atoms thick) can be made from gold to get the clear observations.

Q4. Calculate the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an element 𝑿 which is
represented as 𝟑𝟏
𝟏𝟓𝑿.

Sol. 31
15𝑋 represents
Atomic number, 𝑍 = 15
Mass number, 𝐴 = 31
∴ Number of neutrons = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 31 − 15 = 16

Q5. Why do helium, neon and argon have a zero valency?

Sol. Helium (𝐻𝑒), neon (𝑁𝑒) and argon (𝐴𝑟) have completely filled outermost shell, i.e.,
𝐾 𝐾 𝐿
2𝐻𝑒 → 2 (𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡) 10𝑁𝑒 → 2 8(𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑡)
𝐾 𝐿 𝑀
18𝐴𝑟 → 2 8 8 (𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑡)

Thus, they have stable electronic configuration. They neither lose electrons nor gain
electrons. Hence, their valency is zero.

Q8. a) If the number of electrons in anion is 𝟏𝟎 and number of proton is 𝟗 then

7
 i) What would be the atomic number of the ion?
ii) What is the charge on the ion?
b) An ion 𝑴𝟐+ contains 𝟏𝟎 electrons and 𝟏𝟐 Neutrons what is the atomic
number and mass number of the element 𝑴? Name the element.

Sol. a) i) Atomic number (𝑧) = No. of protons = 9

ii) Charge on the ion = −1
b) No. of electrons in 𝑀+2 ions = 10
Atomic number of atom 𝑀 = 10 + 2 = 12
No. of protons atom 𝑀 = No. of protons + No. of Neutrons
12 + 12 = 24
The element 𝑀 with atomic number 12 is 𝑀𝑔.
23
N 6.022×10
⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑀 × N = 28 × 23 = 28 × 1 = 28 𝑔
0 6.022×10

8
 The Fundamental Unit of Life – Cell
!
Cell
 The word cell is derived from the Latin word ‘cellula’ which
means a little room.
 Human body is composed of more than 200 different kinds
of cells, each specialized for distinctive functions as
memory, sight, movement and digestion.
 A cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
 Cell is the building block of which all living organisms are made.
 It is the smallest unit of life capable of all the living functions.
Discovery of Cell
 In 1665, Robert Hooke saw the cork resembled the structure of honey comb consisting of
many little compartments.
 Cork is obtained from the bark of a tree.
 Nerve cells carry message
 Hooke observed cork’s honeycombed or porous structure.
 Hooke found porous structure of cork to resemble with monasteries
and called the units, cells.
 He published his work in a book ‘Micrographia’ in 1665.

Robert Hooke’s Microscope Dead Cork cells by Robert Hooke

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

 He made an improved microscope.
 He discovered sperm cells of humans, dogs, rabbits, frogs,
fish & insects.
Cell Theory
 In 1838, Jacob Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist proposed the idea that all plants
consist of cells.
 In 1839, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist, proposed the idea that all animals consist
of cells.

1
 Omnis Cellulae a Cellula

The cell theory was refined further in 1855, when another German biologist, R. Virchow
presented the idea that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

 All organisms are composed of cells and cell products (e.g., secretions).
 All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and functional units of
life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells only. No cell can originate spontaneously or de novo
(anew) but comes into being only by division of already existing cells.
 Every organism starts its life as a single cell. Viruses are an exception to cell theory.
Instruments for Studying Cells
A. Light or Compound Microscope:

 The simple student’s microscope which is often used in schools is called compound
microscope.
 Many lenses are combined together and their magnification power range from 300 to
1500 times.
 It uses glass lenses.
 It uses a beam of light illuminate the object.
 Internal vacuum is not essential.

B. Electron Microscope:

 An electron microscope is a very large instrument that uses electromagnets for

magnification and electrons for illumination.
 It uses very high voltage electricity.
 It uses electromagnets.
 It uses a beam of electrons instead of light.
 Internal vacuum is essential.
Purkinje
In 1839, he coined the term Protoplasm.

Protoplasm: It is the living fluid substance present inside the cell.

Schleiden and Schwann
 They gave cell theory.
 Schleiden proposed that all plants consist of cells.
 Schwann proposed that all animals consist of cells.

2
Virchow
 He further explained the cell theory.
 'All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Protoplasm
The contents of a living cell, contained within the plasma membrane, form protoplasm.
Protoplasm is usually differentiated into the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Q. What is plasmolysis? What happens to a plasmolysed cell when it is placed in water?
[NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Shrinkage of protoplast from the cell wall in presence of hypertonic solution due to exosmosis
is known as plasmolysis. When a plasmolysed cell is placed in water, the concentration of
water in the outside medium is more than the concentration in the cell. Hence, water moves
inside the cell leading to its swelling.

Gene
 It is a distinct unit of hereditary information. Gene is inherited
from one generation to next and determines an observable
characteristic or trait of an organism.
 Genes have to carry coded information of parents to their children
or progeny, so that children remain exactly like their parents.
Generally a gene is made of DNA molecule, but sometimes it is
made of RNA molecule as observed in Tobacco mosaic Virus
(TMV)
DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; a polymeric nucleic acid.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; a polymeric nucleic acid.

Q. (i) Where are chromosomes present in the cell? What is their chemical composition?
(ii) How many pairs of chromosomes are present in human? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. (i) Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of a cell. Their chemical composition is of DNA,
RNA and proteins.
(ii) Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Non Cellular Organisms

 Lack any membrane
 Do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body.
 They use host’s machinery to reproduce
Cellular Organisms

3
i) Prokaryotic Cells ii) Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
 Nucleolus is absent.
 Membrane bound cell organelles are absent.
 Cell division takes place by fission or budding (no mitosis.)
 Size of a cell is generally small (1-10 mm)
 Nucleus is absent (Nuclear region or nucleoid is not surrounded by a nuclear
membrane).
 It contains single chromosome.
Eukaryotic Cell
 Size of a cell is generally large (5-10 mm)
 Nucleus is present (Nuclear material is surrounded by a nuclear membrane).
 It contains more than one chromosome.
 Nucleolus is present.
 Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, plastids,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
 Cell division occurs by mitotic or meiotic cell division.

Nucleus Nucleoid
 It is larger in size.  It is comparatively smaller in size.
 It has a covering of double  A covering membrane is absent. It
membrane envelope. lies free in the cytoplasm.
 Nucleolus is present in it.  Nucleolus is absent it.
 Complete DNA is present  Single DNA molecule is present.
 DNA has histone proteins.  Histones are absent.

Unicellular Organisms
 ‘Uni’ means one, ‘cellular’ means cell.
 One cell performs all the activities of organism.
 No division of labour
 Only visible under the microscope.
 Their life span is short
 Examples – Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium

4
Multicellular Organisms
 ‘Multi’ means many, ‘cellular means cell
 A single cell performs one or few activities of the organism.
 Division of labour with in cells.
 These organisms are visible to the naked eyes.
 Their life span is long
 Examples – Fungus, Plants and Animals

Division of Labour
Sperm, White Blood Cell, Bone Cell, Nerve Cell, Fat Cell, Heart, Stomach, Muscles, Lungs, Eye.

Organelles
 There are components of cell to perform special function.
 All cells have same organelles, no matter what their function is.
 Eg. Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, chloroplast etc.
There are 3 parts of a cell
 Plasma Membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
 It is thin, elastic and delicate living membrane.
 It is present on the inner side of the cell wall, in plants .
 It is made up of two layers of lipid molecules along with protein molecules embedded in it.
 Also called as SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE, because it allows entry and exit of
only few substances.
 It gives shape and rigidity to the cell.
Note: Viruses do not have any membranes.

Functions of Plasma Membrane

 It gives definite shape to the cell.
 It provides protection to internal contents of the cell.
 It regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell.
 The useful molecules enter the cell.
 Secretions and wastes leave the cell.

5
  Selective permeability of the cellular membranes enables the cell to maintain
homeostasis, i.e., a constant internal environment inspite of the changes outside it.
Cell Wall

 It is thick, nonliving and rigid.

 It is permeable and made up of cellulose and present in plant cells only.
Functions of Cell Wall
 It determines the shape of the plant cell.
 It prevents drying up of cells.
 It protects plasma membrane & internal structures of the cell.
Protoplasm
All the components of a living cell including the cell membrane is known as Protoplasm
Cytoplasm
The Protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus is called as Cytoplasm.
Diffusion
 The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to low
concentration is called diffusion.
 It plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cells and
its external environment.
Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from a region of high a concentration to low concentration
or from a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration is called Osmosis.

Endocytosis
It is the ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma membrane.

Phagocytosis
 It is a type of endocytosis which means ‘cell eating’.
 It is seen in protozoans like amoeba and in some sponges.

Nucleus
The nucleus is a large sphere inside the cell

 Nuclear Envelope → It is the outer and porous covering of Nucleus.

 Nucleoplasm → It is the liquid substance inside the Nucleus
 Nucleolus → It is present in Nucleoplasm and has proteins.

6
  Chromatin → It is a thread like genetic material present inside the Nucleus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It is a large network fo membrane-bound tubes and sheets
 Some are connected to the nuclear membrane
 They serve as channels for the transport of materials between various regions of
cytoplasm.
 They function as a cytoplasmic framework to provide surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

 It has ribosomes attached to it.
 Their main function is to synthesize proteins.
 It is abundant in exocrine pancreatic cells and antibodies secreting plasma cells.
 It contains flattened sacs called cisternae.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

 It does not have any ribosomes attached to it
 Their main function is to manufacture proteins, lipids and fats.
 SER also detoxify poisons and drugs from the liver cells of vertebrate.
 It is abundant in liver and the testicular cells.
 It is mainly formed of vesicles and tubules.
Membrane Biogenesis
The process of building the cell membrane with the help of proteins and lipids is called
membrane Biogenesis.

Ribosomes
 They can occur freely or some may remain attached to Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).

APNI KAKSHA 7
  Their main function is to synthesize proteins.
 They are not bounded by membrane.
Golgi Apparatus
 It was first described by Camilo Golgi.
 It consists of a system of membrane bound vesicles.
 These vesicles are parallel to each other and are called Cisterns.
 The pack and dispatch the material made by ER inside and outside the cell.
 It stores, modify and package the products in vesicles.
 It helps in the formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes
 They form the waste disposal system of the cell.
 They keep the cell clean by digesting foreign, material as well is old cell organelles.
 When the cell gets damaged, lysosomes burst and digests their own cell.
 Therefore, lysosomes are known as the ‘suicide bags’ of the cell.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are known as Power house of the cell.
 They have double outer membrane.
 The inner membrane is folded and is called cristae
 They have their own DNA and ribosomes.
 They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells.
 They use molecular oxygen from air to oxidize the carbohydrates and fats.
 They synthesize energy rich compounds (ATP)
 ATP is the energy carrier or energy currency of the cell.

8
Q. What is active transport? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. The movement of molecules across a membrane in cells against a concentration gradient with
the help of ATP units is called active transport.

Plastids
 They are present only in plant cells.
 There are of two types-Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and Leucoplasts (white or
colourless plastids)
 Plastids having chlorophyll are known as Chloroplasts.
 Chloroplast are the site of photosynthesis.
 Plastids also have their own DNA & ribosomes.

Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
 Vacuoles are small in animal cells & very large in plant cell (50-90% of cell volume)
 In plants, vacuoles provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell and also stores substances like
amino acids, sugars, organic acids, and some proteins.
 Covering of vacuole is called Tonoplast.
 Helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell (Osmoregulation).

9
 Animal Cell Plant Cell
Animal cells are generally small in size. Plant cells are larger than animal cells.
Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is made up of Cellulose.
Except the protozoan Euglena, no animal Plastids are present.
cell has plastids.
Vacuoles are small and large in number Large central vacuole is present.
Has complex and prominent Golgi Simple units of Golgi apparatus are present
apparatus. (Dictyosomes).

Important NCERT Questions

Q1. Plasma membrane is made up of which two components?
Sol. Plasma membrane is made up of lipids and proteins.
Q2. What is hypotonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration lower than that of the cell sap is called hypotonic
solution.
Q3. What is hypertonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration higher than that of the cell sap is called hypertonic
solution.
Q4. What is isotonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration same as that of the cell sap is called isotonic solution.
Q5. Cell wall is made up of which component?
Sol. Cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Q6. Describe the microscopic structure of the cell.
Sol. The cork cells were the first cells to be observed. They were composed of box-like
compartments, forming a honeycomb structure. Cell organelles are found embedded in the
cytoplasm.These are smaller in size and bounded by plasma membrane.
Q7. Why do the animal cells not have cell wall?
Sol. Animals do not have rigid walls because cell walls are incompatible with the way in which an
animal moves and grow. The flaccid cell membrane provides the animal cell freedom of
mobility and formation of different tissues which is not present in plants.
Q8. Why are the Golgi bodies found in large numbers in the cells which secrete digestive
enzymes?

1
0
Sol. The main function of Golgi bodies is to release proteins or enzymes by vesicles. No other
organelle has this property. Therefore, these are largely present in secreting cells.
Q9. What are the functions of nuclear membrane?
Sol. A nuclear envelope separates the environment of nucleus from that of rest of the cell.
It protects the genetic material from damage.
It facilitates and regulates exchange of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Q10. How will absence of any one of the cell organelle affect the cell’s working?
Sol. Functions of all the organelles are inter-linked to each other and ultimately to the working of
the cell. So, if even a single link is missing, the cell ultimately suffers and die. For example,
DNA from the nucleus passes the information for protein formation to the ribosomes which
send the proteins to Golgi complex and ER for modification and transport.
Q11. If you are provided with some vegetables to cook, you generally add salt into the
vegetables. After adding salt, vegetables release water. Why?
Sol. When salt is added, a hypotonic medium is created, i.e., the concentration of salt molecules is
more outside the vegetables than inside. Hence, due to osmosis water from the vegetables
come out.
Q12. How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each other?
Sol. Chromatin is a thin thread-like structure which is composed of DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid)
and proteins to form a rod-like chromatid. Two similar chromatids attach to a centromere to
form a chromosome.
Q13. Write the name of different plant parts in which chromoplast, chloroplast and leucoplast
are present.
Sol. Chromoplasts are present in flowers, fruits or any other coloured part of the plant (other than
green part).
Chloroplasts are present in leaves and stem of plant (green part).
Leucoplasts are present anywhere in plant as they are colourless and store food.

1
1
 Tissues
Tissues
➢ There term tissue was given by Bichat in 1792.
➢ Study of tissues is called Histology.

Division of Labour
➢ Cells are specialized to carry out only a few functions.
➢ Examples: Muscle cells contract and relax to cause movement
➢ Examples: Nerve cells carry message
➢ Examples: Blood flows to transport oxygen, food, hormones, waste etc.
➢ Examples: In plants, Xylem tissue conducts water.

Are plants and animals made of same types of tissues?

➢ Plants do not move to search food.
➢ Plants do not consume much energy.
➢ Plants are Autotrophic.
➢ Animals move in search of food.
➢ They need more energy as compare to plants.
➢ They are heterotrophic
Differences between Plant & Animal Tissues
Plant Tissues Animal Tissues
1. Dead tissues are more than living tissues. 1. Living tissues are more than dead tissues.
2. They require less energy. 2. They require more energy.
3. Organistion of plant tissue is simple. 3. Organistion of animal tissue is complex.

Plant Tissues

Meristematic Permanent tissues

Simple Complex

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Apical Intercalary Lateral Phloem Xylem

2
Meristematic Tissue
A. Nature:
➢ These cells divide continuously
➢ They have thin cellulose cell wall
➢ The shape or cells could be –spherical, oval, polygonal
or rectangular.
➢ There are no intercellular spaces between cells.
➢ The cytoplasm is dense and contain large Nucleus.
➢ They contain few vacuoles or sometimes no vacuoles at all.
B. Occurrence: They are growth tissues and are found in growing regions of the plant.

Meristematic Tissue

Apical Intercalary Lateral

C. Apical Meristem: They are situated in growing tip of stems and roots. i.e. shoot apex & root apex.
Functions:
➢ Helps in elongation of root & stem
➢ Increases height of the plant (primary growth)
D. Lateral Meristem: They are found beneath the bark and in vascular bundles of dicot roots and
stems. Functions:
➢ Helps the stem or root to increase in diameter and girth (secondary growth).
E. Intercalary Meristem: They are located at the base of leaves or internode eg. Stems of
grasses
Functions:
➢ Helps to increase the length of leaves and internodes.
➢ They are parent tissue and new tissues develop from them.
➢ They help in formation of new cells
➢ New leaves, branches of stem & roots, flowers, fruits are produced.
➢ Injury in plants is healed up by formation of new meristems

3
 Plant Tissues

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue

Cell are capable of cell division and Mature cells & incapable of cell
have totipotency division

Permanent Tissue
➢ These are formed from meristematic tissue.
➢ Meristematic tissue take up specific role & stop dividing.
➢ These cells take up permanent shape, size and function, called as Differentiation.

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue

Cells are small, spherical or polygonal Cells are large, differentiated with different
and un- differentiated shapes.
Vacuoles are nearly absent. Large central vacuoles are present.
Intercellular spaces are absent. Intercellular spaces are present.
Cell wall is thin & elastic. Cell wall is thin or thick.
Nucleus is large or prominent. Nucleus is less clearly visible.
Simple tissue Can be simple complex or specialized
High metabolic rate slow metabolic rate
Cells are living Cells may be living or dead
Provides growth to the plant Provides protection, support, conduction, storage etc.

Permanent Tissue

Simple Tissue Complex

❖ Protective and supporting ❖ Conducting

❖ Composed or single type of ❖ Composed of more than one

cells type of cells

4
 Simple Complex

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Phloem Xylem
Parenchyma Tissue
A. Nature
➢ ‘Para’ – beside, ‘enchyma’ – in filling
➢ Forms bulk of plant body.
➢ Cells are living and dividing
➢ Shape of cells are rounded & isodiametric.
➢ Cell wall is thin and has small nucleus but a large central vacuole.
➢ Intercellular spaces are more

B. Occurrence

➢ They are found in stems, roots, leaves, flowers & fruits.

➢ Found in soft parts of the plant such as cortex of roots, ground tissues in stems & mesophyll
of leaves.

C. Functions

➢ Serves as packaging tissue

➢ Fill spaces between tissues
➢ Maintain shape & firmness of plants
➢ Cells are turgid, so they support the stem
➢ Their main function is to store food
➢ Transportation occurs through their cell wall.
➢ The intercellular spaces allow gaseous exchange.
➢ These cells also store waste products of a plants such as tannin, gum, crystals, resins etc.

5
 Chlorenchyma Tissue
If parenchyma tissue has chloroplast in them, it perfomrs photosynthesis and is called
Chlorenchyma.
eg. ‘mesophyll of leaves’
A. Nature
➢ Derived from ‘Kolla’ which means glue.
➢ Cells are living and has many features like parenchyma.
➢ Cell wall has extra cellulose at the corners of the cells.
➢ Intercellular spaces are generally absent
➢ Elongated cells
➢ Contain a few chloroplasts.
B. Occurrence
➢ Located below epidermis of dicotyledonous stem
➢ Absent in monocot stems, roots and leaves
C. Functions
➢ Provides mechanical support & elasticity.
➢ Allows easy bending in various parts of a plant without breaking it.
Parenchyma Collenchyma
Has thin walled living cells Has cellulose in their cell wall
Found in almost all parts of plant body. Found in aerial parts of plant.
Main function is storage of food & waste Main function is providing mechanical strength
products.

Q. Why are plants and animals made of different types of tissue? [NCERT Exemplar]

Ans. Plants and animals are two different types of organisms. Plants are autotrophic organisms, so they
prepare their own food by photosynthesis. Moreover, plants are stationary or fixed organisms. Since they
do not consume or need much energy, so most of the tissues of plants are supportive. Most of these
tissues such as xylem, phloem, sclerenchyma and cork are dead tissues, i.e., they do not contain living
protoplasm.

Animals on the other hand, are heterotrophic organisms. They have to move in search of food, mate and
shelter; so they need more energy as compared to plants. Most of these tissues contain living protoplasm.

There are some tissues in plants which divide throughout life. They divide for the growth and
reproduction of the plants. In contrast to plants, growth in animals is uniform.

6
Sclerenchyma Tissue
➢ ‘Scleren’ means hard
➢ These are dead cells.
➢ They lack protoplasm
➢ Cell walls are made of lignin
➢ There are no intercellular spaces.
Occurrence
➢ Found in stems, roots, veins of leaves, hard coverings of seeds and nuts.
➢ In Husk of coconut
➢ In mesocarp of coconut

Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
They consists of living cells They consists of dead cells
Cells contain cytoplasm Cells are empty
Cell walls are made of cellulose Cell walls are made of lignin
Cell wall is not uniform Cell wall is uniform
Provides mechanical support and elasticity to Provides mechanical support mainly
the plants

Epidermis Tissue

Nature

➢ ‘epi’ - upon ; ‘derma’ - skin

➢ Present in leaves, flowers, stem and roots.
➢ One cell thick & is covered with cuticle.
➢ Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance called Cutin
➢ Cuticle is thicker in Xerophytic plants.
➢ Cells of epidermis are elongated & flattened and does not have any intercellular space.
Function
➢ Protection from desiccation & infection.
➢ Reduce water loss by evaporation
➢ Helps in preventing the entry of pathogen.
Stomata
➢ These are small pores present in stomata.
➢ Each stoma has two kidney shaped cells called Guard cells.
➢ Guard cells are only epidermal cells which contain Chloroplasts, rest are colourless.

