TOEFL ITP STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION

Skill 1 from Longman’s TOEFL ITP book focuses on "Recognizing Subject and
Verb" in a sentence. This is the foundation for understanding sentence structure
and avoiding errors in the Structure and Written Expression section. Let’s break it
down step by step.
1. Understanding the Subject and Verb
Every sentence must have at least one subject and one verb. The subject is the
doer of the action, and the verb is the action or state of being.
✅ Example:
 She (subject) writes (verb) a letter.
 The book (subject) is (verb) interesting.
2. Identifying the Subject
The subject is usually a noun or pronoun that tells us who or what the sentence is
about. It often comes before the verb.
✅ Example:
 My teacher (subject) explains (verb) the lesson.
 The cars (subject) are (verb) expensive.
💡 Common trick in TOEFL ITP:
Sometimes the subject does not come first in the sentence.
❌ Incorrect: Yesterday went to the market.
✅ Correct: Yesterday, she went to the market.
3. Identifying the Verb
The verb shows action (run, eat, study) or a state of being (is, are, was, were). Some
verbs have helping verbs (is running, has studied).
✅ Example:
 The dog barks. (Simple verb)
 She is reading a book. (Verb with a helping verb)
💡 Common trick in TOEFL ITP:
Sometimes, prepositional phrases confuse students into thinking the wrong word
is the subject.
❌ Incorrect: The list of books are long.
✅ Correct: The list is long.
(The subject is "the list," not "books.")
4. TOEFL ITP Sentence Patterns
Here are some sentence patterns that often appear in TOEFL:
 Noun + Verb → The cat sleeps.
 Noun + Verb + Object → She writes letters.
 There is/There are + Noun → There is a book on the table.
5. Practice with TOEFL ITP Questions
Try this:
Which one is the correct sentence?
A) The boy in the park play soccer.
B) The boy in the park plays soccer.
(✅ Answer: B → "Boy" is singular, so the verb must be "plays.")
Skill 1: Recognizing Subjects and Verbs in TOEFL ITP.
1. Why is Recognizing the Subject and Verb Important?
In TOEFL ITP’s Structure section, many questions test whether you can correctly
identify the main subject and verb in a sentence. If you can do this, you will
avoid common grammar mistakes, especially subject-verb agreement errors
and missing verb errors.

2. Understanding Subjects
The subject of a sentence is the who or what that performs the action. It is usually
a noun (person, place, thing) or a pronoun (he, she, it, they).
✅ Examples of Subjects:
 Ali is studying. (Ali is the subject)
 The books are on the table. (The books is the subject)
💡 Trick in TOEFL:
The subject is not always at the beginning of the sentence.
❌ Incorrect: In the library is many books.
✅ Correct: In the library, there are many books.

3. Understanding Verbs
The verb is the action or state of being in the sentence. It tells what the subject is
doing.
✅ Types of Verbs:
 1. Action Verbs – show an action.
o She runs every morning.

o They study English.

2. Linking Verbs – show a state of being (is, are, was, were, seems, becomes).
o The cake is delicious.

o He seems tired.

💡 Trick in TOEFL:
Some words look like verbs but are not the main verbs in a sentence.
❌ Incorrect: The students in the class working hard.
✅ Correct: The students in the class are working hard.
("Are" is the main verb, "working" is a verb form.)

4. TOEFL Sentence Patterns

TOEFL questions often include longer sentences to confuse test-takers. You must
find the main subject and the main verb.
✅ Example 1:
The teacher with many students is very busy.
 Subject: The teacher
 Verb: is
✅ Example 2:
In the middle of the city stands a famous monument.
 Subject: a famous monument
 Verb: stands

5. Common TOEFL ITP Tricks and Mistakes

A. Prepositional Phrases Between Subject and Verb
Prepositional phrases (of, in, on, with, at, etc.) confuse test-takers.
💡 Ignore the prepositional phrase to find the real subject.
❌ Incorrect: The list of students are on the table.
✅ Correct: The list of students is on the table.
("The list" is singular, so the verb must be "is.")
TOEFL ITP Structure & Written Expression: Skill 1 - Recognizing Subjects
and Verbs

1. Introduction
In TOEFL ITP, correctly identifying the subject and verb of a sentence is crucial.
Many questions in the Structure section test whether you can recognize the main
subject and verb, which helps in avoiding grammar mistakes such as missing
verbs or incorrect subject-verb agreement.

