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CH 9

Chapter 9 of Math 403 discusses normal subgroups and factor groups, defining a normal subgroup as one where gH = Hg for all g in G. It introduces the concept of factor groups formed by left cosets of a normal subgroup and provides examples illustrating these concepts, including the subgroup SL2 R of GL2 R and cosets in Z and U(32). The chapter concludes with the theorem that if G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is Abelian, along with applications of this theorem.

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5 views3 pages

CH 9

Chapter 9 of Math 403 discusses normal subgroups and factor groups, defining a normal subgroup as one where gH = Hg for all g in G. It introduces the concept of factor groups formed by left cosets of a normal subgroup and provides examples illustrating these concepts, including the subgroup SL2 R of GL2 R and cosets in Z and U(32). The chapter concludes with the theorem that if G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is Abelian, along with applications of this theorem.

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Aya Ahmed
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We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Math 403 Chapter 9: Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups

1. Introduction: A factor group is a way of creating a group from another group. This new
group often retains some of the properties of the original group.
2. Normal Subgroups:

(a) Definition: A subgroup H ≤ G is normal if gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. In this case we


write H / G.
There are a couple of ways to think about normal subgroups:
• Formally a subgroup is normal if every left coset containing g is equal to its right
coset containing g.
• Informally a subgroup is normal if its elements “almost” commute with elements in
g. This means that for any g ∈ G we don’t necessarily get gh = hg but at worst we
get gh = h0 g for perhaps some other h0 .
Example: In an Abelian group every subgroup H is normal because for all h ∈ H and
g ∈ G we have gh = hg.
Example: The center of a group is a normal subgroup because for all z ∈ Z(G) and
g ∈ G we have gz = zg.
Example: Consider the subgroup H = {(), (123), (132)} of S3 . Observe that we have
the following left cosets:

()H = {(), (123), (132)}


(12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
(13)H = {(13), (12), (23)}
(23)H = {(23), (13), (12)}
(123)H = {(123), (132), ()}
(132)H = {(132), (), (123)}

And we have the following right cosets:

H() = {(), (123), (132)}


H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
H(13) = {(13), (23), (12)}
H(23) = {(23), (12), (13)}
H(123) = {(123), (132), ()}
H(132) = {(132), (), (123)}

We see that we have ()H = H(), (12)H = H(12), (13)H = H(13), (23)H = H(23),
(123)H = H(123), (132)H = H(132).
Example: Consider the subgroup H = {(), (12)} of S3 . Observe that (23)H = {(23), (132)}
but H(23) = {(23), (123)}. Since we have a left coset not equal to a right coset the sub-
group is not normal.
(b) Theorem (Normal Subgroup Test): A subgroup H of G is normal iff gHg −1 ⊆ H
for all g ∈ G.
Proof:
⇒: Suppose H / G. We claim gHg −1 ⊆ H for any g ∈ G. Let g ∈ G and then an element
in gHg −1 looks like ghg −1 for some h ∈ H. Then observe that ghg −1 = h0 gg −1 = h0 ∈ H.
⇐: Suppose gHg −1 ⊆ H for all g ∈ G. We claim gH = Hg. Note that gH = gHg −1 g ⊆
Hg and that Hg = gg −1 Hg ⊆ gH. In the latter we have g −1 Hg ⊆ H becaues the
supposition is true for g −1 .
Example: The subgroup SL2 R of 2 × 2 matrices with determinant 1 forms a normal sub-
group of GL2 R. To see this note that if g ∈ GL2 R and s ∈ SL2 R then det(gsg −1 ) =
det(g) det(s)(1/ det(g)) = det(s) = 1 and so gsg −1 ∈ SL2 R.
3. Factor Groups:
Definition/Theorem: Let G be a group and let H / G. Then we define G/H (read ”G mod
H”) to be the set of left cosets of H in G and this set forms a group under the operation
(aH)(bH) = abH.
Proof: We have a few things to show here:
• Any given left coset will have multiple representatives because we know that aH and a0 H
can be identical for a 6= a0 . Consequently we first need to be sure that our operation is
well-defined, meaning that if we choose a0 H = aH and b0 H = bH and we do (a0 H)(b0 H) =
a0 b0 H we get the same result as if we do (aH)(bH) = abH. In other word we must verify
that abH = a0 b0 H. Since a0 H = aH and since a0 ∈ a0 H we have a0 = ah1 and likewise
b0 = bh2 for some h1 , h2 ∈ H. It follows that a0 b0 H = ah1 bh2 H = abh01 h2 H = abH.
• The identity is eH.
• The inverse of aH is a−1 H.
• Associativity follows since (aH)(bHcH) = (aH)(bcH) = abcH = (abH)(cH) = (aHbH)cH.
Example: If G = Z and h = 4Z then there are four distinct cosets:

0 + 4Z = {..., −8, −4, 0, 4, 8, ...}


1 + 4Z = {..., −7, −3, 1, 5, 9, ...}
2 + 4Z = {..., −6, −2, 2, 6, 10, ...}
3 + 4Z = {..., −5, −1, 3, 7, 11, ...}

These four cosets form a group with set:

{0 + 4Z, 1 + 4Z, 2 + 4Z, 3 + 4Z}

The operation is:


(a + 4Z) + (b + 4Z) = (a + b) + 4Z
So for example:
(3 + 4Z) + (2 + 4Z) = 5 + 4Z = 1 + 4Z
We immediately notice that Z/4Z ≈ Z4 .
Example: If G = U (32) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ..., 31} and H = {1, 15}. then there are eight distinct
cosets:
1H = {1, 15}
3H = {3, 13}
5H = {5, 11}
7H = {7, 9}
17H = {17, 31}
19H = {19, 29}
21H = {21, 27}
23H = {23, 25}
These eight cosets for a group with set:
{1H, 3H, 5H, 7H, 17H, 19H, 21H, 23H}
The operation is aHbH = abH. So for example:
5H7H = 35H = {35, 525} = {3, 13} = 3H
3H19H = 59H = {59, 885} = {27, 21} = 21H

Note: The terminology ”G mod H” arises from the analogy with modular arithmetic. When
we work in Z mod 5, for example, we say that 8 = 3 mod 5 because 8 = 3+5 = 3 mod 5 because
the 5 ”gets absorbed” into the modulus. That is, 8 mod 5 = (3 + 5) mod 5 = 3 + (5 mod 5) =
3 mod 5. Similarly if we’re looking at gH and if g = g 0 h then gH = g 0 hH = g 0 H because the
h gets absorbed by the H.
4. Applications:
(a) Theorem: If G/Z(G) is cyclic then G is Abelian.
Proof: Since G/Z(G) is cyclic we know there is some g0 ∈ G such that G/Z(G) =
hg0 Z(G)i. Thus every coset has the form g0k Z(G) for some k. Given a, b ∈ G we know
that each is in some coset so a ∈ g0j Z(G) and b ∈ g0k Z(G) for some j, k and moreover then
a = g0j z1 and b = g0k z2 for z1 , z2 ∈ Z(G). Then observe that:
ab = g0j z1 g0k z2 = g0j g0k z1 z2 = g0k g0j z2 z1 = g0k z2 g0j z1 = ba
QED
Example: Suppose G is non-Abelian and |G| = pq where p, q are distinct primes then
G has trivial center consisting only of {e}. This is because a bigger center would have to
have order p, q or pq by Lagrange’s Theorem. The first two fail by this theorem and the
third fails because G is non-Abelian.
Note: This has meaningful results. For example suppose we know that |G| = pq where
p, q are prime and suppose we find just one g0 ∈ G with g0 ∈ Z(G) and g0 6= e. Since
Z(G) ≤ G we know that by Lagrange’s Theorem we must have |Z(G)| = 1, p, q or pq.
Since |Z(G)| =6 1 we know it’s p, q or pq. If |Z(G)| = pq then G is Abelian. Without loss
of generality if |Z(G)| = p then |G/Z(G)| = pq/p = q and snce groups of prime order are
cyclic we have G/Z(G) cyclic and then G Abelian. So this goes to show that in such a
group if we find one single non-identity element in the center then the group is Abelian
and everything is in the center.

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