Function
➢ Allows gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis and respiration.
➢ Water vapour escapes through stomata.

7
 Permanent Tissue

Simple Complex

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Phloem Xylem

Complex Permanent Tissue

Consist of more than one type of cells that’s why called as complex tissue.

XYLEM PHLOEM

It conducts water and minerals It conducts food materials.

It transports Unidirectional, (from roots toapical It transports bidirectional, (from leaves to

parts of the plants). other organs of plants).

Tracheids & vessels – These are dead cells with Sieve tubes & Companion cells-
thick walls & their main function is to transport These are tubular cells with perforated walls.
water & minerals

Xylem Parenchyma – Stores food Phloem Parenchyma – Stores food and helps in
lateral conduction of food.

Xylem Fibers – Supportive in function. Phloem fibre – Provides mechanical strength

to the tissue.

Except Xylem parenchyma, all other components Except phloem fibres, all other components
are dead. areliving.

Q. Why is the epidermis present as a thick waxy coating of cutin in desert plants? [NCERT Exemplar]
Ans. A thick waxy coating of cutin is present in desert plants to prevent excessive loss of water during
transpiration. Due to this, plants can survive in scarcity of water in deserts.

8
 Animal Tissues

Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous

Squamous Striated

Cuboidal Smooth
Areolar Adipose Skeletal Fluid
Columnar Cardiac

Ciliated Tendon Cartilage Blood

Ligament Bone Lymph

Epithelial Tissue
➢ Covering or protective tissue
➢ Covers most organs and cavities within the body.
➢ Has tightly packed cells and no intercellular space.
Squamous Epithelium
➢ Thin, flat and irregular shaped cells.
➢ Found in the lining of mount, oesophagus, nose, alveoli blood
vessels and covering of tongue & spin.
➢ Stratified Squamous-
These are multi layers of Squamous tissue.
➢ Cube like cells
➢ Found in kidney tubules, thyroid vesicles and in salivary glands & sweat glands.
Columnar Epithelium
➢ Tall cells with nuclei towards the base.
➢ Found in lining of stomach, small intestine, gall bladder and oviducts.
➢ Columnar epithelium modifies to form Glandular epithelium.
Ciliated Epithelium
➢ Cuboid shaped cells with cilia.
➢ Found in sperm ducts, lining of trachea, kidney tubules and oviducts.
Connective Tissue
➢ The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
➢ The matrix could be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid.
Blood
➢ Has liquid matrix called plasma.
➢ Blood has two components (plasma and elements)
➢ Plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones.
➢ 3 elements are present in Blood. Red Blood cells, White Blood cells, Platelets

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Function
Blood helps in transportation of gases, digested food, hormones & waste materials.
Lymph
➢ Lymph is a colourless fluid.
➢ Does not have RBCs and some blood proteins are absent.
Function
➢ Lymph transports the nutrients like blood.
➢ Lymph has lymphocytes (WBCs) that protects the body against infection.
Bone
Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix. That is composed of
calcium and phosphorous.
Function
➢ It forms the framework & supports the body.
➢ It also anchors the muscles & supports the main organs of the body.

Q. How are glandular epithelium formed? [NCERT Exemplar]

Ans. An epithelial cell often acquires additional specialisation as gland cells, which can secrete substances at
the epithelial surface. Sometimes, a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward and a multicellular
gland is formed. This is glandular epithelium.
Q. Describe the function of bones. [NCERT Exemplar]

Ans. Bones form the framework that supports the body. It also anchors the muscles and serve as storage site
of calcium and phosphate. It provides shape to the body and protects vital body organs such as brain,
lungs, tissue, etc.
Connective Tissue
A. Tendons
Contains very little matrix.
Function
Connect muscles to bones and provides strength to the tissue.
B. Ligaments
Contains very little matrix.
Function
➢ It connects bones with bones.
➢ Ligaments is elastic tissue and has considerable strength.
Adipose Tissue
This tissue is present below the skin and between internal organs.
➢ These cells are filled with fat globules.
➢ This tissue also acts as an insulator.
Muscular Tissue
➢ This tissue is responsible for the movement in our body.
➢ Muscles contain special proteins called contractile Proteins, which contract and relax to cause
movement.

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Difference Between Smooth, Skeletal & Cardiac Muscles
Smooth Muscle Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle
Not striated Striated Striated
Spindle shaped Cylindrical Cylindrical
Not branched Not branched Branched
Nucleus in centre Nucleus in periphery Nucleus in centre
Involuntary Voluntary Involuntary

Nervous Tissue

➢ Cell of nervous tissue are highly specialized for

being stimulated and for transmitting the stimulus
very rapidly from one place to another within the
body.
➢ A neuron, contains a nucleus and cytoplasm and is
called as Cyton.
➢ Short hair like extensions are arriving from the cyton and are called as Dendrites.
➢ The longest dendrite is called AXON.
➢ Nerve cells receive stimuli and carry messages to the brain and spiral cord in the form of electric
current or impulses.

Notes End

11
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Name types of simple tissues.
Sol. The types of simple tissues are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma and aerenchyma.
Q2. Where is apical meristem found?
Sol. Apical meristem is found at the tip of root or shoot of the plant.
Q3. Which tissue makes up the husk of coconut?
Sol. The husk of coconut is made of sclerenchymatous tissue.
Q4. What are the constituents of phloem?
Sol. Phloem is made up of four types of elements sieve tube, companion cells, phloem fibres and
phloem parenchyma.
Q5. Name the tissue responsible for movement in our body.
Sol. Muscular tissue, 2. Nervous tissue, combination of both the tissues are responsible for
movement in our body.
Q6. What are the junctions of areolar tissue?
Sol. Areolar tissue are connective tissues found in animal. It is found between skin and muscles,
around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow.

It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps in the repair of tissues.
Q7. Define the term “tissue”.
Sol. Group of cells that are similar in structure and perform same function is called a tissue.
Q8. How many types of elements together make up the xylem tissue? Name them.
Sol. The xylem is made up of vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
Q9. How are simple tissues different from complex tissues in plants?
Sol. Simple tissues are made up of one type of cells which coordinate to perform a common function.
Complex tissues are made up of more than one type of cells. All these coordinate to perform a
common function.
Q10. Differentiate between parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma on the basis of their cell
wall.
Sol. Parenchyma: The cells have thin cell walls made up of cellulose. Collenchyma: The cells have
cell walls thickened at the comers due to pectin deposition.
Sclerenchyma: Their walls are thickened due to lignin deposition.
Q11. What are the functions of stomata?
Sol. The outermost layer of the cell is called epidermis and is very porous. These pores are called
stomata. These stomata help in transpiration and exchange of gases.
Q12. Name the regions in which parenchyma tissue is present.
Sol. In the pith of the roots and stems. When it contains chlorophyll, it is called chlorenchyma, found
in green leaves. In aquatic plants, parenchyma contains large air cavities and help them to float.
Such type of parenchyma is called aerenchyma.

12
Q13. What is the role of epidermis in plants?
Sol. Cells of epidermis forms a continuous layer without intercellular spaces. It protects all the parts of
plants.
Q14. How does the cork act as a protective tissue?
Sol. Cork acts as a protective tissue because its cells are dead and compactly arranged without
intercellular spaces. They have deposition of suberin on the walls that make them impervious to
gases and water.

13
 Diversity in Living Organisms
Classification
The arrangement of the organisms in groups on the basis of their similarities and differences is
known as Classification.
Basis of Classification
• Presence of Nucleus – (Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic)
• Body design/make up of cells – (Single/Multicellular)
• Production of food – (Autotrophic/Heterotrophic)
• Level of Organisation
• In animals, an organisation of ones body parts, development of body, organs.
Note: These features can differ both in plants & animals as they differ both in plants & animals
as they differ in their body design. Subgroups are made because of prominent designs
and characteristic features.
Classification System
A. Two Kingdom Classification: This system was proposed by ‘Carlous Linnaeus’ who
classified organism majorly into two kingdoms Plants and Animals.

Two Kingdom
Classification

Plants Animal

B. Five Kingdom Classification: This system was proposed by R.H. Whittaker – Monera –
Protista – Fungi – Plantae - Animalia

Five Kingdom
Classification

Moner Protis Fungi Plant Anim

a ta ae alia
Hierarychy of Classification
Carlous Linnaeus arranged the organisms into different taxonomies groups at different levels.

The groups from top to bottom are

1
 Kingdom Kingdom
Phylum Animalia
Class Chordata
Order Mammalia
Family Primates
Genus Hominidae
Species Species

Binomial System of Classification

• Given by Carlous Linnaeus.
• Start genus name with Capital letter.
• Start species name with small letter.
• Use italics.
• Followed by the person who describe the species.
• Eg. Homo sapiens Linnaeus/758
Species: A group species is a group of living organism which can reproduce among themselves.
Kingdom Monera (Prokaryotes)
• These are Unicellular prokaryotes.
• They lack a true nucleus.
• They may or may not contain a wall.
• They may be Heterotrophic or Autotrophic
Example: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria, Anabaena
CARL WOESE in 1977 Further Divided it into

MONERA

Archaebacteria Eubacteria

Archaebacteria

• Most are photosynthetic autotrophs.

• They are divided into three groups –

Methanogens Thermoacidophile Halophiles

2
Q. Write four characteristics of monerans. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. (i) They are unicellular.
(ii) Prokaryotic in nature.
(iii) Membrane bound cell organelles are absent.
(iv) The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
Kingdom Protista

• These contain unicellular, eukaryotic organism.

• They exhibit heterotopic mode of nutrition mostly.
• They posses pseudopodia, Cilia, Flagella for locomotion (movement)
eg. Amoeba, paramecium.

• They are solitary or colonial and mostly aquatic animals.

Kingdom Fungi
• These are multicellular, eukaryotic organism.
• They exhibit a saprophyte mode of nutrition.
• Some fungi like Mucor, Rhizopus and Penicillium are
decomposers.
• Some fungi like Puccinia, Albugo are parasites.
• They are filamentous. The body of a fungus is called a
mycelium and is composed of several-thread like structures Rhizopus
called hyphae.
• Cell wall is made of Chitin.
Q. Bluegreen algae have been included under the kingdom monera not under plantae. Why?
[NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Plantae show definite membrane-bound organelles and multi-cellular body design. Blue-green
algae is prokaryotic in nature as it does not show multicellular body design. Hence it is
included in monera.
Lichen
• Lichen grow on the rocks, bark of tree-trunks etc.
• In lichens, blue-green algae and fungi live in symbiosis (The fungus absorbs water and
mineral matter and supplies it to the algae) (Algae prepares food for fungus).
Q. What is symbiotic relationship? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Some fungal species live in a permanent mutually dependent relationship with blue-green
algae/Cyanobacteria. Such relationships are called symbiotic relationship.

3
Kingdom Plantae
• Plantae includes multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
• Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
• They prepare their own food by photosynthesis.

KINGDOM PLANTAE

Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

• Ex – Pines, Ferns, Mango tree.

Basis of Division in Kingdom Plantae
• Differentiated body parts (into leaves, stem, roots, flowers etc.)
• Presence of vascular tissues (xylem & Phloem)
• Reproduction through seeds or spores.
Phanerogamae: Plants with seeds are called Phanerogamae. They contain embryo with
stored food & are multicellular.

Cryptogamae: Plants with spores are called Cryptogamae. They contain only naked
embryo and are generally unicellular.

• Depending on whether the seeds produced are naked, phanerogams are further divided
classified into 2 subdiscussions.
Angiospermae: Plants with seeds are inside the fruits and bear flowers.

Gymnospermae: Plants with naked seeds and do not bear flowers.

Thallophyta
• They are generally called as algae
• The body is undifferentiated as roots, stems and leaves
• No vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) are present
• Reproduce through spores
• Mainly found in water and autotrophic
• Eg – Ulva, Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Chara
THALLOPHYTA

4
Bryophyta
• They are called as amphibians of the plant kingdom as they are
found both on land & water.
• They show differentiation into body design with stem, leaf like
structure and root like structure (but not fully developed)
• They do not have vascular tissues.
• They live in damp and sandy habits. BRYOPHYTA
• They reproduce through spores
• Ex- Liverwort (Marchantia, Riccia), Mosses (Funaria), hornwort (Dendroceros)
Pteridophyta
• These are supposed to be the oldest vascular plants
• Their body is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.
• They have vascular tissue for conduction of water and other substances.
• These plants have naked embryos called spores
• Eg- Marsilea, ferns, horsetails
Gymnosperms
• These are plants with naked seeds. These are about 650 living species. The plants are
usually perennial, evergreen and woody
• They have a well developed vascular tissue but do not have vessels.
• The reproductive organs generally form Cones or Strobilus
• There is no fruit formation and the seeds are hence said to be
naked Ex- Cycas, Pinus, Deodar
Pinus → Their roots have an association with fungi and form
mycorhhiza
Angiosperms
• These are seed bearing plants, also called as flowering plants.
• There is fruit formation.
• The vascular system is very well developed
eg – Mustard plant, pea plant

• The flower becomes fruit

• They show the feature of double fertilization.
On the basis of the cotyledons Angiosperms are further divided into Monocotyledonous
and Dicotyledonous plants.

5
 MONOCOTS DICOTS
1 Seed One Cotyledons Two cotyledons
2 Root Fibrous Primary Root
3 Stem False or Hollow Strong
4 Leaf Parallel Reticulate
5 Example Potato, Sun flower, Banyan, Wheat, Peanuts, Beans, Mango etc.
Grasses.

Q. Name the kingdom in which an organism does not have a well-defined nucleus and
organelles. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Monera.
Q. In which kingdom would you place an organism which is unicellular, eukaryotic and
photosynthetic? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Protista.
Basis of Classification of Animal Kingdom
A. Symmetry:

i) Bilateral: It is when an organism can be divided into right and left halves identical
but mirror images, by a single vertical plane.

ii) Radial: It is when an organism is equally spaced around a central point, like spiles
on a cycle wheel.

B. Germ Layers:

In embryonic stages there are different layer of cells called germ cells

The 3 different type of germ cells are –

• Ectoderm • Endoderm • Mesoderm

i) Ectoderm: It is the outermost layer which forms nail,

hair, epidemies etc. It give rise to & spinal cord.

ii) Endoderm: It is the innermost layer which forms

stomach, colon, digestive system & respiratory
system urinary bladder etc.

iii) Mesoderm: It is the middle layer between ecto &

endo which forms bones, muscles, heart & Cartilage.

So, according to the number of germ layers present in embryonic stage; animal
could be

6
 a) Diploblastic: Organisms which derived from two embryonic germ layers (ecto &
endo)

b) Triploblastic: Organisms which derived from all the three embryonic germ layers.

c) Coelom: In the Mesoderm there is fluid filled body cavity for proper functioning of
various organs for eg- heart which has to contract and expands needs some cavity or
empty space, which is provided by the Coelom.
Acoelomates

These are simple organisms having no body cavity.

Pseudo coelomate
These are organisms having false coelom. They have pouches of mesoderm scattered between
endoderm & ectoderm.
Coelomates
These are complex organism having true cavity lined by mesoderm from all sides:
Notochord
It is a long rod like structure, which runs along the body between nervous tissue and gut and
provides place for muscle to attach for each of the movement.
Porifera or Sponges
• Cellular level of organisation.
• Non motile animals.
• Holes on body Which led to a canal system for circulation of water and food.
• Hard outside layer called as Skeletons
Examples – Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectella.
Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
• Tissue level of organisation.
• No coelom
• Radial symmetry, Diploblastic.
• Hollow gut.
• Can move from one place to another (Motile)
Ex hydra, Sea anemone, Jelly fish (Solitary)

Corals (colonies).

Ex. Hydra, Sea anemone, Jelly fish (Solitary), Corals (colonies).

7
Platyhelminthes
• Also called flat worms
• No coelom
• Bilateral Symmetry, Triploblastic
• Free living or parasite.
• Digestive cavity has one open way for both - ingestion and egestion.
• Eg – Planaria (free living), Liver fluke (parasite), Tapeworm
Nematode
• False coelom
• Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
• Cylindrical
• Many are parasitic worms living inside human body and can cause various diseases like
Filarial worm (causes elephantiasis). Round worms and Pin worms live in human
intestine.
Eg – Ascaris, Wuchereria.

Annelida
• Second largest phylum
• Coelom present
• Bilateral, Triploblastic
• Segmented (segments specialized for difference functions)
• Extensive organ Differentiation
Eg – Earthworm, Leech, Nereis
Arthropoda
• Largest phylum
• Generally known as insects
• Coelom present
• Bilateral, triploblastic
• Segmented, sometimes fused
• Tough exo– skeleton of chitin
• Joint appendages like feet, antenna.
• Eg – Prawn, Scorpio, Cockroach, Housefly, Butterfly, Spiders

8
Mollusca
• Coelom present
• Triploblastic, Bilateral symmetry
• Soft bodies sometimes covered with shell
• Not segmented
• No appendages
• Muscular foot for movement
• Shell is present
• Kidney like for organ for excretion
Eg – Chiton, Octopus, Pila, Unio, Oyster
Echinodermata
• Spiny skin, Marine
• No notochord
• Coelom present, Triploblastic
• Endoskeleton of Calcium Carbonate
• Water vascular system for locomotion
• Bilateral symmetry before birth and radial symmetry after birth
Eg – Antedon, Sea Cucumber, Star fish, Echinus
Phylum Chordata
• Bilateral symmetry, Triploblastic
• Coelom present
• Notochord
• Gills present at same phases of life.
• Dorsal nerve cord
• Post anal tail present at some stages of life, for Eg – present in human in embryonic stages
1. Protochordata:

• Notochord at some stage of life

• Marine
Eg – Herdmania, Amphioxus, Balanoglossus

2. Vertebrata:

• Notochord converted to Vertebral column.

9
 • 2, 3, 4 chambered heart
• Organs like kidney for excretion
• Pair appendages
• Eg – Humans (4 chambered), Frog (3 chambered), Fishes (2 chambered)
• Vertebrates are grouped into six classes.
Cyclostomata
• Jawless vertebrates.
• Elongated eel-like body, circular mouth, slimy and are scaleless.
• Ectoparasites
Ex- Petromyzon and Myxine
Pisces
• These are fish.
• Their skin is covered with scales/plates.
• Obtain oxygen dissolved in water by using gills.
• The body is streamlined, and a muscular tail is used for movement.
• Cold-Blooded, hearts have only two chambers.
Ex- Skeletons made of Cartilage (Sharks)

Skeletons made of both Bone and cartilage (tuna and rohu)

Amphibia
• They lack scales.
• Have mucus glands in the skin.
• Three-chambered heart.
• Respiration is through either gills or lungs.
• They lay eggs
• Found both in water and on land.
Ex- Frogs, toads and Salamanders
Reptilia
• Cold-blooded, have scales.
• Breathe through lungs.
• Three-chambered heart
• Four-chambered heart in crocodiles
• They lay eggs with tough coverings, do not need to lay their eggs in water.
10
 Ex- Snakes, Turtles, Lizards and Crocodiles
Aves
• Warm-blooded.
• They are birds
• Four-chambered heart.
• They breathe through lungs.
• They lay Eggs, there is an outside covering of feathers.
Ex- White Stork, Ostrich and Male Tufted Duck
Mammalia
• Warm-blooded.
• They have mammary glands for the production of milk to nourish their young.
• Four-chambered heart.
• Their skin has hairs as well as sweat and oil glands.
• Give birth to young ones
• Platypus and the echidna lay eggs.
• Kangaroos give birth to very poorly developed young ones.
Ex- Cat, Human, Whale and Bat

Notes End

11
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Which do you think is a more- basic characteristic for classifying organisms?
(a) the place where they live.
(b) the kind of cells they are made of. Why?
Sol. Classification based on living place is more basic as there can be wide variations in organisms
living in a given place.
Q2. What is the primary characteristic on which the first division of organisms is made?
Sol. Nature of cell is the primary characteristics on which the first division of organisms is decided.
Based on this criterion life forms can be classified into prokaryotes or eukaryotes.
Q3. On what bases are plants and animal’ out into different categories?
Sol. Mode of nutrition and presence or absence of cell walls.
Q4. Define species.
Sol. All organisms that are similar to breed and perpetuate.
Q5. Give example of the organism belonging to Monera and Protista Kingdom.
Sol. Monera—Anabaena, blue-green algae Protista—Eugleno, Paramecium, Amoeba

Q6. Give the characteristics of Monera.