2. Understanding Subjects
The subject of a sentence is the who or what that performs the action. It is usually
a noun (person, place, thing) or a pronoun (he, she, it, they).
✅ Examples of Subjects:
 Ali is studying. (Ali is the subject)
 The books are on the table. (The books is the subject)
💡 Trick in TOEFL: The subject is not always at the beginning of the sentence.
❌ Incorrect: In the library is many books.
✅ Correct: In the library, there are many books.

Subjects in Sentences
A subject is the who or what that performs the action or is described in a sentence.
Subjects can take different forms:

1. Subjects Can Be Different Parts of Speech

A. Nouns as Subjects
A noun (a person, place, thing, or idea) is the most common type of subject.
✅ Examples:
 Students study hard for the TOEFL. (Subject: Students)
 Jember is a beautiful city. (Subject: Jember)
 The internet is useful for research. (Subject: The internet)
💡 Tip: The subject is usually a single noun or a noun phrase. Modifiers
(adjectives, articles, or phrases) do not affect the subject.
B. Pronouns as Subjects
A pronoun replaces a noun and acts as the subject.
✅ Examples:
 She teaches English. (Subject: She)
 They are my students. (Subject: They)
 It is raining. (Subject: It)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Is raining outside.
✅ Correct: It is raining outside.

C. Gerunds as Subjects
A gerund is a verb ending in -ing that functions as a noun. It can act as a subject in
a sentence.
✅ Examples:
 Swimming is my favorite hobby. (Subject: Swimming)
 Reading books helps improve vocabulary. (Subject: Reading books)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Read books help vocabulary.
✅ Correct: Reading books helps vocabulary.

D. Infinitives as Subjects
An infinitive (to + verb) can also be a subject.
✅ Examples:
 To travel is exciting. (Subject: To travel)
 To learn English takes patience. (Subject: To learn English)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Learn English takes patience.
✅ Correct: To learn English takes patience.

E. Noun Clauses as Subjects

A noun clause is a group of words that functions as a noun. It often starts with
what, how, why, whether, that, who, when etc.
✅ Examples:
 What she said surprised me. (Subject: What she said)
 How he solves problems is amazing. (Subject: How he solves problems)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: I don’t understand what does she want.
✅ Correct: I don’t understand what she wants.

2. Tricky Subject Situations in TOEFL ITP

Some sentence structures make it difficult to identify the correct subject. Here are
the three main traps you need to watch out for:

A. Be Careful with Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase (a phrase starting with in, on, at, of, with, for, by,
from, about, etc.) does not contain the subject.
✅ Examples:
 The list of students is on the table. (Subject: The list, NOT students)
 A box of chocolates was given to her. (Subject: A box, NOT chocolates)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: The group of tourists are waiting.
✅ Correct: The group of tourists is waiting.

B. Be Careful with Compound Subjects

A compound subject has two or more subjects connected by and, or, nor.
✅ Examples:
 Ali and Rina are best friends. (Plural subject → Plural verb)
 Either my mom or my dad is coming. (Verb agrees with dad)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Either my sisters or my dad are coming.
✅ Correct: Either my sisters or my dad is coming.