Sol. (a) Organisms are unicellular, do not have a defined nucleus.
(b) Organisms may have a cell wall or may not have cell wall.
(c) Mode of nutrition is either autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Q7. State the features of all chordates.
Sol. All chrodates possess the following features:
1. Have a notochord
2. Have a dorsal nerve chord
3. Are triploblastic
4. Have paired gill pouche
Q8. How are pores or holes all over the body of Porifera important?
Sol. The pores or holes present all over the body of the organisms lead to a canal system that helps
in circulating water throughout the body to bring in food and oxygen.
Q9. Why do most of the amphibians lay their eggs in water and reptiles lay their eggs on
land?
Sol. Amphibians lay their eggs in water because the tadpeles or young, ones that hatch out of egg
has gills at initial stages, that allows them; to breathe in water.

12
 In case of reptiles the young ones that hatch out does not have gills and the hatching of eggs
requires warmth that is given by the mother, reptile.
Q10. Explain the basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms.
Sol. Basis Of Clasiffication:
(a) Number of cells
(b) Layer of cells
(c) Presence or absence of cell wall
(d) Mode of nutrition
(e) Level Of organization

13
 Motion
What is motion?
If the location of an object changes with time the object is said to be in motion.
Introduction
➢ A Reference Point is used to describe the location of an object. An object can be referred through
many reference points.
➢ Origin – The reference point that is used to describe the location of an object is called Origin.
➢ For Example, a new restaurant is opening shortly at a distance of 5 km north from my house. Here,
the house is the reference point that is used for describing where the restaurant is located.

Types of Motion
There are three types of motion:
➢ Translatory motion
➢ Rotatory motion
➢ Vibratory motion

Translatory motion
➢ A particle in translator motion moves from one point in space to another. This movement may be
in a straight line or in a curved path.
➢ Rectilinear motion is defined as motion along
a straight line.
➢ Curvilinear motion is defined as movement
along a curved path.
➢ As an example, consider a car driving down a
straight road.
Rotatory motion
➢ The point of the body describe concentric circles around the axis of motion in rotatory motion.

2
Vibrational motion
➢ Particles in vibratory motion move back and forth around a fixed point.
Motion in a Straight Line
Distance
➢ The distance covered by an object is described as the total path length
covered by an object between two endpoints.
➢ Distance is a numerical quantity. We do not mention the direction in which an object is travelling
while mentioning about the distance covered by that object.

➢ According to the figure 1 given above, if an object moves from point O to point A then total
distance travelled by the object is given as 60 km.

(Fig. 1)
➢ Displacement – The shortest possible distance between the initial and final position of an object
is called Displacement.

(Fig. 2)
➢ Consider the figure 1 given above, here the shortest distance between O and A is 60 km only.
Hence, displacement is 60 km.
➢ Displacement depends upon the direction in which the object is travelling.
➢ Displacement is denoted by Δx.

x = x f − x 0

Where,

x f = Final Position on the object

x 0 = initial position of the object

➢ Zero Displacement – When the first and last positions of an object are same, the displacement is
zero.
➢ For Example, consider the diagrams given below.

➢ Displacement at point A = 0 because the shortest

distance from A to A is zero.
➢ Negative Displacement and Positive Displacement

3
➢ Here, displacement of object B is negative
ΔB = Bf – B0 = 7 – 12 = – 5
A negative sign indicates opposite direction here.
Also, displacement of object A is positive
ΔA = Af – A0 = 7 – 0 = 7
What are Scalar and Vector Quantities?
➢ A scalar quantity describes a magnitude or a numerical value.
➢ A vector quantity describes the magnitude as well as the direction.
➢ Hence, distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.
How is distance different from displacement?

Distance Displacement
Distance provides the complete details of the Displacement does not provide the complete details
path taken by the object of the path taken by the object
Distance is always positive Displacement can be positive, negative or zero
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity
The distance between two points may not be Displacement between two points is always unique
unique

What is uniform Motion?

➢ When an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time the object is said to have a uniform
motion.
➢ E.g. The distance covered by Car A with respect to time is given below:
Car A
Time is seconds 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance covered in meters 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

What is non-uniform motion?

➢ When an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time the object is said to have a non-
uniform motion.
➢ E.g. The distance covered by Car B with respect to time is given below:
Car B
Time is seconds 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance covered in meters 0 10 15 20 30 60 65 75

➢ The car A travels equal distances in equal time intervals, whereas the car B does not travel equal
distances in equal time intervals.
➢ That is, car A’s motion is an example of uniform motion, whereas car B’s motion is an example
of non-uniform motion.
➢ A body is said to describe uniform motion when it covers distances in equal intervals of time.

4
➢ When a body moves unequal distances in equal time intervals, or vice versa, this is referred to as
non-uniform motion.

Speed
➢ Speed of an object is defined as the distance traveled by the object per unit time.

SI Unit: Meter (m)

Symbol of Representation: m/s or ms–1
Speed = Distance/Time
distance s
Speed = =
time t
Uniform speed
If an object travels the same distance in the same amount of time, it is said to be moving at a uniform
speed.

Every 4 seconds, the ball travels 20 meters. At any point between A and B, the ball moves at a speed
of 5 m/s. The object is moving at a constant speed.

Variable Speed or Non-Uniform Speed

The distance covered varies with time.

5
Average Speed and Instantaneous Speed
➢ When we travel by car, the speed varies depending on the road conditions at the time. The
speed is calculated in this case by dividing the total distance travelled by the vehicle by the total
time required for the journey. This is known as the average speed.
➢ The average speed of an object traveling S1 in time t1, S2 in time t2, and Sn in time tn is given
by,
S + S + S + ......Sn
Average speed = 1 2 3
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + ......t n
Velocity

➢ It is the speed of a body in given direction.

Displacement
Velocity =
time
➢ Velocity is a vector quantity. Its value changes when either its magnitude or direction changes.

Average Velocity

➢ Average velocity will be calculated in the same way as done in average speed.
Total Displacement
Average Velocity =
Total time
Velocity

➢ SI unit of velocity = ms–1

➢ It can be positive (+ve), negative (–ve) or zero.
Acceleration
Acceleration is seen in non-uniform motion and it can be defined as the rate of change of velocity with
time.
Changein velocity
Acceleration (a) = = (v – u) / t
Time
Where, v = final velocity, u = initial velocity
➢ If v > u, ‘a’ will be positive (+ve).

Q. Distinguish between speed and velocity. [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. Difference between Speed and Velocity

Velocity Speed
Velocity can be defined as the rate at which an The rate at which an object covers a certain
object changes position in a certain direction. distance is known as speed
The velocity of the object changes with the
The average speed will continue to count
change in direction, therefore the object must
even if the object changes direction.
follow one direction.
Vector quantity Scalar quantity
Velocity can be zero, negative, or positive Speed can never be negative or zero.

6
Q. A bus decreases its speed from 80 km h–1 to 60 km h–1 in 5 s. Find the acceleration of the bus.
Sol. Given, the initial velocity (u) = 80 km/hour = 80000 m / 3600s = 22.22 m.s–1 [NCERT Exercise]
The final velocity (v) = 60 km / hour = 60000 m / 3600s = 16.66 m.s–1
Time frame, t = 5 seconds.
Therefore, acceleration (a) = (v – u)/t = (16.66 m.s–1 – 22.22 m.s–1)/5s = –1.112 m.s–2
Therefore, the total acceleration of the bus is –1.112 m.s–2. It can be noted that the negative sign
indicates that the velocity of the bus is decreasing.
Q. During an experiment, a signal from a spaceship reached the ground station in five minutes. What
was the distance of the spaceship from the ground station? The signal travels at the speed of light,
that is, 3 × 108 m/s. [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. Given that the signal travels in a straight line, the distance between the spaceship and the ground
station is equal to the total distance travelled by the signal.
5 minutes = 5*68 seconds = 300 seconds.
Speed of the signal = 3 × 108 m/s.
Therefore, total distance = (3 × 108 m/s) * 300s = 9*1010 meters.
Graphical Representation of Motion
1. Distance – Time Graph
➢ It represents a change in position of the object with respect
to time.
➢ The graph in case the object is stationary (means the distance
is constant at all time intervals) – Straight line graph parallel
to x = axis

Uniform motion – Straight line graph

7
➢ Non-uniform motion – Graph has different shapes

Velocity – Time Graphs

➢ Constant velocity – Straight line graph, velocity is always parallel to the x-axis.
➢ Uniform Velocity / Uniform Acceleration – Straight line graph.

Graphical Representation of Motion

➢ Non-Uniform Velocity / Non-Uniform Acceleration – Graph can have different shapes.

The equations of motion represent the relationship between an object's acceleration, velocity and
distance covered if and only if,
➢ The object is moving on a straight path.
➢ The object has a uniform acceleration.

8
Equations of Motion
Three Equations of Motion
1. The Equation for Velocity – Time Relation
v = u + at
2. The Equation for Position – Time Relation
1
s = ut + at 2
2
3. The Equation for the Position – Velocity Relation
2 a s = v2 – u2
Where,
u: initial velocity
a: uniform acceleration
t: time
v: final velocity
s: distance travelled in time t
Deriving the Equations of Motion Graphically

First Equations of Motion

➢ The acceleration of a moving object is given by the slope of the v – t graph.
BC + BD + DC = BD + OA
Substituting BC = υ and OA = u
υ = BD + u
BD = υ – u
We know that,
changein velocity
a=
time taken
BD BD
= =
AD OC
9
 BD
a=
t
BD = at
υ = u + at

Second Equations of Motion

➢ Let u = initial velocity, ‘a’ is acceleration.
“The area enclosed by the velocity-time graph for the interval 0 to t gives the distance travelled
S in time t.”
Distance travelled S = area of the trapezium OABC
= area of rectangle OADC + area of triangle ABD
1
= OC × OA + AD × BD
2
1
=t×u+ (t × at)
2
1
S = ut + at × t
2
1 2
S = ut + at
2
II equation of motion

Third Equation of Motion

“The area enclosed by the v – t graph gives the distance travelled ‘S’ in time ‘t’.”
S = area of trapezium OABD
1
= (b1 + b2) h
2
1
= (OA + BD) AC
2
1
= (u + v)t ……(t)
2
v−u v−u
But we know that a = Or t =
t t
Substituting the value of t is equation (1) we get,
1 (u + v)(v − u)
S=
2 a

10
 1 (v + u)(v − u)
=
2 a
2as = (v + u) (v – u)
(v + u) (v – u) = 2as
v2 – u2 = 2as

Derivation of the First Equation of Motion (Without Graph)

➢ Consider a particle moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration ‘a’.
➢ Let the particle be at A at t = 0, and u be be its initial velocity, and v be its final velocity at t = t.
(v − u)
a= v – u = at v = u + at
t
Second Equation of Motion
total distance travelled
Average velocity =
total time taken
S
= …….. (1)
t
Average velocity can also be written as
u+v
………. (2)
2
From equation (1) and (2),
S u+v
= ……… (3)
t 2
The first equation of motion is v = u + at. Substituting the value of v in equation (3), we get
S u + u + at (u + u + at)t
= =
t 2 2
(2u + at)t
=
2
1
S = ut + at 2
2
Third Equation of Motion
The first equation of motion is
v = u + at
v – u = at …… (1)
S
Average velocity = ………….. (2)
t
u+v
Average velocity = ………….. (3)
2

11
From equation (2) and equation (3) we get,
2S
(v – u) (v + u) = at ×
t
(v – u) (v + u) = 2aS
v2 – u2 = 2as
Uniform Circular Motion
The movement of a body following a circular path is called a circular motion. Now, the motion of a
body moving with constant speed along a circular path is called Uniform Circular Motion. Here, the
speed is constant but the velocity changes.
➢ When a body moves in a circle it is called circular motion.
➢ hen a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed it called uniform circular motion.

Notes End

12
 Some Important Questions
Q1. An object has moved through a distance. Can it have zero displacement? If yes, support your
answer with an example. [NCERT Exercise]

Ans. Yes, The displacement of the object can be zero. Let a boy completes one round of a circular
track in 5 minutes. The distance travelled by the boy = circumference of the circular track.
However, displacement of the boy is zero because his initial and final positions are same.

Q2. A farmer moves along the boundary of a square field of side 10 m in 40 s. What will be the
magnitude of displacement of the farmer at the end of 2 minutes 20 seconds?

Ans: ABCD is a square field of side 10 m.

The farmer moves along the boundary of the field from the corner A via the corners B, C and
D. After every 40 s, the farmer is again at the corner A, so his
displacement after every 40 s is zero. At the end of 2 minutes
20 seconds = (2 × 60 + 20) = 140 s, the farmer will be at the
corner C.

Therefore, the magnitude of his displacement =

AC = AB2 + BC2

= (10) 2 + (10) 2 = 200 = 10 2m = 14.14m

Q3. During an experiment, a signal from a spaceship reached the ground station in five minutes.
What was the distance of the spaceship from the ground station? The signal travels at the speed
of light, that is, 3 × 108 m s–1.

Ans: Here, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 s = 300 s

υ = 3 × 108 m s–1
Using S = υt, we get
S = 3 × 108 m s–1 × 300 s = 9 × 1011 m
= 9 × 108 km
Therefore, the distance of the spaceship from the ground was 9 × 108 km.
Q4. When will you say a body is in : (i) uniform acceleration? (ii) non-uniform acceleration?
Ans: (i) A body has uniform acceleration if its velocity changes by an equal amount in equal
intervals of time.

13
 (ii) A body has non-uniform acceleration if its velocity changes by unequal amount in equal
intervals of time.
Q5. A bus decreases its speed from 80 kmh–1 to 60 kmh–1 in 5 s. Find the acceleration of the bus.
5
Ans: Here, u = 80 km h–1 = 80 × m s–1 = 22.22 m s–1
18
5
υ = 60 km h–1 = 60 × m s–1 = 16.67 m s–1
18
t= 5s

 − u (16.67 − 22.22)m s −1 −5.55 m s −1

⸫ acceleration, a = = = = 1.11 m s–2.
t 5s 5s

Q6. A train starting from a railway station and moving with a uniform acceleration attains a speed
of 40 km h–1 in 10 minutes. Find its acceleration.
5
Ans: Here, u = 0 ; υ = 40 km h–1 = 40 × m s–1 = 11.11 m s–1
18
t = 10 minutes = 600 s

 − u (11.11) m s −1
⸫ acceleration, a = = = 0.0185 m s–2.
t 600 s

Q7. A bus starting from rest moves with a uniform acceleration of 0.1 m s–2 fir 2 minutes. Find (a)
the speed acquired, (b) the distance travelled.
Ans: Here, u = 0,
A = 0.1 m s–2, t = 2 minutes = 120 s
(a) Using, υ = u + at, we get
υ = 0 + 0.1 × 120 = 12 m s–1
⸫ speed acquired = 12 m s–1
1
(b) Using, S = ut + at2, we get, S = 0 + × 0.1 × 120 × 120 = 720 m
2
⸫ Distance travelled = 720 m.
Q8. A train is travelling at a speed of 90 km h–1. Brakes are applied so as to produce a uniform
acceleration of – 0.5 m s–2. Find how far the train will go before it is brought to rest?
5
Ans: Here, u = 90 km h–1 = 90 × = 25 m s–1, a = – 0.5 m s–2, υ = 0
18

2 − u 2 (0 − 625)m 2s −2
Using, υ2 – υ2 = 2aS, we get, S = = = 625 m.
2a −2  0.5ms −2

14
Q9. A trolley, while going down an inclined plane has an acceleration of 2 cm s–2. What will be its
velocity 3s after the start?
Ans: Here, u = 0, υ = ?, a = 2 cm s–2, t = 3 s
Using, υ = u + at, we get
υ = 0 + 2 cm s–2 × 3s = 6 cm s–1.
Q10. A racing car has a uniform acceleration of 4 m s–2. What distance will it cover in 10 s after
start?
Ans: Here, a = 4 m s–2, t = 10 s, u = 0
1 2
S = ut + at , we get,
2
1
S = 0 +  4 ms −2 100s 2 = 200 m
2
⸫ Distance covered in 10 s = 200 m.

15
 Force & Laws of Motion
Force
It is the force that enables us to do any work. To do anything, either we pull or push the object.
Therefore, pull or push is called force.
Example, to open a door, either we push or pull it. A drawer is pulled to open and pushed to close.
Effect of Force
• Force can make a stationary body in motion.
Example, a football can be set to move by kicking it i.e. by applying a force.
• Force can stop a moving body.
Example, by applying brakes, a running cycle or a running vehicle can be stopped.
• Force can change the direction of a moving object.
Example, by applying force i.e. by moving handle, the direction of a running bicycle can be
changed. Similarly by moving steering, the direction of a running vehicle is changed.
• Force can change the speed of a moving body. By accelerating, the speed of a running vehicle can
be increased or by applying brakes the speed of a running vehicle can be decreased.
• Force can change the shape and size of an object.
Example, by hammering, a block of metal can be turned into a thin sheet. By hammering, a stone can
be broken into pieces.
• Forces are mainly of two types :
(i) Balanced forces (ii) Unbalanced forces
Balanced Forces
• If the resultant of applied forces is equal to zero, it is called balanced forces.
Example : In the tug of war if both the team apply similar magnitude of forces in opposite
directions, rope does not move in either side.
This happens because of balanced forces in which resultant of applied forces become zero.
• Balanced forces do not cause any change of state of an object. Balanced forces are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction.
• Balanced forces can change the shape and size of an object.
Example : When forces are applied from both sides over a balloon, the size and shape of balloon is
changed.
Unbalanced Forces
• If the resultant of applied forces are greater than zero, the forces are called unbalanced forces.
• An object in rest can be moved because of applying balanced forces.
• Force can change the direction of a moving object.
➢ Move a stationary object
➢ Increase the speed of a moving object
➢ Decrease the speed of a moving object

1
 ➢ Stop a moving object
➢ Change the shape and size of an object
Newton's Laws of Motion
• Galileo Galilei: Galileo first of all said that object move with a constant speed when no foces act
on them.
• This means if an object is moving on a frictionless path and no other force is acting upon it, the
object would be moving forever. That is, there is no unbalanced force working on the object.
• But practically it is not possible for any object. Because to attain the condition of zero,
unbalanced force is impossible.
• Force of friction, force of air and many other forces are always acting upon an object.
• But practically it is not possible for any object. Because to attain the condition of zero,
unbalanced force is impossible.
Newton's Laws of Motion
• Newton studied the ideas of Galileo and gave the three laws of motion. These laws are known as
Newton's laws of motion.
(i) First Law of Motion (ii) Second Law of Motion (ii) Third Law of Motion

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

• Any object remains in the state of rest or in uniform motion along a straight line, until it is
compelled to change the state by applying external force.

Explanation : If any object is in the state of rest, then it will remain in rest until a external force is
applied to change its state. Similarly, an object will remain in motion until any external force is
applied over it to change its state.

This means all objects resist to in changing their state. The state of any object can be changed by
applying external forces only.
• Newton's First Law of Motion in Everyday Life
(i) A person standing in a bus falls backward when bus starts moving
suddenly.
• This happens because the person and bus both are in rest while bus is not
moving, but as the bus starts moving, the legs of the person start moving
along with bus but rest portion of his body has the tendency to remain in
rest. Because of this, the person falls backward; if he is not alert.
(ii) A person standing in a moving bus falls forward if driver applies
breakes suddenly.
• This happens because when bus is moving, the person standing in it is
also in motion along with bus. But when driver applies breakes the speed
of bus decreases suddenly or bus comes in the state of rest suddenly, in
this condition the legs of the person which are in contact with the bus come in rest while the rest
part of his body have the tendency to remain in motion. Because of this person falls froward if he
is not alert.

2
 (iii) Before hanging the wet clothes over laundry line, usually many jerks are given to the clothes
to get them dried quickly. Because of jerks, droplets of water from the pores of the cloth falls on
the ground and reduced amount of water in clothes dries them quickly.
• This happens because when suddenly clothes are made in motion by giving jerks, the water
droplets in it have the tendency to remain in rest and they are separated from clothes and fall on
the ground.
(iv) When the pile of coin on the carom-board is hit by a striker,
coin only at the bottom moves away leaving rest of the pile of
coin at same place.
• This happens because when the pile is struck with a striker, the
coin at the bottom comes in motion while rest of the coin in the pile has the tendency to remain in
the rest and they vertically falls the carom-board and remain at same place.
Mass and Inertia
• The property of an object because of which it resists to get disturb its state is called inertia.
• Inertia of an object is measured by its mass. Inertia is directly proportional to the mass. This
means inertia increases with increase in mass and decreases with decrease in mass.
• A heavy object will have more inertia than the lighter one. In other words, the natural tendency of
an object that resists the change in state of motion or rest of the object is called inertia.
• Since a heavy object has more inertia, thus it is difficult to push or pull a heavy box over the
ground than the lighter one.
Momentum
• Momentum is the power of motion of an object.
• The product of velocity and mass is called the momentum. Momentum is denoted by ' p '.
• Therefore, Momentum of the object = Mass × Velocity (p = m × v) where, p = momentum,
m = mass of the object and v = velocity of the object.
• Some explanations to understand the momentum:
• A person get injured in the case of hitting by a moving object, such as stone, pebbles or anything
because of momentum of the object.
• Even a small bullet is able to kill a person when it is fired from a gun because of its momentum
due to great velocity.
• A person get injured severely when hit by a moving vehicle because of momentum of vehicle due
to mass and velocity.
Momentum and Mass
• Since momentum is the product of mass and velocity (p = m × v) of an object. This means
momentum is directly proportional to mass and velocity. Momentum increases with increase of
either mass or velocity of an object.
• This means if a lighter and a heavier object is moving with same velocity, then heavier object will
have more momentum than the lighter one.
• If a small object is moving with great velocity, it has tremendous momentum. And because of
momentum, it can harm an object more severely.
Example : a small bullet having a little mass even kills a person when it is fired from a gun.

3
• Usually, road accidents prove more fatal because of high speed than in slower speed. This
happens because vehicles running with high speed have greater momentum compared to a vehicle
running with slower speed.
Momentum of an object which is in the state of rest
Let an object with mass ' m ' is in the rest.
Since, object is in rest, therefore, its velocity, v = 0
Now we know that,
Momentum = mass × velocity
⇒p=m×0=0
Thus, the momentum of an object in the rest i.e. non-moving, is equal to zero.
Unit of momentum
SI unit of mass = kg
SI unit of velocity = m/s
we know that,
Momentum (p) = m × v
∴ p = kg × m/s ⟹ p = kgm/s
• Rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to applied unbalanced force in the
direction of force.
Mathematical expression
Suppose,
Mass of an object = m kg
Initial velocity of an object = u m/s
Final velocity of an object = v m/s
∴ Initial momentum, 𝑝1 = mu
Final momentum, 𝑝2 = mv
∴ Change in momentum = Final momentum - Initial momentum
= mv – mu
= m (v - u)
Final velocity of an object = v m/s
∴ Rate of change of momentum = Change in momentum/Time taken
= m (v – u) / t
• According to 2 nd law, this rate of change is momentum is directly proportional to force.
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
𝐹∝
𝑡

We know that, a=(v - u)/t (From 1st equation of motion)

4
∴ F = kma
where, k is a constant. Its value can be assumed as 1.
∴ 𝐹 = 1 × 𝑚 × 𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎
• SI unit = kg m/s2 or Newton
One Newton : When an acceleration of 1 m/s2 is seen in a body of mass 1 kg, then the force
applied on the body is said to be one Newton.
Proof of Newton's First Law of Motion from Second Law
First law states that if external force F = 0, then a moving body keeps moving with the same
velocity, or a body at rest continues to be at rest.
∴ F=0
We know, F = m (v - u)/t
(i) A body is moving with initial velocity u then,
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
=0⟹𝑣−𝑢 =0
𝑡

∴ v=u
Thus, final velocity is also same.
(ii) A body is at rest i.e, u = 0
Therefore, from above u = v = 0
So, the body will continue to be at rest.
Third Law of Motion
For every action there is an equal an opposite reaction.
Applications
(i) Walking is enabled by 3rd law.
(ii) A boat moves back when we deboard it.
(iii) A gun recoils.
(iv) Rowing of a boat.
Law of Conservation of Momentum
When two (or more) bodies act upon one another, their total momentum remains constant (or
conserved) provided no external forces are acting.
• Initial momentum = Final momentum
Suppose, two objects A and B each of mass m1 and mass m2 are moving initially with velocities
u1 and u2 , strike each other after time t and start moving with velocities v1 and v2 respectively.
Now,
Initial momentum of object A = 𝑚1 𝑢1
Initial momentum of object B = 𝑚2 𝑢2
5
 Final momentum of object A = 𝑚1 𝑣1
Final momentum of object B = 𝑚2 𝑣2
So,
Rate of change of momentum in A,
𝐹1 = (𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 )𝑡 = 𝑚1 (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 )/𝑡 … (𝑖)
Rate of change of momentum in B,
𝐹2 = (𝑚2 𝑣2 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 )𝑡 = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )/𝑡 … " (𝑖𝑖) "
We know from 3rd law of motion,
𝐹1 = 𝐹2
𝑚1 (𝑣1 −𝑢1 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣2 −𝑢2 )
So, =−
𝑡 𝑡

𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝑢2 = −𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
Thus, Initial momentum = Final momentum
Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Which of the following has more inertia:
(a) a rubber ball and a stone of the same size?
(b) a bicycle and a train?
(c) a five-rupees coin and a one-rupee coin?
Sol. (a) A stone of the same size
(b) a train
(c) a five-rupees coin
As the mass of an object is a measure of its inertia, objects with more mass have more inertia.
Q2. In the following example, try to identify the number of times the velocity of the ball changes.
“A football player kicks a football to another player of his team who kicks the football towards
the goal The goalkeeper of the opposite team collects the football and kicks it towards a player
of his own team”. Also identify the agent supplying the force in each case.
Sol.

Agent supplying the force Change in velocity of ball

First player kicks a football. Velocity from ‘O’ changes to ‘u’

Second player kicks the football towards the goal Velocity changes again

The goalkeeper collects the football. Velocity becomes O

Goalkeeper kicks it towards a player of his team. Change in velocity takes place

6
Q3. Explain why some of the leaves may get detached from a tree if we vigorously shake its
branch.
Sol. When the tree’s branch is shaken vigorously the branch attain motion but the leaves stay at rest.
Due to the inertia of rest, the leaves tend to remain in its position and hence detaches from the
tree to fall down.

Q4. Why do you fall in the forward direction when a moving bus brakes to a stop and fall
backwards when it accelerates from rest?
Sol. When a moving bus brakes-to a stop: When the bus is moving, our body is also in motion, but
due to sudden brakes, the lower part of our body comes to rest as soon as the bus stops. But the
upper part of our body continues to be in motion and hence we fall in forward direction due to
inertia of motion.
When the bus accelerates from rest we fall backwards: When the bus’ is stationary our body is
at rest but when the bus accelerates, the lower part of our body being in contact with the floor
of the bus comes in motion, but the upper part of our body remains at rest due to inertia of rest.
Hence we fall in backward direction.
Q5. If action is always equal to the reaction, explain how a horse can pud a cart?
Sol. The third law of motion states that action is always equal to the reaction but they act on two
different bodies.
In this case the horse exerts a force on the ground with its feet while walking, the ground exerts
an equal and opposite force on the feet of the horse, which enables the horse to move forward
and the cart is pulled by the horse.

Q6. Explain, why is it difficult for a fireman to hold a hose, which ejects a large amount of water at
a high velocity.
Sol. The water that is ejected out from the hose in the forward direction comes out with a large
momentum and equal amount of momentum is developed in the hose in the opposite direction
and hence the hose is pushed backward. It becomes difficult for a fireman to hold a hose which
experiences this large momentum.
Q7. From a rifle of mass 4 kg, a bullet of mass 50 g is fired with an initial velocity of 35 m/s.
Calculate the initial recoil velocity of the rifle.
Sol. (𝑚1 ) Mass of rifle = 4 kg
(𝑚2 ) Mass of bullet = 50g = 0.05 kg
(𝑣2 ) velocity of bullet = 35 m/s
(𝑣1 ) Recoil velocity of rifle = ?
According to the law of conservation of momentum
Momentum of rifle = momentum of bullet
𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2

7
 4kg × v1 = 0.05 × 35 m/s
0.05 ×35 1.75
 𝑣1 = =
4 4

𝑣1 = 0.4375 𝑚/𝑠
 Recoil velocity of rifle = 0.4375 m/s
Q8. Two objects of masses 100 g and 200 g are moving along the same line and direction with
velocities of 2 m/s and 1 m/s respectively.
They collide and after the collision the first object moves at a velocity of 1.67 m./s. Determine
the velocity of the second object.
Sol. 𝑚1 = 100g = 0.1 kg
𝑚2 = 200 g = 0.2 kg
𝑢1 = 2 m/s
𝑢2 = 1 m/s
After collision
𝑣1 = 1.67𝑚/𝑠
𝑣2 =?
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
(0.1 × 2) + (0.2 × 1) = (0.1 × 1.67) + (0.2 × 𝑣2 )
 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.167 + 0.2𝑣2
0.4 – 0.167 = 0.2 𝑣2
0.4−0.167
= 𝑣2
0.2
0.233
 = 1.165𝑚/𝑠
0.2

 The velocity of the second object is 1.165 m/s.

8
 Gravitation
Gravitation Force of Earth
➢ If we release a small stone without pushing it from a height it accelerates towards earth.
➢ The stone is when accelerated towards earth, means some force is acting on it. The force
which pulls the objects towards the centre of the earth is known as gravitational force of
the earth.
➢ Here, stone also attracts earth. It means every object in universe attracts every other
object.

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

➢ Sir Isaac Newton in 1687 proposed a law about the force of attraction between the two objects in
the universe which is known as Newton’s law of gravitation.

Mm
F=G
d2
According to Universal of Gravitation :
➢ Every mass in this universe attracts every other mass with a force which is directly proportional to
the product of two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
➢ Let masses (M) and (m) of two objects are distance (d) apart, then force of attraction (F) between
them
F  Mm F  1/ d2
Mm
F=
( GMm)
F 2
d d2
➢ Where,
➢ G is a constant and is known as Gravitational constant.
➢ Value of G = 6.67 10 –11 Nm 2 / kg 2
➢ If unit of F is in Newton, m is in kg, d is in metre, then unit of G can be calculated as:
G = (F × d2) / Mm, therefor unit will be Nm2 / kg2
Relation between Newton’s third law of motion and Newton’s law of gravitation
➢ According to Newton’s third law of motion, “Every object exerts equal and opposite force on other
object but in opposite direction.”
➢ According to Newton’s law of gravitation, “Every mass in the universe attracts every other mass.”
➢ In case of freely falling stone and earth, stone is attracted towards earth means earth attracts the
stone.

2
➢ But according to Newton’s third law of motion, the stone should also attract the earth.
➢ It is true that stone also attracts the earth with the same force F = m × a but due to very less mass
of the stone, the acceleration
(a) in its velocity is 9.8 m/s2 and acceleration (a) of earth towards stone is 1.65 × 10-24 m/s2 which
is negligible and we cannot feel it.
Importance of universal law of gravitation
(i) The force that binds us to the earth.
(ii) The motion of moon around the earth.
(iii) The motion of earth around the sun.
(iv) The tides due to moon and the sun.
Free fall of an object and acceleration (g)
➢ When an object is thrown upward, it reaches certain height, then it starts falling down towards
earth. It is because the earth’s gravitational force exerts on it.
➢ This fall under the influence of earth is called ‘free fall of an object’.
➢ During this free fall direction do not change but velocity continuously changes which is called
acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by ‘g’.
➢ Its units is same acceleration m/s2.
Value of ‘g’ on the surface of Earth
➢ The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling object due to the gravitational force of earth,
is called acceleration due to gravity.
➢ It is represented by ‘g’ and it always acts towards the centre of the earth.
➢ The force acting on an object is F = ( GM e m ) / R 2 … (i)
Where,
Me = Mass of earth
m = Mass of an object
R = radius of earth
If acceleration due to gravity is ‘g’ due to force F then, F = m × g …(ii)
GMe m
Equating (i) and (ii), we get m  g =
R2
GM
g = 2e
R
If G = 6.673 10−11 Nm 2 / kg 2 , Me = 6 1024 kg, R 2 = ( 6.37 106 )
2

6.6734 10 –11  6 1024

Then, g=
( 6.37 10 )
6 2

 g = 9.8m / s 2
Relationship between ‘G’ and ‘g’
G = Gravitational constant
g = Acceleration due to gravity
g = GM/R2

3
Difference between G and g
Gravitation Constant (G) Gravitation acceleration (g)

Its value is 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 / kg2. Its value is 9.8 m / s2.

Its value remains constant always and Its value varies at various places.
everywhere
Its unit is Nm2 / kg2. Its unit is m / s2.

It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

Equation of Motion
Case 1 : Equation of motion when an object is falling freely towards earth or thrown vertically
upwards
Velocity (v) after t seconds, v = u + gt
Height covered in t seconds, h = ut + ½ gt2
Relation between v and u when t is not given : v 2 = u 2 + 2gh
Case 2 : When object is falling from rest position means initial velocity u = 0
Velocity (v) after t seconds, v = gt
Height covered in t seconds, h = ½ gt2
Relation between v and u when t is not given = v 2 = 2gh
Case 3 : When an object is thrown vertically upwards with initial velocity u, the gravitational
acceleration will be negative (– g)
Velocity (v) after t seconds, v = u – gt
Height covered in t seconds, h = ut –1/2 gt2
Relation between v and u when t is given : v 2 = u 2 − 2gh

Mass
➢ The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it. Mass is a scalar quantity which
has only magnitude but no direction.
➢ SI unit of mass is kilogram which is written in short form as kg.
➢ Mass of a body is constant and does not change from place to place.
➢ Mass of a body is usually denoted by the small ‘m’.
➢ Mass of a body cannot be zero.
Weight
➢ The force with which an object is attracted towards the centre of the earth, is called the weight of
the object.
Force = m × a
In case of earth, a = g

4
 F = m × g
But the force of attraction of earth on an object is called its weight (W).
W=m×g
➢ Weight is the force and its SI unit is Newton (N). It depends on ‘g’ and is a vector quantity.
➢ Relation between 1 kg wt and express it into Newton
We know that W = m × g
If mass (m) = 1 kg, g = 9.8 m/s2,
Then, W = 1 kg × 9.8 m/s2
1 kg wt = 9.8 N\
➢ The gravitational force of earth that acts on an object of mass 1 kg is called as 1 kg wt.

Distinguish between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight

Mass of an object can be measured by its Weight = mass × acceleration (m × g)

inertia.
The total quantity of matter contained in an The gravitational force by which earth attracts an
object is called mass of an object. object is called weight of the object.
Mass of the object remains constant at all Weight of the object is different at different places.
the places
Measurement of mass is done by using a Measurement of weight is done by using a spring
pan or beam balance. balance.
Mass does not change even value of g is Weight of the object becomes zero if g is zero.
zero at any place.

Factors affecting value of g

➢ Earth is not a perfect sphere. The radius of earth increase when we go from pole to equator.
➢ Therefore, we can take g as constant at the surface of earth or closer to it. But as we move away
from earth, we can use equation g = GM/d2 for solving problems.

Thrust and Pressure

➢ The force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface is called thrust
➢ The effect of thrust per unit area is called pressure.
➢ Pressure (P) = Force / Area = F/A
➢ SI unit is N/m2 or Nm–2.
➢ SI unit of pressure is Pascal denoted by ‘Pa’.

Factors affecting value of g

(i) Force applied
(ii) Area of surface over which force acts

5
Examples of Pressure
➢ The base of high buildings is made wider so that weight of walls act over a large surface area and
pressure is less.
➢ School bags are having broad strap so that the weight of school bags fall over a larger area of the
shoulder and produce less pressure and becomes less painful.
➢ The blades of knives are made sharp so very small surface area and on applying force, it produces
large pressure and cuts the object easily.

Buoyancy

➢ The upward force experienced by an object when it is immersed into a fluid is called force of
buoyance.

➢ It acts in upward direction and it depends on the density of the fluid.

➢ When force of gravitational attraction of the earth on the surface of the object < buoyant force
exerted by fluid on the surface of the object, object floats in the fluid.
➢ When force of gravitational attraction of the earth on the surface of the object > buoyant force
exerted by find on the surface of the object, the object sinks in the fluid.
➢ This is the reason, why allpin sinks and boat/ship floats on the surface of water. (Archimedes’
Principle).

6
 Density
➢ The mass per unit volume is called density of an object.
➢ If M is the mass and V is the volume, then
➢ SI unit = kg / m3
Density (d) = Mass (M) / Volume (V)
Archimedes’ Principle
➢ It states, when a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences a upward force that is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

Applications of Archimedes’ Principle

(i) It is used in determining relative density of substances.
(ii) It is used in designing ships and submarines.
(iii) Hydrometers and lactometers are made on this principle
➢ It is because of this ship made of iron and steel floats in water whereas a small piece of iron sinks
in it.
Q. Why is it difficult to hold a school bag having a strap made of a thin strong string? [NCERT]
Sol. It is tough to carry a school bag having a skinny strap because of the pressure that is being applied
on the shoulders. The pressure is reciprocally proportional to the expanse on which the force acts.
So, the smaller the surface area, the larger is going to be the pressure on the surface. In the case of
a skinny strap, the contact expanse is quite small. Hence, the pressure exerted on the shoulders is
extremely huge.
Q. What do you mean by buoyancy? [NCERT]

Sol. The upward force possessed by a liquid on an object that’s immersed in it is referred to as
buoyancy.
Q. Why does an object float or sink when placed on the surface of water? [NCERT]
Sol. An object floats or sinks when placed on the surface of water because of two reasons.
(i) If its density is greater than that of water, an object sinks in water.
(ii) If its density is less than that of water, an object floats in water.
Q. What are the difference between the mass of an object and its weight? [NCERT]
Sol. The difference between the mass of an object and its weight are tabulated below.

7
 Mass Weight
Mass is the quantity of matter contained in the Weight is the force of gravity acting on the
body. body
It is the measure of inertia of the body. It is the measure of gravity.
It only has magnitude. It has magnitude as well as direction.
Mass is a constant quantity. Weight is not a constant quantity. It is
different at different places.
Its SI unit is kilogram (kg). Its SI unit is the same as the SI unit of force,
i.e., Newton (N).

Relative density
➢ The ratio of the density of a substance to that of the density of water is called relative density.
Relative density = Density of a substance / Density of water
➢ It has no unit as it is a ratio.

Notes End

8
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. How does the force of gravitation between two objects change when the distance between
them is reduced to half?
Gm1m 2
Sol. Gravitation force between two objects, F =
r2
4Gm1m2
When, r ' = r / 2 then F' = = 4F. Thus, the force of gravitation becomes 4 times its
r2
original value.
Q2. Gravitational force acts on all objects in proportion to their masses. Why, then, a heavy
object does not fall faster than a light object?
Sol. The acceleration with which a body falls towards the earth is constant (= 9.8 ms–2) and
independent of the mass of the body. Thus, all bodies fall with the same acceleration irrespective
of their masses. That is why, a heavy body does not fall faster than the light body.
Q3. What is magnitude of the gravitational force between the earth and a 1 kg object on its
surface? Mass of the earth is 6 × 1024 kg and radius of earth is 6.4 × 106 m
GMm 6.67 10−11  6 1024 1
Sol. F = = = 9.77N 9.8
R2 ( 6.4  10 )
6 2

Q4. The earth and the moon are attracted to each other by gravitational force. Does the earth
attract the moon with a force that is greater or smaller or the same as the force with which
the moon attracts the earth? Why?
Sol. Gravitational force with which a body A attracts another body B is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the gravitational force with which a body B attracts the body A. Thus,
the magnitude of force with which the earth attracts the moon is equal to the magnitude of the
force with which the moon attracts the earth. Thus, both the earth and the moon attract each
other with equal forces.
Q5. If the moon attracts the earth, why does the earth not move towards the moon?
 F
Sol. Moon and earth exert equal in magnitude on each other. The acceleration  a =  Produced in
 m
the earth due to the force exerted on it by the moon is very small is very small as the mass of the
earth is very large. Hence, the movement of the earth towards the moon is not noticed.
Q6. What happens to the force between two object, if
(i) the mass of one object is doubled?
(ii) the distance between the object is doubled and tripled?
(iii) the masses of both the objects are doubled?
Gm1m 2
Sol. F =
r2

9
 (i) F is doubled if m1 or m2 is doubled.
1 1
(ii) F becomes times the original value if distance (r) is doubled and F becomes times the
4 9
original value if r is tripled.
(iii) F becomes four times the original value if both m1 and m2 are doubled.
Q7. Amit buys few grams of gold at the poles as per the instruction of one of his friends. He hands
over the same when he meets him at the equator. Will the friend agree with the weight of gold
bought? If not, why?
(Hint : The value of g is greater at the poles than at the equator.)
Sol. Weight = mg
Since value of g is greater at the poles than at the equator, so the weight of gold at the poles
will be greater than the weight of gold at the equator. Hence, his friend will say that the weight
of the gold is less than as told by Amit.
Q8. Why will a sheet of paper fall slower than one that is crumpled into a ball?
Sol. Since the area of a sheet of paper is more than the area of the paper crumpled into a small,
therefore, a sheet of paper will experience a large opposing force due to air than the ball, while
falling down. Hence, a sheet of paper falls slower than one that is crumpled into a ball.
1
Q9. Gravitational force on the surface of the moon is only as strong as gravitational force on
2
the earth. What is the weight in newton’s of a 10 kg object on the moon and on the earth?
Sol. Weight of the object on earth = mg = 10kg × 9.8 ms–2 = 98N
mg 98N
Weight of the object on moon = = = 16.33N.
6 6
Q10. A stone is released from the top of a tower of height 19.6 m. Calculate its final velocity just
before touching the ground.
Sol. Here, u = 0, s = 19.6 m, a = g = 9.8 ms–2, v =?
Using, v 2 − u 2 = 2gh, we get

v 2 – 0 = 2  (9.8)  (19.6 ) = 348.16

 v = 348.16 = 19.6ms−1.
or v = 19.6 ms–1.