C. Be Careful with Inverted Sentences

In normal English sentences, the subject comes before the verb. However, in
inverted sentences, the subject comes after the verb.
✅ Examples:
 On the table is a book. (Subject: a book)
 In the room were five students. (Subject: five students)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Here is the documents you need.
✅ Correct: Here are the documents you need. (Subject: documents)

3. Summary of Key Rules

✅ A subject can be a noun, pronoun, gerund, infinitive, or noun clause.
✅ Avoid confusing prepositional phrases with the subject.
✅ Compound subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb, but "or/nor" follows the
subject closer to the verb.
✅ In inverted sentences, find the subject after the verb.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Subject
Find the subject in each sentence:
1. The sound of the bells fills the air.
2. To wake up early is difficult.
3. What she said was important.
4. My friends and I enjoy traveling.
5. Running helps improve fitness.
B. Choose the Correct Verb
Select the correct verb form:
1. The bouquet of flowers (is/are) on the table.
2. Either my teacher or my classmates (is/are) coming.
3. Here (is/are) the documents.
4. In the garden (was/were) two birds.
5. The committee (decides/decide) the rules.
✅ Answers:
1. is
2. is
3. are
4. were
5. decides
🔹 Inverted Sentences: A Detailed Explanation
1. What is Inversion?
Inversion occurs when the normal order of a sentence (subject + verb) is
reversed (verb + subject) for emphasis, formality, or grammatical rules
in questions.
✅ Normal Sentence:
👉 She seldom visits her grandparents.
✅ Inverted Sentence:
👉 Seldom does she visit her grandparents.

🔹 2. Types of Inversions
There are two main types of inversions:
1️⃣Question Inversion (Common in questions)
2️⃣Negative/Emphatic Inversion (Used for emphasis)

1️⃣Question Inversion
In yes/no questions and wh-questions, the auxiliary verb comes before
the subject.
✅ Examples:
 Does she like coffee? (instead of "She likes coffee.")
 Where is he going? (instead of "He is going where?")
 Have you ever seen such a big house?
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Auxiliary Verb) + Subject + Main Verb + Object

2️⃣Negative & Emphatic Inversion

Inversion is also used in formal writing, literature, or speeches for
emphasis, especially after negative adverbs.
A. Negative Adverbs & Expressions
 Certain negative words and phrases trigger inversion when placed at the
beginning of a sentence.
✅ Common Negative Adverbs & Phrases:
 Never (Never have I seen...)
 Rarely (Rarely does he go...)
 Seldom (Seldom do we meet...)
 Hardly...when (Hardly had she arrived when...)
 No sooner...than (No sooner had we left than...)
 Little (Little did they know...)
 Only after/before (Only after the meeting did she speak...)
✅ Examples:
 Never have I seen such beautiful scenery. (instead of "I have never seen
such beautiful scenery.")
 Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
 No sooner had the show started than the audience clapped.
 Only after the test did he relax.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Negative Adverb) + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb

B. Inversion After ‘Only’ Phrases

Phrases starting with "Only" cause inversion.
✅ Examples:
 Only after the storm passed did we go outside.
 Only when she left did I realize her importance.

C. Conditional Inversion (‘Had’, ‘Should’, ‘Were’)

In formal English, conditional sentences (if-clauses) can be rewritten using
inversion.
✅ Examples:
❌ If I had known about the exam, I would have studied.
✅ Had I known about the exam, I would have studied.
 ❌ If she were here, she would help.
✅ Were she here, she would help.
❌ If you should need assistance, call me.
✅ Should you need assistance, call me.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Had/Should/Were) + Subject + Main Verb

D. Inversion After ‘So’, ‘Such’, and ‘Not Only…But Also’

1. So + Adjective + That Clause
o So beautiful was the scenery that I took many pictures.

2. Such + Noun + That Clause

o Such was the surprise that I couldn’t speak.

3. Not only… but also

o Not only does she sing, but she also dances.

🔹 3. Summary of Inversion Rules

Type of Inversion Example

Negative Adverb +
Seldom does he visit.
Inversion

Only + Time Phrase +

Only after he left did I understand.
Inversion

No sooner had I arrived than it started

No sooner...than
raining.

Conditional
Had I known, I would have helped.
(Had/Should/Were)

So cold was the weather that we

So + Adjective + That
stayed inside.

Such was the storm that flights were

Such + Noun + That
canceled.

Not only does he study, but he also

Not only... but also
works.