10
 Work and Energy
Work
“Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain
distance in the direction of applied force.”
➢ It is measured by the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
W=F.s
➢ For doing work, energy is required.
➢ In animals, energy is supplied by food they eat.
➢ In machine, energy is supplied by fuel.
Why sometimes not much work is done inspite of working hard?
➢ Reading, writing, drawing, thinking, analysing are all energy consuming. But in scientific manner,
no work is done in above cases.
➢ Example: A man is completely exhausted in trying to push a rock
(wall), but work done is zero as wall is stationary.
➢ A man standing still with heavy suitcase may be tired soon but he
does no work in this situation as he is stationary.
➢ When force is applied on the wall, the wall doesn't move. Therefor,
no work is done here.

Scientific Conception of Work

➢ Work is done when a force produces motion in a body.
➢ Work is said to be done when a force is applied on a body and the body moves under the influence
of force.
Condition of Work
(i) Force should be applied on the body.
(ii) Body should be displaced.
Work
Work is done when
(i) A cyclist is pedaling the cycle.

2
(ii) A man is lifting load in upward or downward direction.
Work
Work is done when
(i) A coolie carrying some load on his head stands stationary.

(ii) A man is applying force on a big rock.

Work is done by a Fixed force
➢ Work done in moving a body is equal to
the product of force and displacement of
body in the direction of force.
Work = Force × Displacement
W=F×S
➢ Work is a scalar quantity.

Unit of Work
➢ Unit of work is Newton metre or Joule.

3
➢ When a force of 1 Newton moves a body through a distance of 1 metre in its own direction, then
the work done is 1 Joule.
1 Joule = 1 Newton × 1 metre
1 J = 1 Nm

Factor Affecting Amount of Work

(i) Magnitude of force: Greater the force, greater is the amount of work & vice-versa.

(ii) Displacement: Greater the displacement, greater is the amount of work & vice-versa.

Negative, Positive and Zero Work

➢ Work done by a force can be positive, negative or zero.

(i) Work done is positive when a force acts in the direction

of motion of the body.
Example: A child pulls a toy car with a string
horizontally on the ground.

Here work done is positive.

W=F×S

(ii) Work done is negative when a force acts opposite to the direction of motion of the body.
Example: When we kick a football lying on the ground, the force of our kick moves the football.
Here direction of force applied & motion of football is same so work done is positive. But when
football slows due to force of friction acting in a direction opposite to direction of motion of
football, thus work done is negative.

(iii) Work done is zero when a force acts at right angles to the direction of motion.

Example: When force act perpendicular to direction of body or when there is no displacement

➢ Simple example of zero work done is when you stand holding a bag in your hands and do not move
it.
ENERGY
“The capacity of doing work is known as energy.”
(i) The sun is the biggest source of energy.
(ii) Most of the energy sources are derived from the sun.
(iii) Some energy is received from nucleus of atoms, interior of the earth and the tides.
➢ The amount of energy possessed by a body is equal to the amount of work it can do.
➢ Working body losses energy, body on which work is done gains energy.
➢ Energy is a scalar quantity.
➢ Unit: The SI unit of energy is Joule (J) and its bigger unit is kilo joule (kJ).
4
 1 kJ = 1000 J
➢ The energy required to do 1 Joule of work is called 1 Joule energy.
Forms of Energy
Main forms of energy are

(i) Kinetic energy

(ii) Potential energy
(iii) Heat energy
(iv) Chemical energy
(v) Electrical energy
(vi) Light energy
(vii) Sound energy
(viii) Nuclear energy
Mechanical energy
➢ Sum of kinetic energy & potential energy of a body is called mechanical energy.
➢ The energy possessed by a body on account of its motion or position is called mechanical energy.
Kinetic energy
➢ The energy of a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy.
Examples of kinetic energy
❖ A moving cricket ball
❖ Running water
❖ A moving bullet
❖ Flowing wind
❖ A moving car
❖ A running athlete
❖ A rolling stone
❖ Kinetic energy is directly proportional to mass and the square of velocity.
Formula for Kinetic Energy
➢ If an object of mass ‘m’ moving with uniform velocity ‘u’, it is displaced through a distance ‘s’.
Constant force ‘f’ acts on it in the direction of displacement. Its velocity changes from ‘u’ to ‘v’.
➢ Then acceleration is ‘a’.
Work done, W = F × s ....(i)
F = ma ....(ii)
Forms of Energy

5
➢ According to third equation of motion, relationship between u, v, s and a is as follows:
v2 - u2 = 2as
s = (v2 – u2)/2a ….. (iii)
Now putting the value of f and s from (ii) and (iii) in equation (i),
v2 − u 2 m 2 1
W = ma  =  v − u 2 = m(v2 − u 2 )
2a 2 2
If u = 0 (when body starts moving from rest)
W = ½MV2
E K = ½MV2
Potential Energy
➢ The energy of a boady due to its position or change in shape is known as potential energy.
Examples
(i) Water kept in dam : It can rotate turbine to generate electricity due to its position above the
ground.
(ii) Wound up spring of a toy car : It possess potential energy which is released during
unwinding of spring. Therefore, toy car moves.
(iii) Bent string of bow : Potential energy due to change of its shape (deformation)
released in the form of kinetic energy while shooting an arrow.

Q1. A force of 7 N acts on an object. The displacement is, say 8 m, in the direction of the force. Let
us take it that the force acts on the object through the displacement. What is the work done in this
case? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. When a force F acts on an object to move it in its direction through a distance S, the work is done
the work on the body is done by force
Work done = Force × Displacement
W=F×S
Where, F=7NS=8m
So, work done,

6
 W=7×8 W = 56 Nm
W = 56 J

Q. When do we say that work is done? [NCERT Exercise]

Sol. Work is completed whenever the given conditions are satisfied.
(i) A force acts on the body.
(ii) There’s a displacement of the body by applying force in or opposite to the direction of the force.

Q. A pair of bullocks exerts a force of 140 N on a plough. The field being ploughed is 15 m long.
How much work is done in ploughing the length of the field? [NCERT Exercise]
Sol. Work done by the Bullocks is given by the expression
W=F×d
Where,
Applied force, F = 140 N
Displacement, d = 15 m
W = 140 × 15 = 2100 J
Therefore, 2100 J of work is done in ploughing the length of the field.

Factor affecting Potential energy

➢ The acceleration of a moving object is given by the slope of the v – t graph.
(i) Potential Energy
P.E.  m
➢ More the mass of body, greater is the potential energy and vice-versa.
(ii) Height above the ground
P.E.  h (Not depend on the path it follows)
➢ Greater the height above the ground, greater is the P.E. and vice-versa.
(iii) Change in shape: Greater the stretching, twisting or bending, more is the potential energy.
Potential Energy of an Object on a Height
➢ If a body of mass ‘m’ is raised to a height ‘h’ above the surface of the earth, the gravitational pull
of the earth (m × g) acts in downward direction.
➢ To lift the body, we have to do work against the force of gravity.
Thus, Work done (W) = Force × Displacement
 W = m × g × h = mgh

7
➢ This work is stored in the body as potential energy (gravitational potential energy).
Thus, Potential energy, Ep = m × g × h
where, g = acceleration due to gravity.

Transformation of Energy
➢ The change of one form of energy to another form of energy is known as transformation of energy.
Example
(i) A stone on a certain height has entire potential energy. But when it starts moving downward,
potential energy of stone goes on decreasing as height goes on decreasing but its kinetic energy
goes on increasing as velocity of stone goes on increasing.
➢ At the time stone reaches the ground, potential energy becomes zero and kinetic energy is
maximum. Thus, its entire potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy.
(ii) At hydroelectric power house, the potential energy of water is transformed into kinetic energy
and then into electrical energy.
(iii) At thermal power house, chemical energy of coal is changed into heat energy, which is further
converted into kinetic energy and electrical energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy

➢ Whenever energy changes from one form to another form, the total amount of energy remains
constant.
➢ “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.”
➢ Although some energy may be wasted during conversion, but the total energy of the system
remains the same.

Conservation of Energy during Free Fall of a Body

➢ A ball of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’ has potential energy = mgh.
➢ As ball falls downwards, height ‘h’ decreases, so the potential energy also decreases.
➢ Kinetic energy at ‘h’ is zero but it is increasing during falling of ball.
➢ The sum of potential energy & kinetic energy of the ball remains the same at every point during
its fall.
½mv2 + mgh = Constant
Kinetic energy + Potential energy = Constant

8
 Power
Rate of Doing Work (Power)
➢ “Power is defined as the rate of energy consumption.”
Power (P) = Work done/Time Taken = W/t
where, P = power
W = Work done
t = time taken
Unit of Power
➢ SI unit of Power is Watt (W) = 1 Joule / second.
1 Watt (W) = 1 Joule / 1 second = 1 J / 1s
➢ Power is one Watt when one Joule work is done in one second.
Total work done or total energy used
Average Power =
Total time taken
Law of Conservation of Energy
Power of Electrical Gadget
➢ The power of an electrical appliance tells us the rate at which electrical energy is consumed by it.

Biggest unit of Power

➢ Bigger unit of power is called Kilowatt or KW.
Kilowatt (KW) = 1000 Watt = 1000 W or 1000 J/s

Commercial Unit of Energy

➢ Joule is very small unit of energy and it is inconvenient to use it where a large quantity of energy
is involved.
➢ For commercial purpose, bigger unit of energy is Kilotwatt hour (KWh).
1 KWh: 1 KWh is the amount of energy consumed when an electric appliance having a power
rating of 1 Kilowatt is used for 1 hour.
= 1000 Watt for 1 hour
= 1000 Watt × 3600 seconds (60 × 60 seconds = 1 hour)
= 36,00,000 Joules
∴ 1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 J = 1 unit

9
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. Write an expression for the kinetic energy of an object.

Sol. If a body of mass m is moving with a speed v, then its K. E. Ek is given by the expression,

Ek = ½ m v2

Its SI unit is Joule (J).

Q2. What is the kinetic energy of an object?

Sol. The energy possessed by a body by the virtue of its motion is termed mechanical energy or
kinetic energy. Every moving object possesses mechanical energy. A body uses mechanical
energy to try to work. Kinetic energy of the hammer is employed in driving a nail into a log of
wood, mechanical energy of air is employed to run wind mills, etc.

Q3. An object thrown at a certain angle to the ground moves in a curved path and falls back to
the ground. The initial and the final points of the path of the object lie on the same horizontal
line. What is the work done by the force of gravity on the object?

Sol. Work done by the force of gravity on an object depends solely on vertical displacement.
Vertical displacement is given by the distinction in the initial and final positions/ heights of the
object which is zero.
Work done by the gravity is given by the expression,
W=m×g×h
Where,
h = Vertical displacement = 0
W = mg × 0 = 0 J
Hence, the work done by the gravity on the given object is zero joule.

Q4. Certain force acting on a 20 kg mass changes its velocity from 5 m S–1. to 2 m S–1. Calculate
the work done by the force.
Sol. Given
Initial velocity u = 5 m/s
Mass of the body = 20 kg
Final velocity v = 2 m/s
The initial kinetic energy
Ei = (1/ 2)mu 2 = (1/ 2)  20  (5)2

10
 = 10 × 25
= 250 J
Final kinetic energy
Ef = (1/ 2)mv2 = (1/ 2)  20  (2)2

= 10 × 4
= 40 J
Therefore,
Work done = Change in kinetic energy
Work done = E f − E i

Work done = 40 J – 250 J

Work done = – 210 J

Q5. A mass of 10 kg is at a point A on a table. It is moved to a point B. If the line joining A

and B is horizontal, what is the work done on the object by the gravitational force?
Explain your answer.
Sol. Work done by gravity depends solely on the vertical displacement of the body. It doesn’t rely
on the train of the body. Therefore, work done by gravity is given by the expression,
W=mgh
Where,
Vertical displacement, h = 0
 W = m  g  zero = 0
Therefore the work done on the object by gravity is zero.
Q6. A certain household has consumed 250 units of energy during a month. How much energy
is this in joules?
Sol. 1 unit of energy = 1 kWh
Given
Energy (E) = 250 units
1 unit = 1 kWh
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
Therefore, 250 units of energy = 250 × 3.6 × 106
= 9 × 108 J.

11
Q7. Calculate the work required to be done to stop a car of 1500 kg moving at a velocity of 60
km/h?
Sol. Given data :
The mass of the body = 1500 kg
Velocity v = 60 km/hr
60 1000m
=
3600s
50
= m/s
3
The work required to stop the moving car = change in kinetic energy
1
= mv2
2
2
1  50 
= 1500   
2  3 
= 208333.3 J

Q8. Find the energy in kW h consumed in 10 hours by four devices of power 500 W each.
Sol. Given
Power rating of the device (P) = 500 W = 0.50 kW
Time for which the device runs (T) = 10 h
Energy consumed by an electric device can be obtained by the expression
Power = Energy consumed / Time taken
Energy consumed = 0.50 × 10
Energy consumed = 5 kWh
Thus, the energy consumed by four equal rating devices in 10 h will be
 4 × 5 kWh
= 20 kWh

Q9. An electric heater is rated 1500 W. How much energy does it use in 10 hours?
Sol. Given Power of the heater = 1500 W = 1.5 kW
Time taken = 10 hours
Energy consumed by an electric heater can be obtained with the help of the expression

12
 Power = Energy consumed / Time taken
Hence,
Energy consumed = power × Time taken
Energy consumed = 1.5 × 10
Energy consumed = 15 kWh
Therefore, the energy consumed by the heater in 10 hours is 15 kWh.

Q10. Does the transfer of energy take place when you push a huge rock with all your might and
fail to move it? where is the energy you spend going?
Sol. When we push a huge rock, there’s no transfer of muscular energy to the stationary rock. Also,
there’s no loss of energy since muscular energy is transferred into heat energy, which causes
our body to become hot.

13
 Sound
Introduction
 The sensation felt by our ears is called sound.
 Sound is a form of energy which makes us hear.
 Law of conservation of energy is also applicable to sound.
 Sound travels in form of wave.

Production of Sound
 Sound is produced when object vibrates or sound is produced by vibrating objects.
 The energy required to make an object vibrate and produce sound is provided by some outside
source (like our hand, wind etc.).
Example :
 Sound of our voice is produced by vibration of two vocal cords in our throat.

 Sound of a drum or table is produced by vibration of its membrane when struck.

 In laboratory experiments, sound is produced by

vibrating tuning fork. The vibrations of tuning fork
can be shown by touching a small suspended pith
ball (cork ball) with a prong of the sounding tuning
fork. The pith ball is pushed away with a great force.

2
Sound can be produced by following methods :
(i) By vibrating string (sitar)
(ii) By vibrating air (flute)
(iii) By vibrating membrane (table, drum)
(iv) By vibrating plate (bicycle bell)
(v) By friction in objects
(vi) By scratching or scrubbing the objects etc.

Propagation of Sound
 The substance through which sound travels is called a medium.
 The medium may be solid, liquid or gas.
 When an object vibrates, then the air particles around it also start vibrating in exactly the same
way and displaced from their stable position.
 These vibrating air particles exert a force on nearby air particles so they are also displaced from
their rest position and start to vibrate.
 This process is continued in the medium till sound reaches our ears.
 The disturbance produced by sound travels through the medium (not the particles of the medium).
 Wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and carries energy.
 So sound travels in wave form known as mechanical waves.

 When a body vibrates then it compresses the air surrounding it and form a area of high density
called compression (C).
 Compression is the part of wave in which particles of the medium are closer to one another
forming high pressure.
 This compression moves away from the vibrating body.
 When vibrating body vibrates back a area of low pressure is formed called rarefaction (R).
 Rarefaction is the area of wave in which particles of the medium are further apart from one
another forming a low pressure or low density area.
 When body vibrates back and forth, a series of compression and rarefaction is formed in air
resulting in sound wave.
 Propagation of sound wave is propagation of density change.

3
Sound needs Medium for Propagation
 Sound waves are mechanical waves.
 It needs material medium for propagation like air, water, steel etc.
 It cannot travel in vacuum.
 An electric bell is suspended in airtight bell jar connected with vacuum pump.
 When bell jar is full of air, we hear the sound but when air is pumped out from the bell jar by
vacuum pump and we ring the bell, no sound is heard.
 So, medium in necessary for propagation of sound.

Sound Waves as Longitudinal Waves

 A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in the same direction in which
the wave is moving, is called a longitudinal wave.
 When we push and pull the slinky compression (number of turns are more or closer) an rarefaction
(number of turns are less or farther) are formed.
 When a wave travels along with slinky, its each turn moves back and forth by only a small
distance in the direction of wave. So the wave is longitudinal.
 The direction of vibrations of the particles is parallel to the direction of wave.

4
 When one end of a slinky is moved up and down rapidly whose other end is fixed, it produces
transverse wave.
 This wave possess along the slinky in horizontal direction, while turns of slinky (particles) vibrate
up and down at right angle to the direction of wave.
 Thus in transverse wave particles of the medium vibrate up and down at right angles to the
direction of wave.
 Light waves are transverse waves but they don’t need a material medium for propagation.

Characteristics of Sound Wave

 The characteristics of sound waves are : wavelength, frequency, amplitude, time period and
velocity.
 When a wave travel in air the density and pressure of air changes from their mean position.
 Compression is the region of maximum density or pressure.
 Rarefaction is the region of minimum density or pressure.

5
 Wavelength

 In sound waves the combined length of a compression and an adjacent rarefaction is called its
wavelength.
 The distance between the centres of two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions
is also called its wavelength.
 It is denoted by the Greek letter lambda (). Its SI unit is metre.

Frequency
 No. of complete waves produced in one second or number of vibration per second is called
Frequency.
 Number of compressions or rarefactions passed in one second is also frequency.
 Frequency of wave is same as the frequency of the vibrating body which produces the wave.
 The SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). The symbol of frequency is v (nu).
 1 Hertz : One Hz is equal to 1 vibration per second.
 Bigger unit of frequency is kilohertz kHz = 1000 Hz.

Time Period
 Time taken to complete one vibration is called time period.
 Time required to pass two consecutive compressions or rarefactions through a point is called
time period.
 SI unit of time period is second (s). Time period is denoted by T.
 The frequency of a wave is the reciprocal of the time period.
1
V
T

Amplitude

 The maximum displacement of the particle of the medium from their original undisturbed position
is called amplitude of the wave.

6
 Amplitude is denoted by A and its SI unit is metre (m).
 Sound have characteristics like pitch and loudness and timbre.

Pitch

 Pitch: The pitch of sound depends on the frequency of sound (vibration).

 It is directly proportional to its frequency. Greater the frequency, higher is the pitch and lesser the
frequency. Lower is the pitch.
 A woman’s voice is shrill having a high pitch while a man’s voice is flat having low pitch.
 High pitch sound has large number of compressions and rarefactions passing a fixed point per unit
time.

Loudness
 Loudness : The loudness depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.
 Loudness is the measure of the sound energy reaching the ear per sec.
 Greater the amplitude of sound wave, greater is the energy, louder the sound; short is the
amplitude, less is the energy, soft is the sound.
 Loudness is measured in decibel ‘dB’.

Quality or Timbre

 Quality or Timbre: The timbre of a sound depends on the shape of sound wave produced by it. It is
the characteristic of musical sound.

7
 It helps us to distinguish between two sounds of same pitch & loudness.
 Sound of single (same) frequency is called tone while a mixture of different frequencies is called
note.
 Noise is unpleasant to hear while music is pleasant to hear and it is of good quality.

Velocity

 The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave
 Its SI unit metre per second (ms–1).
Velocity = Distance travelled / Time taken

v
T
( is the wavelength of the waves travelled in one time period T)
v  v(1/ T  v)
So, Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency
This is the wave equation.

Q1. What is the frequency of sound wave whose time period is 0.05 second?
1 1 100
Sol. f    20HZ
t 0.05 5

Speed of Sound in Various Mediums

 Speed of sound depends on the nature of material through which it travels. It is slowest in gases,
faster in liquids and fastest in solids.
 Speed of sound increases with the rise in temperature.
 Speed of sound increases as humidity of air increases.
 Speed of light is faster than speed of sound.
 In air, speed of sound is 344 ms–1 at 22°C.