🔹 4. Practice Exercises
 A. Identify the Inversion
Find the inverted word order in these sentences:
1. No sooner had she left than the phone rang.
2. Rarely do we see such kindness.
3. Not only does he play football, but he also swims.
4. Only after she explained did I understand.
5. Had I known, I would have called earlier.
B. Correct the Errors
Rewrite the incorrect sentences in correct inversion:
1. Never I have seen such a beautiful view.
2. Only after the rain stopped, the game started.
3. No sooner the bell rang than the students left.
4. Seldom he goes to the gym.
5. Had knew I, I would have arrived early.

🔹 5. Key Takeaways
✔ Inversion is used in questions, negatives, conditional sentences, and
emphatic statements.
✔ Negative adverbs (Never, Seldom, Hardly, No sooner... than) cause
inversion.
✔ In formal writing, you can use inversion in conditional sentences instead
of if.
✔ Only phrases also trigger inversion.

Inversion Rules
Inverted Sentences: A Detailed Explanation
1. What is Inversion?
Inversion occurs when the normal order of a sentence (subject + verb) is
reversed (verb + subject) for emphasis, formality, or grammatical rules
in questions.
✅ Normal Sentence:
👉 She seldom visits her grandparents.
✅ Inverted Sentence:
👉 Seldom does she visit her grandparents.
 2. Types of Inversions
There are two main types of inversions:
1️⃣Question Inversion (Common in questions)
2️⃣Negative/Emphatic Inversion (Used for emphasis)

1️⃣Question Inversion
In yes/no questions and wh-questions, the auxiliary verb comes before
the subject.
✅ Examples:
 Does she like coffee? (instead of "She likes coffee.")
 Where is he going? (instead of "He is going where?")
 Have you ever seen such a big house?
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Auxiliary Verb) + Subject + Main Verb + Object

2️⃣Negative & Emphatic Inversion

Inversion is also used in formal writing, literature, or speeches for
emphasis, especially after negative adverbs.
A. Negative Adverbs & Expressions
Certain negative words and phrases trigger inversion when placed at the
beginning of a sentence.
✅ Common Negative Adverbs & Phrases:
 Never (Never have I seen...)
 Rarely (Rarely does he go...)
 Seldom (Seldom do we meet...)
 Hardly...when (Hardly had she arrived when...)
 No sooner...than (No sooner had we left than...)
 Little (Little did they know...)
 Only after/before (Only after the meeting did she speak...)
✅ Examples:
 Never have I seen such beautiful scenery. (instead of "I have never seen
such beautiful scenery.")
 Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
 No sooner had the show started than the audience clapped.
 Only after the test did he relax.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Negative Adverb) + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb

B. Inversion After ‘Only’ Phrases

Phrases starting with "Only" cause inversion.
✅ Examples:
 Only after the storm passed did we go outside.
 Only when she left did I realize her importance.

C. Conditional Inversion (‘Had’, ‘Should’, ‘Were’)

In formal English, conditional sentences (if-clauses) can be rewritten using
inversion.
✅ Examples:
❌ If I had known about the exam, I would have studied.
✅ Had I known about the exam, I would have studied.
❌ If she were here, she would help.
✅ Were she here, she would help.
❌ If you should need assistance, call me.
✅ Should you need assistance, call me.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Had/Should/Were) + Subject + Main Verb

D. Inversion After ‘So’, ‘Such’, and ‘Not Only…But Also’

1. So + Adjective + That Clause
o So beautiful was the scenery that I took many pictures.

2. Such + Noun + That Clause

o Such was the surprise that I couldn’t speak.
3. Not only… but also
o Not only does she sing, but she also dances.

3. Summary of Inversion Rules

Type of Inversion Example

Negative Adverb +
Seldom does he visit.
Inversion

Only + Time Phrase +

Only after he left did I understand.
Inversion

No sooner had I arrived than it started

No sooner...than
raining.

Conditional
Had I known, I would have helped.
(Had/Should/Were)

So cold was the weather that we

So + Adjective + That
stayed inside.

Such was the storm that flights were

Such + Noun + That
canceled.

Not only does he study, but he also

Not only... but also
works.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Inversion
Find the inverted word order in these sentences:
1. No sooner had she left than the phone rang.
2. Rarely do we see such kindness.
3. Not only does he play football, but he also swims.
4. Only after she explained did I understand.
5. Had I known, I would have called earlier.
B. Correct the Errors
Rewrite the incorrect sentences in correct inversion:
1. Never I have seen such a beautiful view.
2. Only after the rain stopped, the game started.
3. No sooner the bell rang than the students left.
4. Seldom he goes to the gym.
5. Had knew I, I would have arrived early.

5. Key Takeaways
✔ Inversion is used in questions, negatives, conditional sentences, and
emphatic statements.
✔ Negative adverbs (Never, Seldom, Hardly, No sooner... than) cause
inversion.
✔ In formal writing, you can use inversion in conditional sentences instead
of if.
✔ Only phrases also trigger inversion.

We've covered Inversions, the next logical step is to study Parallel

Structure (Parallelism) in TOEFL ITP, Structure, and Written Expression.
Why Parallelism?
Parallel structure ensures consistency in sentence construction, making
writing clearer and more grammatically correct. It is frequently tested in
TOEFL ITP, especially in Structure and Written Expression.
Parallel Structure
Parallel Structure (Parallelism) in TOEFL ITP
1. What is Parallel Structure?
Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the use of the same
grammatical form for words, phrases, or clauses in a list or comparison. It
makes sentences clearer, more balanced, and easier to read.
✅ Correct Example:
👉 She likes swimming, running, and hiking.
❌ Incorrect Example:
👉 She likes swimming, to run, and hiking. ❌ (Different forms: swimming
(gerund), to run (infinitive), and hiking (gerund) are inconsistent.)

2. Rules of Parallel Structure

A. Parallelism in Lists
When listing items, all elements should have the same form.
✅ Correct:
👉 The students enjoy reading, writing, and studying.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 The students enjoy reading, to write, and studying. ❌
✅ Correct:
👉 The job requires patience, dedication, and hard work.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 The job requires patience, to be dedicated, and hard work. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Noun, Noun, and Noun
🔹 Gerund, Gerund, and Gerund
🔹 Infinitive, Infinitive, and Infinitive

B. Parallelism in Comparisons
When using words like than or as, the items being compared must be
parallel.
✅ Correct:
👉 Running is harder than swimming.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 Running is harder than to swim. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Noun + than/as + Noun
🔹 Verb + than/as + Verb

C. Parallelism in Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions (both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but
also) require parallel forms.
✅ Correct:
👉 She is not only smart but also hardworking.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 She is not only smart but also works hard. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Both + Noun + and + Noun
🔹 Not only + Adjective + but also + Adjective

D. Parallelism in Verb Forms

When using multiple verbs in a sentence, they must follow the same tense
and form.
 ✅ Correct:
👉 He came, saw, and conquered.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 He came, was seeing, and conquers. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Verb (past), Verb (past), and Verb (past)

3. Common TOEFL ITP Parallelism Errors

A. Incorrect Verb Forms
❌ The company is growing quickly, expanding its market, and to hire
new employees.
✅ Corrected: The company is growing quickly, expanding its market,
and hiring new employees.
B. Mismatched Structures in Lists
❌ I like to read, watching movies, and dance.
✅ Corrected: I like reading, watching movies, and dancing.
C. Incorrect Use with Correlative Conjunctions
❌ She is both talented and has experience.
✅ Corrected: She is both talented and experienced.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Error
Find and correct the error in parallel structure:
1. She likes running, to swim, and hiking.
2. The manager is responsible for hiring employees, training staff, and to
oversee operations.
3. The teacher is not only friendly but also explains clearly.
B. Choose the Correct Answer
1. He enjoys (A) read, (B) reading, (C) to reading novels and writing poetry.
2. The project is designed (A) both efficient and cost-effective, (B) both
efficiently and cost-effectively, (C) both efficiency and cost-
effectiveness.