Sonic Boom
 Some aircrafts, bullets, rockets etc. have ‘supersonic speed’.
 Supersonic refers to the speed of an object which is greater than the speed of sound and it
produces extremely loud sound waves called ‘shock waves’ in air.
 Sonic boom is an explosive noise caused by shock waves.
 It emits tremendous sound energy which can shatter the glass panes of windows.

Reflection of Sound
 Like light, sound also bounce back when it falls on a hard surface. It is called reflection of sound.
 The laws of reflection of light are obeyed during reflection of sound.

8
 (i) The incident sound wave, the reflected sound wave and normal at the point of incidence lie in
the same plane.
(ii) Angle of reflection of sound is always equal to the angle of incidence of sound.

Echo

 The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound waves is called an echo.
 We can hear echo when there is a time gap of 0.1 second in original sound and echo (reflected
sound).
 Echo is produced when sound reflected from a hard surface (i.e. brick wall, mountain etc.) as soft
surface tends to absorb sound.

Minimum distance to hear an echo

Speed = Distance / Time
Here, Speed of sound in air = 344 ms–1 at 22°C
Time = 0.1 second
344 = Distance / 0.1 sec
 Distance = 344 × 0.1 = 34.4 m
So, distance between reflecting surface and audience = 34.4/2 = 17.2 (at 22°C).
 Rolling of thunder is due to multiple reflection of sound of thunder from a number of reflecting
surfaces such as clouds and the earth.

Reverberation
 The persistence of sound in a big hall due to repeated reflection of sound from the walls, ceiling
and floor of the hall is called reverberation.
 If reverberation is too long, sound becomes blurred, distorted and confusing due to overlapping of
different sound.

Methods to reduce reverberation in big halls or auditoriums

 Panels made of felt or compressed fibre board are put on walls and ceiling to absorb sound.
 Heavy curtains are put on doors and windows.
 Carpets are put on the floor.
 Seats are made of material having sound absorbing properties.

9
 Applications of Reflection of Sound
(i) Megaphone, loudspeakers, bulb horns and trumpets, shehnai etc. are designed to send sound in a
particular direction without spreading all around.
 All these instruments have funnel tube which reflects sound waves repeatedly towards audience.
In this amplitude of sound waves adds up to increase loudness of sound.

(ii) Stethoscope: It is a medical instrument used for listening the sounds

produced in human body mainly in heart and lungs. The sound of the
heartbeats reaches the doctor’s ears by the multiple reflection of the
sound waves in the rubber tube of stethoscope.
(iii) Sound Board: In big halls or auditoriums sound is absorbed by walls,
ceiling, seats etc. So a curved board (sound board) is placed behind the speakers so that his speech
can be heard easily by audiences. The soundboard works on the multiple reflection of sound.

(iv) The ceiling of concert halls are made curved, so that sound after reflection from ceiling, reaches
all the parts of the hall.

10
 Range of Hearing
(i) Range of hearing in human is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz.
 Children younger than 5 years and dogs can hear upto 25 KHz.
(ii) The sounds of frequencies lower than 20 Hz are known as ‘infrasonic sounds.’
 A vibrating simple pendulum produces infrasonic sounds.
 Rhinoceroses communicate each other using frequencies as low as 5 Hz.
 Elephants and whales produces infrasonic waves.
 Earthquakes produces infrasonic waves (before shock waves) which some animals can hear and
get disturbed.
(iii) The sounds of frequencies higher than 20 KHz are known as ‘ultrasonic waves’.
 Dogs, parpoises, dolphins, bats and rats can hear ultrasonic sounds.
 Bats and rats can produce ultrasonic sounds.
Hearing Aid
 It is battery operated electronic device used by persons who are hard of hearing.
 Microphone convert sound into electrical signals, than those are amplified by amplifier. Amplified
signals are send to the speaker of hearing aid.
 The speaker converts the amplified signal to sound and sends to ear for clear hearing.

Applications of Ultrasound

(i) It is used to detect cracks in metal blocks in industries without damaging them.
(ii) It is used in industries to clean ‘hard to reach’ parts of objects such as spiral tubes, odd shaped
machines etc.
(iii) It is used to investigate the internal organs of human body such as liver, gall bladder, kidneys,
uterus and heart.
(iv) Ecocardiography: These waves are used to reflect the action of heart and its images are formed.
This technique is called echocardiography.
(v) Ultrasonography: The technique of obtaining pictures of internal organs of the body by using
echoes of ultrasound waves is called ultrasonography.
(vi) Ultrasound is used to split tiny stones in kidneys into fine grains.

11
 SONAR
 The word ‘SONAR’ stands for ‘Sound Navigation and
Ranging’.
 SONAR is a device which is used to find distance,
direction and speed of underwater objects.
 SONAR consists of a transmitter and a receptor or
detector and installed at the bottom of a ship.
 The transmitter produces and transmits ultrasonic waves.
 These waves travel through water and after striking the
objects on the bottom of sea, are reflected back and
received by detector.
 These reflected waves are converted into electric signals
by detector.
 The sonar device measures the time taken by ultrasound waves to travel from ship to bottom of sea
and back to ship.
 Half of this time gives the time taken by the ultrasound waves from ship to bottom
 Let the time interval between transmission and reception of ultrasound signal is t.
Speed of sound through sea water is v
Total distance travelled by waves = 2d.
Then, 2d = v × t.
This is called echo ranging.
 The sonar is used to find the depth of sea, to locate underwater hills, valleys,
submarines, icebergs and sunken ships etc.
 Bats fly in the dark night by emitting high pitched ultrasound waves which
are reflected from the obstacle or prey and returned to bats ear.
 The nature of reflection tells the bat where the obstacle or prey is and what
it is like.
Structure of Human Ear

12
 The ear consists of three parts: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
 The ears are the sense organs which help us in hearing sound.
 The outer ear is called pinna. It collects the sound from surroundings.
 This sound passes through the auditory canal.
 At the end of auditory canal, is a thin elastic membrane called ear drum or tympanic membrane.
 The meddle ear contains of three bones: hammer, anvil and stirrup linked with one another. Free
end of hammer touches ear drum and that of stirrup linked with membrane of oval window of
inner ear.
 The lower part of middle ear has a narrow ‘Eustachian tube’.
 The inner ear has a coiled tube called cochlea, which is connected with oval window. Cochlea is
filled with a liquid containing nerve cells.
 Other side of cochlea is connected to auditory nerve which goes to brain.

Working of human ear

 Pinna → Ear canal → Ear drum → Hammer → Anvil → Stirrup → Oval window → Cochlea →
Auditory nerve → Brain.
 When compression of sound wave strikes the ear drum, the pressure on the outside of ear drum
increases and pushes the ear drum inwards.
 While during rarefaction ear drum moves outwards. Thus, ear drum starts vibrating back and forth.
 These vibrations are increased by three bones and middle ear transmits these amplified pressure
variations received from sound waves to inner ear.
 In the inner ear the pressure variations are turned into electric signals by the cochlea.
 These electric signals are sent to the brain via auditory nerve and the brain interprets them as
sound.

Important NCERT Questions

Q1. A sound wave travels at a speed of 339 ms–1. If its wavelength is 1.5 cm, what is the frequency
of the wave? Will it be audible?
Sol. Speed of sound = 339 m/sec.
Wavelength  = 1.5 m = 0.015 m.
Speed 339
Frequency    22600Hz.
Wavelength 0.015
It will not be audible.
Q2. What is sound and how is it produced ?
Sol. Sound is mechanical energy which produces a sensation of hearing. When an object is set into
vibrations, sound is produced.

13
Q3. City an experiment to show that sound needs a material medium for its propagation.
Sol. Take an electric circuit which consists of a cell, a switch and an electric bell arranged inside a
bell jar, which stands on the platform of an evacuating pump. The switch of the bell is pressed to
close the electric circuit. When there is air within the bell jar, sound is heard. Air is now pumped
out of the bell jar. When the air is completely removed from the bell jar, no sound is heard as it
is obvious from fig. because the medium of air which has to carry energy from the bell to the
bell jar is removed. It shows that sound needs material medium for its propagation.

Q4. Why is sound wave called a longitudinal wave?

Sol. Sound wave is called longitudinal wave because the particles of the medium vibrate in the
direction of the propagation of wave.

Q5. Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few second after the
flash is seen, why?
Sol. Speed of sound is 330 m/sec in air medium at 0°C. Whereas speed of light is 3 × 108
m/sec.When we compare the speed of light with that of speed of sound, speed of light is greater
than that of speed of sound. Therefore, thunder is heard a few seconds after the flash is seen.

Q6. A person has a hearing range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What are the typical wavelengths of
sound waves in air corresponding to these two frequencies ? Take the speed of sound in air as
344 ms–1.
Sol. When v = 20 Hz
Speed of sound in air = 344 m/s.
Wavelength,  = ?
Speed = wavelength × Frequency
Speed 344
 Wavelength    17.2m.
Frequency 20
When V = 20 kHz
Speed of sound in air = 344 m/s.
(speed),   V 
V 344
   0.0172 m.
v 20,000
Thus, the wavelength of sound corresponding to 20 Hz and 20 kHz is 17.2 m and 0.0172 m
respectively.

14
Q7. Two children are at opposite ends of an aluminium rod. One strikes the end of the rod with a
stone. Find the ratio of times taken by the sound wave in air and in aluminium to reach the
second child.
Sol. Speed of sound in air, V1 = 346 m/sec
Speed of sound in aluminium, V2 = 6420 m/sec.
Let the length of the aluminium rod = x m.
dis tan ce
We know that speed =
time
dis tan ce
Time 
speed
x
Time taken in air  sec. (distance = x m)
346
x
Time taken in aluminium =  sec.
6420
x
x 6420
Required ratio = 346    18.55
x 346 x
6420

Q8. The frequency of a sources / sound is 100 Hz. How many times does it vibrate in a minute?
Sol. Frequency of sound = 100 Hz.
Time taken = 1 minute = 60 sec
No.of oscillations
We know, Frequency =
Time taken
 No. of oscillation = v × t
= 100 × 60
= 6000 times.
Q9. Explain how bats use ultrasound to catch a prey.
Sol. Bats search out its prey by emitting and detecting reflections of ultrasonic waves. The high-
pitched ultrasonic squeaks of bat are reflected from the obstacles or prey and return to bat’s ear.
The nature of reflection tells the bat where the obstacle or prey is and what it is like.

Q10. How is ultrasound used for cleaning?

Sol. Ultrasound is used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places (i.e.) spiral tube, odd shaped
parts, electronic components etc. Objects to be cleaned are placed in a cleaning solution and

15
ultrasonic waves are sent into the solution. Due to the high frequency, the dust particles, grease
get detached and drop out. The objects thus get thoroughly cleaned.

16
 Why Do We Fall ill
Health
The world Health organisation (WHO) defines health as:
“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not only the absence of
disease or infirmity”.
BASIC CONDITIONS FOR GOOD HEALTH

• Balanced Diet:
A balanced diet is one that provides all nutrients required by the body in correct
proportions. The nutrients required are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and
minerals.
Deficiency diseases- when our diet lacks one or more of these nutrients, we get deficiency
disease for example – ‘anaemia’ is caused due to lack of iron mineral.
• Personal Hygiene:
One should always take care of personal hygiene to stay healthy. Not brushing teeth
regularly can cause pyorrhea disease.
• Clean Surrounding:
Lies and mosquitoes carry germs that cause diseases.
• Clean Air:
Breathing polluted air causes respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis.
• Exercise and Relaxation
Jogging, Bicycling, Yoga, Aerobics or sports according to one’s age & health are important for
physical and mental health.
Diseases
A disease is an abnormal condition of the body which does not let the body function properly.
Sources of Disease
Internal Factors External Factors
1. The factors which exist within the human 1. The factors which exist outside the human
body are called internal factors like body are called external factors, like
improper functioning of body parts such Viruses Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoans,
as heart, kidney, liver etc. Worms etc
2. Example – Cardiac failure, Kidney failure, 2. Example – Malaria, AIDS, Cholera,
Cataract etc. Pneumonia etc.
Types of Diseases
Diseases

Inherited Acquired

Infectious or Non Infectious or

Communicable Non Communicable

Contagious Non Contagious

‘Based on cause’ disease can be grouped as infectious/ Communicable disease and Non
Infectious/Non Communicable disease.

Infectious or Communicable Diseases Non Infectious or Non-Communicable Disease

1. They are cause by attack of pathogens. 1. They are caused by factors other than living
pathogens.
2. Caused by external factors mostly. 2. Caused by internal factors mostly.
3. Can pass from infected person to 3. Cannot pass from infected person to healthy
healthy person through direct contact person.
or air, water & vectors.
4. Examples – Cold, Cholera, Tuberculosis 4. Examples – Diabetes, Hypertension, Goitre
(𝑻. 𝑩), Pneumonia, Malaria,
Chickenpox.

Congenital Diseases Acquired Disease

1. These are present since birth and are 1. These develop after birth and can be
genetic. classified as communicable and Non
communicable diseases.
2. They are permanent and not easily 2. They are caused by pathogens and can be
curable. cured.
3. Examples - Cleft lip, Down Syndrome 3. Example – Cold, Cholera, Chickenpox etc.
etc.
Means of Spread of Infectious Diseases
1. Air Borne diseases –
• Diseases that spread through microbes in air.
• Microbes occur through the little droplets coughed out by an infected person who sneezes
or coughs.
• Example – Common cold, Tuberculosis, Pneumonia
2. Water - Borne diseases –
• These diseases spread through water.
• Diseases like cholera & amoebiasis gets mixed with drinking water which can enter host
body and infect them.
3. Sexually - transmitted diseases –
• Diseases which are transmitted by sexual contact from one person to another.
• Example – Syphilis, AIDS, warts and Genorrbea.
4. Formite borne diseases –
• Diseases that spread through contact (like door handles, taps, garments, utensils) where
microbes are present.
• Diseases like Malaria, Typhoid, Dengue can spread through vectors.
(Mosquitoes, Flies, louse, Rat Flea).

Symptoms and Signs

Symptoms of a Disease Signs of a Disease
1. They indicate the presence of disease. 1. They provide information about the
presence of particular disease.
2. These are collective indication of 2. These are particular evidences of a disease.
diseases in an organ.

Organ Specific & Tissue Specific Manifestations

• The signs and symptoms of a disease will thus depend on the tissue or organ which the
microbe targets.
• If the microbes enter the nose, they are likely to go to the lungs. If the microbes enter the
mouth, they can stay in the get lining like typhoid causing bacteria or they can go to the liver
like the viruses that cause jaundice.
• If the lungs are the targets, symptoms will be cough & breathlessness.
• If the liver is targeted, there will be jaundice.
• If the brain is the target, we will observe headaches, vomiting, fits or unconsciousness.
Inflammation:
• It is a process, when an active immune system sends many cells to the affected tissue to kill
of the disease-causing microbes.
• This increases the amount of flood in the wounded area and raises the temperature.

Principles of Treatment:
There are two ways to treat an infectious disease.
1. To reduce the effects of the disease.
→ The effects or symptoms of a disease can be reduced by taking medications or
sometimes by taking bed rest.
2. To kill the cause of the disease
→ Microbes are mostly the cause of the disease.
→ Microbes are of different categories like viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. All of
these will have a particular biochemical life process. These microbes enter our cells
and use our machinery for their life processes. Antibiotics block their biochemical
pathway and save the cells of the body.
Q. What are Antibiotics? Why making anti-viral medicines is harder than making anti-
bacterial medicines? NCERT
Ans. Antibiotics are chemicals produced by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. They
destroy the growth of microbes or pathogens.
It is harder to make anti-viral drugs than antibacterial drugs because viruses have a very
few biochemical pathways of their own. They enter our cells and use. Our machinery for
their life processes.
Principles of Prevention:
There are three limitations for the approach for the approach to deal with infections disease.
Prevention is better than cure because-
1. If someone gets a disease he may never recover completely.
2. Treatment takes time
3. The infected person can spread disease to other people.
Ways of Prevention of infectious diseases
→ Maintaining hygiene, using safe drinking water and by avoiding mosquito breeding,
infections can be avoided.
→ By Immunisation or having a strong immune system.
Q. Define Immunity NCERT Exemplar
Ans. Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infections.
Q. How immune system provides a general prevention of infectious diseases?
Ans. Immune system works with the help the White blood cells or, leucocytes.
 When any infectious foreign particle enters our body, white blood cells move to the area
of infection. WBCs isolate, engulf, kill and digest the infectious agents.
In this way, they reduce the number of foreign particles. Hence, our immune system
provides a general prevention to infectious diseases.
Q. What are diseases specific means of prevention? NCERT Exemplar
Ans. Specific prevention is provided by the immune system when it produces some specific
molecules called antibodies to fight specific microbes called antigens.
Antigens are usually proteins. They can be present on the surface of bacteria and viruses.
For each type of antigen, the body produces a corresponding antibody to bind with and
destroy it.
→ Some antibodies bind to the antigens on the microbes and make them stick together so
they cannot multiply.
Immunisation
• Immunisation is stimulating the body to produce antibodies by artificial means.
• These antibodies fight against infections later. Immunisation can be stimulated by taking
vaccines.
• ‘A vaccine is a preparation of weekened-infectious agents that can be injected or given orally
to prevent specific diseases.
For example:
• BCG – For Tuberculosis (TB) prevention polio drops – for polio prevention.

Basis of Principle of Immunisation

• When an infectious agent enters body for the first time, the antibodies are produced slowly.
After destroying the antigens, they remain in the body.
• When there is second infection, the already produced antibodies recognized the specific
antigen and more antibodies are produced much faster this time. As a result, we do not suffer
from the severe form of the disease.
• For example, if we had mild chicken pox once, we will not suffer from it later.
‘SMALL POX VACCINE’
• Edward Jenner observed that people who got cowpox (a mild disease), did not suffer from
smallpox (a sever disease). Usually, the girls who milked cows got cowpox, a disease that
causes rashes on hands.
• E. Jenner look some pus with a sterile needle from the cow pox rashes of an infected girl and
injected it into an uninfected boy. Who soon got cowpox. After he recovered, he injected the
boys arm with pus from the spots of a person suffering from small pox.
• They boy did NOT get small pox and Jenner’s experiment was successful.
Some Infectious Diseases
Malaria
Cause – Plasmodium (Protozoa)
Sign & Symptoms
• Shivering in body followed by high fever.
• Headache and muscular pain
• Anaemia
Prevention
• Female ‘Anopheles mosquitoes’ are the vector of Malaria disease.
• Plasmodium also grow in the gut of the female ‘Anopheles mosquito’.
• By breaking the contact between ‘Anopheles’ mosquito and human beings, spread of
Malaria can be prevented.
Aids (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
Cause – Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV
Sign & Symptoms
• Destroys the ability of immune system to fight diseases.
• Swollen lymph glands, weight loss, frequent fever, night sweats and diarrhea.
• Affect on Central Nervous system.
Transmission
• HIV is transmitted through blood, semen and breast milk.
• By sharing of needle with an infected person.
• By having sexual intercourse with an infected person.
• By mother’s milk from mother to infant.
Prevention
• Disposable needles and syringes should be used.
• We should not share shaving blades or razors.
• Usage of Condoms to prevent transmission of HIV
• Blood banks and hospitals should test potential flood donors for HIV.
Infectious Agent Disease Symptoms Prevention
Viruses Dengue • Pain in abdomen, back, • Use mosquito
joints or muscles. repellents, indoors or
• Nausea or Vomiting outdoors.
• Rashes or red spots.
• Chills, fever, loss of
appetite.
Bacteria Hepatitis – A • Inflammation in liver. • Use chlorinated,
or Jaundice • High temperature boiled and ozonised
headache, fatigue, general water.
weakness & joint pains.
 • Dark yellow wine and light • Proper cleaning of
coloured stool after 3 to 10 hands after handling
days of infection. bed & vessels of the
patient.
• Getting Hepatitis -A
vaccine.

Typhoid • Headache & fever • Proper sanitation

fever • Slow pulse • Disposal of faecal
• Water-green stools matter properly.
• TAB – vaccine
provides immunity
for 3 years.
Tuberculosis • Loss of appetite and • Isolation & proper
weight. rehabilitation of the
• Typical fever and night patient.
sweats. • BCG vaccine provides
immunity for 3-5
years.
Cholera • Watery diarrhea. • Vaccination against
• Vomiting & loss of several Cholera which lasts
litres of fluid from body. for 6 months
• Dehydration, muscle • Personal hygiene and
cramps & weight loss good sanitation in the
community.
Protozoa Malaria • High fever, extreme cold • Using insect
and shivers repellents & nets.
• Using insecticides
• Breeding grounds
should be destroyed.

Kala-azar • Pain in abdomen, • Using insect

(caused by darkening of the skin, repellents & nets.
Leishmania) diarrhea, swollen lymph • Using insecticides
nodes • Breeding grounds
should be destroyed

Notes End
 Important NCERT Questions
Q.1 Write the abbreviation of PPI?
Ans. Pulse Polio Immunisation.
Q.2 Write two symptoms of Jaundice?
Ans.
• Dark yellow urine and light-yellow stool.
• High fever, nausea.
Q.3 Give an example of vector of a disease.
Ans. Female Anopheles mosquito (vector of Malaria).
Q.4 Name the drugs used against Malaria.
Ans. Quinine (Cinchona tree)
Arteether (Artemisia annua)
Q.5 Name the disease for which vaccine DPT-Hib is taken?
Ans. Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus.
Q.6 Which disease is treated by Pasteur’s treatment?
Ans. Rabies
Q.7 Which drug is used to control kala-azar?
Ans. Drugs containing antimony are used to control kala-azar.
Q.8 Name the diseases caused by Mycobacterium?
Ans. The disease caused by Mycobacterium is Tuberculosis. (TB)
Q. What is Paraplegia?
Ans. Paralysis of the lower part of the body including the legs.
Q. The BCG vaccine is for the immunity against___?
Ans. Tuberculosis
Q. How does cholera become an epidermic in a locality?
Ans. Cholera is an infectious disease that spreads due to unsafe water. It can spread in a locality.
In an epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually the faeces of an infected person.
Hence, this disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage &
drinking water.
Q. What causes Japanese encephalitis? How it can be prevented?
Ans. Japanese encephalitis is caused by a Virus. This virus can transmit through mosquito bite.
• It can be prevented by taking proper measures and by keeping the surrounding clean.
Q. Why is AIDS considered to be a “syndrome” and not a disease?
Ans. Syndrome is a group of symptoms, signs, physical and physiological disturbances that are
common due to a common cause AIDS is also. A complex of diseases and symptoms in
which the immune system is damaged. As a result, small cold leads to pneumonia, get
infection leads to diarrhea and blood loss and skin rashes to ulcers. Hence ‘AIDS’ is
considered to be a syndrome.
Q. How do children in many parts of India get immune to hepatitis – A by the time they are
five-year-old?
Ans. They are made immune to Hepatitis – A by vaccination.
Q. Which disease can be caused by animal biting or dog biting?
Ans. Rabies
Q. Which bacterium causes peptic ulcer? Who discovered the pathogen first time?
Ans. Bacterium Helicobacter Pylori causes peptic ulcer. Robin Warren and Barry Marshall
discovered the pathogen for the first time.
Q. How does Kwashiorkor disease develop?
Ans. Kwashiorkor develops due to malnutrition. It occurs due to low protein diet.
 NATURAL RESOURCES
Biosphere
Biosphere means regions of Earth’s crust and atmosphere occupied by the living organism.

Biosphere

Lithosphere Hydrosphere Atmosphere

• Lithosphere is the outer solid crust of Earth which we call land. Its upper weathered part
forms the soil.
• Hydrosphere is the water component of Earth. 75% of the Earth’s surface covered with
water in the form of seas, rivers, lakes, ponds, dams, etc. Underground water is another
component of the hydrosphere.
• Atmosphere is the blanket of air that covers the whole Earth.

Biosphere has two types of compnents.

Biotic Component Abiotic Component

Types of Natural Resources

Natural Resources

Inexhaustible Exhaustible

Renewable Non - Renewable

Q. How do advantages of exploiting natural resources with short term gains in mind differ
from the advantages of managing our resources with a long-term perspective?
(Delhi 2017)
Ans. The advantages of exploiting resources with short term aim is to meet the immediate
basic human needs. Short term exploitation of natural resources meets the current demand. It is
beneficial for the present generation only whereas management of resources with long term
perspective is aimed to fulfil the needs of future generations. Long term use of resources can be
achieved through their sustainable use.
Inexhaustible Natural Resources
They are natural resources, which occur in such abundance that they are not likely to get
exhausted despite continuous use, e.g., air, water, solar energy.
Exhaustible Natural Resources
They are natural resources which are available in limited quantity. They may to get depleted by
continuous and indiscriminate human consumption. Exhaustible resources are of two kinds,
renewable and non-renewable.

Differences between renewable and non-renewable resources

Renewable Resources Non-Renewable resources
1. These resources are replenished within 1. Replenishment is not possible.
reasonable time.
2. These resources can be used forever 2. These resources will ultimately lessen
provided they are used in limited and get exhausted.
amounts.
3. They are both abiotic and biotic. 3. They are abiotic.
4. Their availability can be increased only 4. Their increased exploitation will result
by enhancing replenishment. in quick exhaustion.
Examples. Forest, wildlife, underground Examples. Fossil fuels, minerals.
water* and soil.

Q. Why is an equitable distribution of resources essential in a society? List two forces which
are against such distribution. (AI 2017)
Ans. Equitable distribution of natural resources is necessary so that all and not just a handful of
rich and powerful people use them. Two forces against equitable distribution of resources
are :
• Industrialisation
• Profit makers who want to make profit from these resources
Air
Atmosphere
• The multilayered gaseous envelope surrounding the planet Earth is called atmosphere.
• It is divided into five distinct layer or zones : Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere (ionosphere) and Exosphere.
Composition of Gases in Air
Component Percentage of volume
1. Nitrogen (N2) 78.09
2. Oxygen (O2) 20.93
3. Argon (A) & Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.98

Importance of Atmosphere
Role of Atmosphere in Climate Control
• The atmosphere covers the Earth, like a blanket.
• The atmosphere keeps the average temperature of the Earth fairly steady during the day.
• The atmosphere prevents the sudden increase in temperature.
• When UV radiations from sun strike the O2 molecules, it causes splitting of O2.
• Oxygen molecules react with energy atoms in the upper atmosphere to form Ozone (O3).
The Movement of Air : Wind
• Air movement in coastal area : In coastal area, during daytime, there is a regular flow of cool
air from the sea towards the land.
• At night, there is a reverse flow of air from land to sea. This happens because during the
daytime, land gets heated faster than water.
Air Pollution
• Air pollution is the addition of air pollutants such as particulate matter, gases and vapours
into the atmosphere, has an adverse effect on humans, animals, vegetation and human
assets.
• Natural (e.g., forest fire, dust storm, pollen).
• Human made (e.g., burning of fossil fuels in industries, mining, processing, stone crushing).
• Particulate air pollutants are also called suspended particulate matter or SPM because they
remain suspended in air for a good period of time.
Effects of Air Pollution of Human Beings
1. SPM casuses asthma, bronchitis and allergic cold.
2. Pollutant gases cause irritation in eyes, throat and lungs. They injure lings, liver, kidneys,
spleen and nervous system. Heart related diseases tend to increase. Many people develop
terminal ailments such as cancer.
3. Hydrocarbon vapours not only damage the internal organs, but also cause cancer.
4. SO2 reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid. This sulphuric acid is
washed down into the soil by rain (acid rainfall) where it may make the soil highly acidic,
thus, affecting the growth of plants and ultimately the forest growth.
5. The acid rainfall severely affects the salmon reproduction and fish yield and also eats into
the surface of buildings, eroding the tone (e.g., Taj Mahal) and brick-works.
6. Air pollution also results in two serious ecological problems of global magnitude-green
house effect and peeling of ozone umbrella (hole in ozone layer).
Green House Effect
The carbon dioxide of the atmosphere keeps the Earth warm, much like a glass wall that keeps a
greenhouse warm. This effect is called the greenhouse effect. The increase in carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere intensifies the greenhouse effect and leads to global warming, i.e., an
increase in the average temperature of the Earth.
When there is increase in CO2 concentration, the deposition of CO2 gas presents the heat from
radiating out from the earth. Green house effect leads to global warming.
Q. Write the composition of soil. On what basis is the type of soil decided ? [SAII – 2013]
Ans. Soil is a mixture. It is composed of small particles of rocks of different sizes, humus (bits of
decaying living organism) and various micro-organisms.
The type of soil is decided by the average size of particles found in it.
Q. What are the consequences of global warming ? [SAII -2012]
Ans. An increase in temperature of earth even by 1 °C may lead to melting of ice on the poles.
The melting of ice will result in rise of sea level.
Due to rise in sea level,many coastal cities will be flooded or submerged.
Increase in temperature of earth, results the changes in weather and may cause excessive
raining or drought or extreme hot or cold weather conditions.
Ozone Layer and its Depletion
• The ozone is an allotrope of oxygen
• It is triatomic (O3) as compared to diatomic elemental oxygen (O2).
• Ozone gas is a blue gas with a pungent odour.
• It is highly poisonous
• Ozone is present in significant amounts in the stratosphere region of atmosphere
• Maximum concentration occurs at a height of 23-25 km.
• The part of atmosphere which is rich in ozone may be called ozone layer, ozonosphere,
ozone umbrella or ozone shield.
Formation of Ozone layer
• When UV radiations from sun strike the O2 molecules, it causes splitting of O2.
• Oxygen molecules react with energy atoms in the upper atmosphere to form Ozone (O3).
Ozone depleting substance (ODS)
• Reduction in the concentration of ozone layer is called ozone depletion.
• The important ODS ar chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, methyl bromide, nitrogen oxides
and chlorine, CFCs such as carbon tetrachloride, CCl3; dichlorodifluoromethane, (CCl2F2).
They are rich in chlorine, fluorine and carbon. CFCs are commonly used as aerosol
propellants, refrigerants, shaving foams, spray agent in scents, etc.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
• Skin cancer.
• Damage of eyes; also increase in incidence of cataract disease in eyes.
• Damage of immune system.
• Increased embryonic mortality in animals and humans.
• Decreased crop yields.
• Reduced populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton and certain fish
larvae that are important constituents of aquatic food chains.
• Smog formation
Water
Oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, pools, polar ice caps, water vapour, etc., collectively form
the hydrosphere
Hydrosphere comprises of water which is an inexhaustible natural resource.
• Earth is covered by oceans which contain 97.5% of the total water.
• Land contains 2.5% of the total water.
• A major part (1.9% of the total) of water occurs as ice caps and glaciers.
• The remaining (0.6% of the total) supports total life. It is called fresh water (water with salt
content less than 0.5%).
• More than 90% of this fresh water is found underground as ground water.
• The remaining 10% fresh water occurs as surface water (river, dams, lakes, ponds), soil
water or as water vapours present in the atmosphere.
Rain water Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting involves collection, storage and subsequent use of water deposited by
rains. In water stressed, dry regions of the world, rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice. In
parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, people collect whatever they can, the meagre quantity of water
that is deposited by rain, in large storage tanks and vessels. This water serves them during most
of the year.
In another technique of rainwater harvesting, roof tops properly cleaned are used to collect rain
water which is directed through pipes to large underground pucca storage tanks which are
sealed off from all sides except for a small opening used for cleaning and withdrawal purpose. In
cities such as Dwarika, Gujarat. People use this collected water for drinking and cooking purpose
for most of the year.
Advantages of Rain-water Harvesting
The technique of rain-water harvesting has the following advantages:
1. It reduces the run-off loss of rain water.
2. It is helpful in controlling floods.
3. It maintains a supply of water during the dry months of the year.
4. It helps to raise the water table.
5. It checks soil erosion.
Sources or Causes of Water Pollution
1. Sewage: Animal excreta discharged into fields or dumped in to pits reaches water bodies
through run off and leaching, particularly during the rainy season.
2. Industrial wastes: Effluents of mills and industries such as paper mills, petroleum
refineries, etc., contain large quantities of harmful chemicals including acids, alkalies and
heavy metal e.g., mercury salts from paper industries) that are discharged into water
bodies.
3. Synthetic soaps and detergents: Water containing soaps and detergents is discharged
from houses and certain factories.
4. Fertilizers and pesticides: Fertilizers and pesticides are being used excessively in the
fields to increase crop production.
5. Petroleum oil: Drilling and shipping operations are common in the oceans. Leakage of
pertroleum oil during such operations or due to accidents result in water pollution.
6. Thermal pollution: Discharge of hot water from industries and thermal plants into
water body changes the normal temperature of the water. The content of oxygen decreases.
Reduced oxygen content kills aquatic animals and reduces the rate of decomposition of
organic matter.

Harmful Effects of Water Pollution

1. Human diseases: Pathogens are biological pollutants of water. They include viruses,
bacteria fungi, protozoan, helminths, nematodes, etc. They cause following diseases in
humans such as typhoid, cholera, dysentery, jaundice, and hepatitis.
2. Disturbance in ecological balance: The pollutants can encourage the growth of some life
forms and can harm some other life-forms. This effects the balance between various
organisms that persists in that system.
3. Removal of desirable substances from water bodies: With increase in the amount of
organic wastes in water, bacteria multiply rapidly and use up the available oxygen. Lack of
oxygen kills the fish and other animals.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) indicates the quality of waste water. BOD refers to the
amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic waste present
in water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen (O2) per litre of water. A weak organic
waste has BOD less than 1500 mg/litre ; a strong one has higher than this.
4. Effect of thermal pollution or change in temperature: Aquatic organisms are used to a
certain range of temperature in the water-body where they live; a sudden marked change
in this temperature can be dangerous for them
5. Destruction of useful microorganisms: When untreated industrial wastes get mixed
with water in rivers and lakes, etc. , the acids, alkalies and heavy metals present in the
industrial wastes kill the useful organisms present in water bodies.
6. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is the process in which dissolved oxygen in water gets
reduced due to excessive growth of algae as a re sult of extra loading of nutrients in the
water body.
 Presence of sewage and fertilizers (nitrates and phosphates) in polluted water provide a
lot of nutrients to the algae (phytoplankton) present in water body, resulting excessive
growth of alkae, termed as algal bloom.
The algae subsequently die and aerobic decompsers become active. They
rapidly consume the dissolved oxygen of the water during
decomposition of the dead
algae.
7. Biomagnification Gathering
of various harmful substances
like pesticides, DDT and
biphenyls at different levels of a food chain is called Biological
Magnification.
It increases the concentration of toxic substances in organisms at higher trophic levels.
DDT was a pesticide which was consumed by many organisms of the lower trophic level in
aquatic ecosystem (fish). Birds accumulated sufficient amounts of DDT that ate those fish.
The use of DDT was banned in US in the 1970 s.
Biogeochemical Cycles
• The movement of nutrient elements through the living and non-living components of
biosphere, is called biogeochemical cycle of matter.
• The biogeochemical cycles are also known as nutrient cycles.
The Water Cycle
• The whole process in which water evaporates and falls on the land rivers is known as the
water-cycle.
• All of the water that falls on the land does not immediately flow back into the sea.
• Some of this underground water finds its way to the surface through springs.
• Water is also used by terrestrial animals and plants for various life-processes
The Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen gas makes up 78% of our atmosphere and nitrogen is also a part of many molecules
essential to life like proteins.
• The first step involves the fixation (conversion) of atmospheric inert nitrogen into a usable
form of nitrogen.
• Here, the N2 from of nitrogen is converted into NH3 (Ammonia). This process is carried out
by symbiotic bacteria in the soil called diazotrophs.
• These are bacteria, primarily known for their nitrogen fixation in nature, e.g., rhizobium.
Nitrogen Fixation
1. Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation: The inert nitrogen present in the atmosphere is converted
to nitrous oxide with the help of lightning due to the high-temperature present during
lightning.
The nitrogen is broken down into nitrogen atoms which react with oxygen to from nitrous
oxide, nitrogen peroxide, and nitric oxide.
These compounds later dissolve in the rain to form dilute nitric acid.
 When the dilute nutric acid reaches the Earth’s surface, it reacts with the alkalies present to
form nitrates that plants can easily absorb.
2. Biological Nitrogen Fixation: There exist nitrogen-fixing bacteria and blue-green algae
that convert nitrogen present in the atmosphere into nitrates. There are two types of
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Free – Living Bacteria : For example. Azotobacter, and Clostridium.
Symbiotic Bateria: For example. Rhizobium that is present in root nodules of individual
leguminous plants like Nostoc and Anabaena.
Industrial Nitrogen Fixation : It is a human-made alternative where the atmospheric nitrogen
is converted into ammonia by Haber’s process and later into nitrates in various fertilizers.
Ammonification
The dead remains of plants and animals are buried in the soil. They decay and create ammonia,
carbon dioxide, ans water, with the help of fungi like actinomyces. This process of formation of
ammonia is called ammonification. Already ammonia exists in the soil with the help of nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
Nitrification
The process in which the ammonia is converted into nitrites and later into nitrates is called
Nitrification. This process takes place in two steps:

Conversion of Ammonia into Nitrites: This takes place by the action of Nitrosomonas bacteria.
They oxidize the ammonia present in the soil and convert them to nitrities.
2𝑁𝐻4+ + 3𝑂2 → 2𝑁𝑂2− + 4𝐻 + + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Conversion of Nitrites to Nitrates: This takes place by the action of Nitrobacter species, which
convert the nitrates in the soil into nitrates.
2𝑁𝑂2− + 𝑂2 → 2𝑁𝑂3−
Assimilation: Assimilation is the absorption of nitrates and other nitrogen compounds. The
nitrogen compounds are essential for the formation of crucial biomolecules.
Denitrification: The plants do not absorb some nitrates. They are converted into atmospheric
nitrogen with the help of pseudomonas and clostridium. This process is the last step where the
nitrogen compounds present in the soil make their way back to the atmospheric nitrogen.

Carbon Cycle Steps

Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle :
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.
2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated into their
bodies.
3. When plants and animals die, carbon is released back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere become fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pumps more carbon back
into the atmosphere.
Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen enters the living world through resporation; it oxides the food materials and produces
energy and carbon dioxide :
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose
The carbon dioxide (CO2) is utilised by the plants to produce food materials during the process
of photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy C6H12O2 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide water Glucose Oxygen
The concentration of oxygen in the air and water is maintained by equal rates of its use in
respiration and release in photosynthesis.

Notes End
 Important NCERT Questions
Q. How are clouds formed ? [SAII – 2013]
Ans. The water evaporates due to heating Up of water bodies and other biological activities.
The air also heats and rises. On rising, it expands and cools to form tiny droplets. These
droplets grow bigger, expand and form clouds. The collection of dust and other
suspended particles facilitate the process.
Q. What is the major source of freshwater in the city/town/village where you live ?
[SAII -2011]
Ans. The major sources, of freshwater in the city/town/village is the underground water
which is mostly taken out with the help of hand pumps or tube wells. The rivers flowing
in the nearby areas, lakes and ponds also serve as the source of freshwater.
Q. What is soil erosion ? [SAII -2012]
Ans. The removal of topsoil which is rich in humus and nutrients by flowing water or wind is
known as soil erosion. If this process continues further, then all soil may get washed away
and the rocks underneath may get exposed. It may lead to the loss of all valuable
resources because nothing grows as such on the rocks.
Q. What are the two forms of oxygen found in the atmosphere ? [SAII -2011]
Ans. (i) Elemental oxygen is normally found in the form of a diatomic molecule (O2) in the
lower regions of the atmosphere to the extent of 21%. It is non-poisonous form of oxygen.
(ii) But in the upper reaches of the atmosphere (stratosphere), it occurs in the form of
ozone, containing three atoms of oxygen and having the molecular formula O3. It is the
poisonous form of oxygen
Q. Name the various organisms involved in nitrogen cycle. [SAII -2014]
Ans.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria, e.g., Rhizobium, Azotobacter.
• Bacteria which convert complex nitrogenous organic compounds (proteins) into
ammonia, e.g., Actinomyces.
• Nitrifying bacteria which converts ammonia into nitrates, e.g., Nitrosomonas and
nitrobactor.
• Denitrifying bacteria, e.g., Pseudomonas.
Q. What are the three ways by which CO2 is returned back into atmosphere ? [SAII -2011]
Ans. The three ways by which CO2 is returned back into atmosphere are :
1. By the decomposition of dead organic matter.
2. As the product of respiration by both plants and animals.
3. As the gaseous waste formed by the combustion of fuels like coal, wood, petrol and
gaseous fuels.
Q. Define biosphere. Name its components. [SAII -2012]
Ans. (a) The life-supporting zone of the Earth where the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the
lithosphere interact and make life possible is known as biosphere.
(b) Two components of biosphere ate :
(i) Biotic : All living forms such as:plants, animals .and microorganisms.
(ii) Abiotic : Air, water and the soil.
Q. Mention three ways by which atmosphere regulates the average temperature on Earth.
Ans. (a) As the air is a bad conductor of heat, therefore, the atmosphere keeps the average
temperature pf the earth fairly steady during the day even during the course of the whole
year.
(b) The atmosphere prevents the sudden increase in hours.
(c) During the night, it slows down the escape of heat into the outer space and prevents
the earth from excessive cooling.
Q. What are the harmful effects of air pollution ? [SAII – 2012]
Ans.
1. It may cause respiratory problems like sneezing, allergy, asthma or bronchitis in
some persons.
2. It may cause acid rain which leads to deterioration of metals and other building
material.
3. It may cause global warming which leads to change in the climate of the Earth.
4. Carbon monoxide may lead to many problems of respiratory system.
5. Smog, which reduces the visibility as well as causes respiratory ailments.
Q. Mention any three important roles of water required for organisms on the earth’s surface.
Ans.
1. All cellular processes take place in water medium.
2. Water regulates-body temperature.
3. Water is required for transportation of nutrients from one part of the body to the
other.
 Improvements in food Resources
Sustainable Agriculture
The adoption of various farming and production management techniques to maximize
agricultural yield.