5. Summary of Parallelism Rules

 Type of Parallelism Example

I like reading, writing, and

Lists
drawing.

Comparisons Swimming is easier than running.

Correlative She is not only kind but also

Conjunctions generous.

Verb Forms He came, saw, and conquered.

✅ Mastering parallel structure will improve sentence clarity and help

you avoid common TOEFL errors!

3. Understanding Verbs
The verb is the action or state of being in the sentence. It tells what the subject is
doing.
✅ Types of Verbs:
1. Action Verbs – show an action.
o She runs every morning.

o They study English.

2. Linking Verbs – show a state of being (is, are, was, were, seems, becomes).
o The cake is delicious.

o He seems tired.

💡 Trick in TOEFL: Some words look like verbs but are not the main verbs in a
sentence.
❌ Incorrect: The students in the class working hard.
✅ Correct: The students in the class are working hard.
("Are" is the main verb, "working" is a verb form.)

4. TOEFL Sentence Patterns

TOEFL questions often include longer sentences to confuse test-takers. You must
find the main subject and the main verb.
✅ Example 1:
The teacher with many students is very busy.
 Subject: The teacher
 Verb: is
✅ Example 2:
In the middle of the city stands a famous monument.
 Subject: a famous monument
 Verb: stands

5. Common TOEFL ITP Tricks and Mistakes

A. Prepositional Phrases Between Subject and Verb
Prepositional phrases (of, in, on, with, at, etc.) confuse test-takers.
💡 Ignore the prepositional phrase to find the real subject.
❌ Incorrect: The list of students are on the table.
✅ Correct: The list of students is on the table.
("The list" is singular, so the verb must be "is.")

6. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Subject and Verb
Underline the subject and circle the verb in the following sentences:
1. The dog in the yard barks loudly.
2. My best friend always helps me with my homework.
3. A group of tourists is visiting the museum.
4. In the garden, there are many beautiful flowers.
B. Correct the Errors
Find and correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. The box of chocolates are on the table.
2. In the morning comes the bus.
3. The students in the classroom studies hard.
 4. On the wall hangs two pictures.
✅ Answers:
1. The box of chocolates is on the table.
2. In the morning, the bus comes.
3. The students in the classroom study hard.
4. On the wall hangs two pictures. (Correction: hangs → hang because
"pictures" is plural.)

7. Summary
 A subject is the who or what of a sentence.
 A verb shows action or state of being.
 Ignore prepositional phrases to find the true subject.
 Be careful with inverted word order in TOEFL questions.

Be careful with inverted word order in TOEFL questions.

Here’s your structured TOEFL ITP lesson on Skill 1: Recognizing Subjects and
Verbs

1. What is a Subject?
A subject is the who or what that the sentence is about. It performs the action in
the sentence or is described by the verb.
✅ Example:
 Ali studies every night. (Ali is the subject)
 The book is on the table. (The book is the subject)

2. How Are Subjects Formed?

Subjects can be formed using different grammatical elements:
A. Simple Subject
A single noun or pronoun that acts as the subject.
✅ Examples:
  She runs fast. (She = simple subject)
 Dogs bark at night. (Dogs = simple subject)
B. Complete Subject
The simple subject plus modifiers (adjectives, articles, or phrases).
✅ Examples:
 The tall boy won the race. (The tall boy is the complete subject)
 A group of students is studying in the library.
💡 Tip: Ignore extra words and focus on the main noun for the subject.
C. Compound Subject
Two or more subjects joined by and/or.
✅ Examples:
 Ali and Rina are best friends.
 My parents and my teacher support me.
💡 Tip: If subjects are joined by and, use a plural verb. If joined by or/nor, the verb
agrees with the subject closer to it.
❌ Incorrect: My mom or my brothers is coming.
✅ Correct: My mom or my brothers are coming.

3. Types of Subjects
Subjects can be categorized into different types:
A. Noun as a Subject
A noun (person, place, or thing) acts as the subject.
✅ Examples:
 Students love learning English.
 Jember is a beautiful city.
B. Pronoun as a Subject
A pronoun replaces a noun as a subject.
✅ Examples:
 They are my friends.
 He works hard every day.
C. Gerund as a Subject
A gerund (verb + -ing) can act as a subject.
✅ Examples:
 Swimming is my favorite sport.
 Studying late at night is difficult.
D. Infinitive as a Subject
An infinitive (to + verb) can also be a subject.
✅ Examples:
 To travel is exciting.
 To learn English takes effort.
E. Clause as a Subject
A noun clause can function as a subject.
✅ Examples:
 What he said surprised me.
 How she studies affects her grades.

4. Common Subject Errors in TOEFL ITP

A. Subject Missing or Incorrect
❌ Incorrect: Is raining outside.
✅ Correct: It is raining outside.
B. Long Phrases Confusing the Subject
❌ Incorrect: The list of students are on the desk.
✅ Correct: The list of students is on the desk.
(The list is the subject, not students.)
C. Subjects in Inverted Sentences
Sometimes subjects come after the verb.
✅ Examples:
 On the wall hangs a beautiful painting. (Subject: a beautiful painting)
 In the room were five students. (Subject: five students)

5. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Subject
Find the subject in each sentence:
1. The girl in the red dress is my cousin.
2. Learning new languages is fun.
3. To study every day improves your skills.
4. The books on the table belong to me.
5. What he did shocked everyone.
B. Correct the Mistakes
Find and fix the subject errors:
1. The bag of oranges are heavy.
2. Here is the documents you need.
3. There goes the boys to school.
4. My mom and my sister loves cooking.
✅ Answers:
1. The bag of oranges is heavy.
2. Here are the documents you need.
3. There go the boys to school.
4. My mom and my sister love cooking.

6. Summary
 A subject is who or what the sentence is about.
 Subjects can be nouns, pronouns, gerunds, infinitives, or clauses.
 Be careful with prepositional phrases, compound subjects, and inverted
sentences.

Subjects in Sentences
A subject is the who or what that performs the action or is described in a sentence.
Subjects can take different forms:

1. Subjects Can Be Different Parts of Speech

A. Nouns as Subjects
A noun (a person, place, thing, or idea) is the most common type of subject.
✅ Examples:
 Students study hard for the TOEFL. (Subject: Students)
 Jember is a beautiful city. (Subject: Jember)
 The internet is useful for research. (Subject: The internet)
💡 Tip: The subject is usually a single noun or a noun phrase. Modifiers
(adjectives, articles, or phrases) do not affect the subject.
B. Pronouns as Subjects
A pronoun replaces a noun and acts as the subject.
✅ Examples:
 She teaches English. (Subject: She)
 They are my students. (Subject: They)
 It is raining. (Subject: It)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Is raining outside.
✅ Correct: It is raining outside.

C. Gerunds as Subjects
A gerund is a verb ending in -ing that functions as a noun. It can act as a subject in
a sentence.
✅ Examples:
 Swimming is my favorite hobby. (Subject: Swimming)
 Reading books helps improve vocabulary. (Subject: Reading books)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Read books help vocabulary.
✅ Correct: Reading books helps vocabulary.

D. Infinitives as Subjects
An infinitive (to + verb) can also be a subject.
✅ Examples:
 To travel is exciting. (Subject: To travel)
  To learn English takes patience. (Subject: To learn English)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Learn English takes patience.
✅ Correct: To learn English takes patience.

E. Noun Clauses as Subjects

A noun clause is a group of words that functions as a noun. It often starts with
what, how, why, whether, that, who, when etc.
✅ Examples:
 What she said surprised me. (Subject: What she said)
 How he solves problems is amazing. (Subject: How he solves problems)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: I don’t understand what does she want.
✅ Correct: I don’t understand what she wants.

2. Tricky Subject Situations in TOEFL ITP

Some sentence structures make it difficult to identify the correct subject. Here are
the three main traps you need to watch out for:

A. Be Careful with Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase (a phrase starting with in, on, at, of, with, for, by,
from, about, etc.) does not contain the subject.
✅ Examples:
 The list of students is on the table. (Subject: The list, NOT students)
 A box of chocolates was given to her. (Subject: A box, NOT chocolates)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: The group of tourists are waiting.
✅ Correct: The group of tourists is waiting.