1. Conserving natural resources

2. Maintaining environmental balance
3. Coping with changing human needs

Advantages of Sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is an agricultural production and distribution system that

• Achieves the integration of natural biological cycles and controls.

• Protects and renews soil fertility and the natural resource base.
• Optimizes the management and use of farm resources.
• Reduces the use of non-renewable resources and purchased production inputs.
• Provides an adequate and dependable form of income.
• Promotes opportunity in family farming and farm communities.
Organic Farming
It is the practice of raising crops which have not been polluted with the use of manures,
biofertilizers and biopesticides.
• It prevents pollution of any component of our environment.
• Farm wastes are recycled.
• The foods obtained from organic farming are free pesticides and toxic chemicals.
• Organic farming maintains the soil health.
• The cropping system of organic farming keeps insect pests and weeds under check.
Improvement of Crop Yield
Agriculture is the science and practice of farming, which mainly involves rearing of livestock,
cultivating land, raising crops, harvesting and marketing the produce.
Kharif Crops
• They are monsoon or rainy season crops.
• The crops grow in hot and wet conditions.
• These crops are sown in the beginning of rainy season in June – July.
• These crops are harvested during September – October at the end of Monsoon.
1
 Example: Rice, Maize, Groundnut, Soybean, Green gram, Cotton, Black gram.
Rabi Crops
• They are non-monsoon season crops.
• The crops grow in cold and nearly dry conditions.
• These crops are sown in October – November when monsoon is retreated.
• These crops are harvested in March-April before the advent of hot season.
Example: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Linseed, Pea.
Improvement in Yields
Following three scientific approaches are adopted in India to obtain high yields from our
agriculture farms.

1. Crop Production Management

2. Crop Variety Management

3. Crop Protection Management

Crop Production Management
Crop production management refers to controlling the various aspects of crop production, to
obtain the maximum and best yield. It has the following three components.

1. Nutrient Management

2. Irrigation

3. Cropping Pattern
Nutrient Management
Controlling the selection, timing and amount of nutrient supply to the crops.

Source Nutrients Type

1. Air Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) Macronutrients (= 2)
2. Water Hydrogen (H) Macronutrients (= 1)
3. Soil • Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Macronutrients (= 6)
Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S)
Macronutrients (= 7)
• Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Boron (B), Zinc
(Zn), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo),
Chlorine (Cl)

Differences between Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Macronutrients Micronutrients
1. They are required in large quantities. 1. They are required in very small amounts.
2. Concentration of each macronutrient in 2. Concentration of micronutrients is quite

2
plants is more. low
3. They take part in building plant body and 3. They have no such functions.
different protoplasmic structures.
4. Examples. Nitrogen, Phosphorous, 4. Examples. Iron, Manganese, Boron, Zinc,
Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur. Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine.

Manures and Fertilizers

The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is made up by adding manures
and fertilizers to the soil of crop-fields.
Manures
• Manures are natural fertilizers.
• Manures are prepared by the decomposed animal excreta and plant waste. Manures
include farmyard manure (FYM), compost, green manures, vermicompost, etc.
Advantage of Manures
• Manures enrich the soil with nutrients.
• Manures add organic matter (called humus) to the soil which restores the soil texture, for
better retention of water and aeration of soil.
• The organic matter in manures provides food for the soil organisms, (decomposers such
as bacteria, fungi, etc.) which help in providing nutrients to plants.
Disadvantage of Manures
• Manures are bulky with low nutrient content. The nutrients get released slowly, unable to
fulfil the high and rapid demand of nutrients required by improved high-yielding hybrid
varieties of crops.
• Manures are not nutrient specific.
Types of Manures
1. Farmyard Manure (FYM): FYM is the decomposed mixture of cattle excreta, (dung),
urine, litter (i.e., bedding material used in night under cattle's) and left over organic
matter such as roughage, or fodder.

2. Compost: Compost is prepared from farm and town refuge such as vegetable and animal
refuse (e.g.,) excreta of domestic animals such as cattle, goat, sheep, horse, donkey, camel,
dogs, cats, etc.), faecal matter of human beings, sewage waste.

Method of Preparing Compost

Vermicomposting : The degradation of organic waste through the consumption by the
earthworms is called vermicomposting. An earthworm is physically an aerator, crusher
and mixer, chemically a degrader and biologically a stimulator of decomposition.
3. Green Manure: The practice of green manuring includes growing, mulching by ploughing
and mixing of green crops with soil, to improve physical structure and soil fertility. A
green manure crop supplies: (i) nitrogen and phosphorus; (ii) organic matter for
improving hydration, aeration and crumb structure of the soil. It tends to provide
protection against erosion and leaching.

3
Fertilizers
Fertilizers provide plant nutrients, commercially manufactured using chemicals. Fertilizers
supply Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK).

1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: These fertilizers supply the macronutrient nitrogen.

2. Phosphatic Fertilizers: They are the source of the macronutrient phosphorus.

3. Potassic Fertilizers: These fertilizers supply potassium which is one of the essential
macronutrients.

4. Complex Fertilizers: When a fertilizer contains at least two or more nutrients (N, O2O5
and K2O),
Comparison of Manure and Fertilizer

Manure Fertilizer

1. A manure is a natural substance. 1. A fertilizer is a human-made substance.

2. A manure contains small amounts of 2. Fertilizers are very rich in plant nutrients
essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
phosphorus and potassium. potassium.
3. A manure adds a great amount of organic 3. A fertilizer does not add any humus to the
matter in the form of humus in the soil. soil.
4. A manure is not nutrient specific. 4. A fertilizer is nutrient specific.

5. A manure is cheap and is prepared in rural 5. A fertilizer is costly and is prepared

homes or fields. in factories.
Irrigation
The process of supplying water to crop plants by means of canals, wells, reservoirs, tube-wells,
etc., is known as irrigation.
Advantages of Irrigation
• Crop plants are irrigated with freshwater to supply two essential elements to them.
• Irrigation of crop fields is necessary to provide sufficient moisture for the germination of
seeds, as seeds do not germinate in dry soils.
• Irrigation is necessary to increase the number of aerial branches (called tillers) in crop
plants so as to get a good crop yield.
• Irrigation is essential for the absorption of nutrient elements by the crop plants from the
soil.
Some other Advantages of Irrigation
• With irrigation, cultivation can be done round the year and not during the rainy season
only.
• In desert areas, the constant flow of irrigation water through the soil helps to reduce the
salinity of the soil.

4
 • Modern multipurpose dams not only provide water for irrigation but also help to control
floods, generate hydroelectric power and improve the navigability of the rivers.
Irrigation Systems
1. Canal System: In canal system, the human-made canals receive water from one or two
reservoirs or from rivers.

2. Tanks: Tanks are small storage reservoirs, which catch and store the runoff of smaller
catchment areas.

3. Wells: Wells are constructed wherever exploitable ground water is present. Wells are of
two types:
a) Dug Wells: In the dug wells, the water is collected from water bearing strata. These
dug wells have their base below the ground water table.

b) Tube Wells: A tube well can tap water from the deeper strata. From these wells,
water is lifted by diesel or electricity run pumps.

4. River lift system: River lift system is more useful in those areas where canal flow is
insufficient or irregular due to inadequate water release. In this system, water is directly
drawn from the rivers for supplement irrigation.

5. Drip and Sprinkler system: Overhead pipes for spraying water and sprinkler system
save a lot of water and are more natural.

5
Cropping Patterns
A. Mixed Cropping: The practice of growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the
same piece of land.

i) Maize + Urad bean

ii) Cotton + Moong bean

iii) Groundnut + Sunflower

iv) Sorghum + Pigeon pea

v) Wheat + Chick pea

vi) Barley + Chick pea

vii) Wheat + Mustard

Advantages of Mixed Cropping

• The risk of total crop failure due to uncertain monsoon is reduced.

• Farmers tend to harvest a variety of produce such as cereal, pulses or vegetables or
fodder to meet the various requirements of family or of an agricultural farm.
• Due to complementary effect of component crops, yield of both crops is increased, e.g.,
wheat and gram.
• Fertility of the soil is improved by growing two crops simultaneously.
• Chances of pest infestation are greatly reduced.
B. Intercropping: Intercropping is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously
in a same field in definite row patterns with the objective of increasing productivity per
unit area.

Advantages of Intercropping

• It makes better use of the natural resources of sunlight, land and water.
• Soil erosion is effectively arrested.
• Since the seeds of the two crops are not mixed before sowing, fertilizers can be added as
per the need of the crops.
• The different crops can be harvested and threshed separately.
• The produce of each crop can be marketed and consumed separately.
C. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation can be defined as the practice of growing of different crops
on a piece of land in a preplanned succession.

Advantages of Crop Rotation

6
 • In controls pests and weeds.
• Crop rotation reduces the need of fertilizers.
• Several crops may be grown in succession with only one soil preparation, land is
ploughed for maize stubbles (which retain nutrients) is left on the land for wheat.
Crop Variety Improvement
The art of recognising valuable traits and incorporating them into future generation is very
important in plant breeding.

Factors by which variety improvement can be done are:

- Good and healthy seeds

- Hybridization: It is the process of crossing between two or more genetically dissimilar
plants to produce a new variety with good properties of both the crops.
Q. List out some useful traits in improved crop? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Some useful traits in improved crops are:
• Higher yield of crop
• Improved quality of crop
• Biotic and abiotic resistance
• Change in maturity duration
• Wider adaptability and
• Desirable agronomic characteristics.

Needs for Higher Crop Yield

• Higher yield: The main main aim of crop improves the productivity of economic produce,
e.g., grain, vegetables and fodder.
• Improved quality: Quality considerations of crop products varies from crop to crop, e.g.,
baking quality in wheat, protein quality in pulses, oil quality in oil seeds and preserving
quality of fruits and vegetables.
• Biotic and abiotic resistance: Under different situations crop suffers due to biotic
stresses (such as diseases, insects and nematodes) and abiotic stresses (such as drought,
salinity, water logging, heat, cold and frost). If we develop crop varieties which are
resistant to these stresses, then we can improve significantly the crop production.
• Changes in maturity duration.
• Photo-insensitivity and thermo-insensitivity.
• Desirable agronomic traits.
• Wider adaptability
Pest
A pest is any destructive organism which causes great economic loss by destroying crop plants
or products obtained from them.

• There are various methods by which insects and diseases can be controlled. One of the
most common and effective methods is the use of pesticides or biocides which include
insecticides, weedicides, fungicides, Pesticides.
• Use of resistant varieties of crop plants.

7
 • Selection of optimum time of sowing the crops.
• Crop rotation and multiple cropping
• Clean cultivation
• Summer ploughing
Q. Why should pesticides be used judiciously? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Pesticides are the chemicals that are used to control weeds, insects, rodents, fungi as well
as diseases of plants. Their excessive use causes environmental pollution. They reach the
water resources and affect the aquatic flora and fauna. These harmful chemicals reach the
bodies of birds, animals and human beings through various food chains and are thus,
harmful to all depending on their concentration in the body.
Weed Control
• Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated fields.
• Weeds tend to compete with the crops for food (water and nutrients), space and light.
Methods of Weed Control
A. Mechanical Methods: These include the following methods: uprooting, weeding with
trowel or ‘khurpi’ or harrow (a comb-like implement), hand hoeing (scraping),
interculture, ploughing, burning and flooding.
B. Cultural Methods: They include the following methods: proper bed preparation, timely
sowing of crops, intercropping and crop rotation.

C. Chemical Methods: Chemical weed killers, called herbicides or weedicides, are sprayed
on weeds to destroy (kill) them.

• Biotic factors such as insects rodents (e.g., striped squirrel, house rat, house mouse, lesser
bandicoot, etc.), birds (e.g., parakeet, sparrow, bulbul, blue rock pigeon, crow, etc.), mites
and bacteria.
• Abiotic factors such as moisture contents and temperature.
Storage of Grain
A. Effect of temperature: As the maximum growth rate of the insects is at a higher
temperature at 30°𝐶 to 32°𝐶, the microorganisms and enzymes are most active at 30°𝐶 to
40°𝐶.

Therefore, the food-grains / materials should be stored at lower temperature, i.e., below
30°𝐶.

B. Effect of Moisture: The greater amount of moisture present in food grains increases the
rate of decay of food materials caused by microorganisms and enzymes and the
population of insects increases rapidly.

The rise in temperature of stored food-grains due to the heat released by the
respiration of a large number of insects, microorganisms (fungi such as molds, yeast,
etc.) is called dry heating of food grains.

C. Effect of humidity: The rise in temperature of stored food-grains due to the growth of
moulds and fungi and germination of stored food-grains under high humidity conditions
of air is called wet heating or damp grain heating.

8
Preventive and Control Measure
Godown, warehouses and stores should be properly cleaned, dried and repaired. Pathways
(alleys) should be provided between the stacks of grain-filled bags, for the periodic inspection,
for spraying or for fumigation.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is the scientific management of animal livestock. It includes various aspects
such as feeding, breeding and disease control. Animal-based farming includes cattle, goat,
sheep, poultry and fish farming.
Cattle Farming
• Cattle husbandry is done for two purposes –
• Milk and draught labour for agricultural work such as tilling, irrigation and carting.
• Indian cattle belong to two different species, Bos indicus, cows, and Bos bubalis, buffaloes.
• Milk-producing females are called milch animals (dairy animals), while the ones used for
farm labour are called draught animals.
• Exotic or foreign breeds (for examples, Jersey, Brown Swiss) are selected for long
lactation periods.
• Local breeds (for example, Red Sindhi, Sahiwal) show excellent resistance to diseases.
• The food requirements of dairy animals are of two types: (a) maintenance requirement,
which is the food required to support the animal to live a healthy life, and (b) milk
producing requirement, which is the type of food required during the lactation period.
• Animal feed includes: (a) roughage, which is largely fibre, and (b) concentrates, which are
low in fibre and contain relatively high levels of proteins and other nutrients.
Q. What are the types of food requirements of dairy animals ? Why do external and
internal parasites live on and in the cattle can be fatal? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. There are two types of food requirements of diary animals:
• Maintenance requirement, which is the food required to support the animal to live a
healthy life.
• Milk producing requirement, which is the food required during the lactation period.
The external parasites live on skin and mainly cause skin diseases. The internal parasites
like worms, affect stomach and intestine while flukes damage liver.
Poultry Farming
• Poultry farming is undertaken to raise domestic fowl for egg production and chicken
meat.
• The cross-breeding programmes between Indian (indigenous, for example. Aseel) and
foreign (exotic, for example, leghorn) breeds for variety improvement are focused on to
develop new varieties for the following desirable traits-
• Number and quality of chicks:
• Dwarf broiler parent for commercial chick production:
• Summer adaptation capacity/tolerance to high temperature;
• Low maintenance requirements;

9
 • Reduction in the size of the egg-laying bird with ability to utilise more fibrous cheaper
diets formulated using agricultural by-products.
Egg and Broiler Production
• Broiler chickens are fed with vitamin-rich supplementary feed for good growth rate and
better feed efficiency.
• They are produced as broilers and sent to market for meat purposes.
For good production of poultry birds there should be ~

• Maintenance of temperature
• Hygienic conditions in housing and poultry feed
• Prevention & control of pests and diseases
Q. Name the indigenous fowls of India. Which among them is the most popular?
Sol. Indigenous fowl varieties of India are: [NCERT Exemplar]
• Aseel
• Ghagus
• Chittagong
• Busra
Differences between capture fishery and Culture Fishery

Capture Fishery Culture fishery

1. It is a method of obtaining fish from 1. It is a method of obtaining fish from
natural resources. fish farming (water agriculture).
2. There is no seeding and raising of fish. 2. The fish is seeded and reared.
3. Capture fishery is undertaken in both 3. Culture fishery is undertaken mostly
inland and marine waters. inland and near sea shore.

Base on the water sources of fish production, following three types of fisheries can be
recognised.
A. Marine Fisheries: They include capture fisheries of oceans and seas.

B. Fresh Water Fisheries: They include capture and culture fisheries in freshwater systems
such as rivers, canals, lakes, reservoirs, tanks, ponds and paddy fields.

C. Brackish Water Fisheries: They include fishing activities in brackish water (slightly
salty) such as estuaries), (lagoons), (mangrove swamps)
Composite Fish Culture
• The silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and the Catla are surface feeders and they
feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton.
• The rohu (Labeo rohita) feeds in middle zone of the pond, i.e., column feeder, and feeds on
decaying plants and detritus
These 3 species have complementary feeding habits and do not harm each other, and
constitute a good combination of polyculture.

10
Bee Keeping
Bee keeping or apiculture (L. apis = bee; culture = cultivate) is the rearing, care and
management and honey bees for obtaining honey, wax and other substances.
Products obtained from Apiculture
A. Honey: Honey is a sweet, viscous edible fluid containing sugars, water or moisture,
minerals, vitamins, amino acids, enzymes and pollen

B. Bee Wax: It is secreted by wax glands of worker bees. Bee wax is utilised in the
construction of hive. This wax is used by human beings for several purposes such as
manufacturing of cosmetics, cold creams, shaving creams, polishes, candles, ointments,
lipsticks, lubricants, in modelling work, etc.

C. Propolis: Propolis and balms are other collections of bee from the plants. These
substances are used in repairing and fastening of comb.
Honey Bee Varieties Used For Bee Keeping
Exotic Varites of Honey Bees

1) Apis mellifera (European or Italian bee);

2) Apis adamsoni (South African bee)
The arrangement of the organisms in groups on the basis of their similarities and differences is
known as Classification.

Notes End

11
 Important NCERT Questions
Q1. What has green revolution led to?
Sol. Increased food grain production.
Q2. What has white revolution led to?
Sol. Increased production and more efficient management of milk.
Q3. Name the two factors on which food security depends.
Sol. Availability of food and access to it.
Q4. What should we do for a sustained livelihood?
Sol. We should adopt practices like mixed farming, intercropping and integrated farming practices.
Q5. Which food items primarily supply proteins?
Sol. Pulses like gram, peas, lentils, etc.
Q6. Can increasing grain production alone solve the problem of malnutrition and hunger?
Sol. No, increasing grain production only for storage in warehouses cannot solve the problem of
malnutrition and hunger. Food security depends both on availability of food and access to it. As
the majority of our population depends on agriculture for their livelihood, increasing the
incomes of people working in agriculture thus becomes necessary to combat the problem of
hunger.
Q7. In agricultural practices, higher input gives higher yield. Discuss how?
[NCERTExemplar]
Sol. Higher input means good financial conditions of the farmers so that they can employ good and
improved farming technologies. Thus these would give higher yields.
Q8. What happens due to deficiency of nutrients?
Sol. Nutrients are required by the plants for maintaining their health and every living process
occurring in their bodies. Deficiency of nutrients affects the various physiological processes in
plants like reproduction, growth, susceptibility to diseases, etc. and can ultimately lead to the
death of plant.
Q9. Name two types of animal feed and write their functions. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. The two types of animal feed are:
• Roughage: These are rich in fibre; e.g., cowpea, berseem, etc.
• Concentrates: These are nutrient-rich and low on fibres; e.g., oats, maize, etc.
Q10. What is a GM crop? Name any one such crop which is grown in India. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Crop which has been developed by introducing a new gene from a different source, to obtain
the desired character, is called genetically modified (GM) crop. For example, Bt cotton which
is made insect-resistant by introducing a new gene from a bacteria.
Q11. Write the modes by which insects affect the crop yield. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Insects have a damaging effect on the crop yield. Some insects cut the plant parts inhibiting
their growth while others suck the cell sap so bees cannot help in pollination. Some insects are
even seen as the bore which damage the entire crop yield.

12
Q12. Why is excess use of fertilisers detrimental for the environment? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Fertilisers are inorganic chemicals which are not easily degraded. Excess use of fertilisers
causes environmental pollution as their residual and unused amounts will become pollutants
for air, water and soil.
Q13. Differentiate between compost and vermicompost. [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Compost: It is prepared by the process in which farm waste materials like livestock excreta,
vegetable wastes, animal refuse, domestic waste, straw, eradicated weeds are decomposed and
used as manure. Vermicompost: It is the compost prepared from organic matter using
earthworms which hasten the process of decomposition.

13