B. Be Careful with Compound Subjects

A compound subject has two or more subjects connected by and, or, nor.
✅ Examples:
 Ali and Rina are best friends. (Plural subject → Plural verb)
  Either my mom or my dad is coming. (Verb agrees with dad)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Either my sisters or my dad are coming.
✅ Correct: Either my sisters or my dad is coming.

C. Be Careful with Inverted Sentences

In normal English sentences, the subject comes before the verb. However, in
inverted sentences, the subject comes after the verb.
✅ Examples:
 On the table is a book. (Subject: a book)
 In the room were five students. (Subject: five students)
💡 Common TOEFL Error:
❌ Incorrect: Here is the documents you need.
✅ Correct: Here are the documents you need. (Subject: documents)

3. Summary of Key Rules

✅ A subject can be a noun, pronoun, gerund, infinitive, or noun clause.
✅ Avoid confusing prepositional phrases with the subject.
✅ Compound subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb, but "or/nor" follows the
subject closer to the verb.
✅ In inverted sentences, find the subject after the verb.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Subject
Find the subject in each sentence:
1. The sound of the bells fills the air.
2. To wake up early is difficult.
3. What she said was important.
4. My friends and I enjoy traveling.
5. Running helps improve fitness.
B. Choose the Correct Verb
Select the correct verb form:
1. The bouquet of flowers (is/are) on the table.
 2. Either my teacher or my classmates (is/are) coming.
3. Here (is/are) the documents.
4. In the garden (was/were) two birds.
5. The committee (decides/decide) the rules.
✅ Answers:
1. is
2. is
3. are
4. were
5. decides

Inverted Sentences in TOEFL ITP

In normal English sentences, the subject comes before the verb:
✅ Example:
 The students are in the classroom. (Subject: The students → Verb: are)
However, in inverted sentences, the subject comes after the verb.
✅ Example:
 In the classroom are the students. (Verb: are → Subject: the students)

1. When Do We Use Inverted Sentences?

Inverted sentences appear in TOEFL ITP and can be confusing. There are four
common cases where inversion happens:
A. Inversion After Place Expressions (Adverbial Phrases)
When a sentence begins with a phrase that shows place or direction, inversion
happens.
✅ Examples:
 On the table is a book. (Subject: a book)
 In the garden were many beautiful flowers. (Subject: many beautiful
flowers)
 Near the school stands a tall tree. (Subject: a tall tree)
💡 Common TOEFL Trap:
❌ Incorrect: Near the school a tall tree stands.
✅ Correct: Near the school stands a tall tree.
💡 Tip: If the main verb is BE (is, are, was, were, etc.), or an action verb
(stand, sit, lie, etc.), the subject moves after the verb.

B. Inversion with Negative Expressions

When a sentence begins with negative words such as never, rarely, seldom,
hardly, barely, no sooner, not only, the subject comes after the auxiliary verb.
✅ Examples:
 Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset. (Subject: I)
 Rarely do they visit their hometown. (Subject: they)
 Not only does she sing beautifully, but she also plays the guitar. (Subject:
she)
💡 Common TOEFL Trap:
❌ Incorrect: Not only she sings beautifully, but she also plays the guitar.
✅ Correct: Not only does she sing beautifully, but she also plays the guitar.
💡 Tip: Use do/does/did for inversion if the sentence has an action verb.

C. Inversion After Conditional Sentences (Without If)

Normally, conditional sentences use if:
✅ Example:
 If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended.
In formal English, if can be removed, and the subject moves after the verb.
✅ Examples:
 Had I known about the meeting, I would have attended.
 Were I you, I would take the job.
 Should you need help, call me.
💡 Common TOEFL Trap:
❌ Incorrect: If I were you, I would study harder.
✅ Correct: Were I you, I would study harder.
💡 Tip: Only use this structure in formal writing or tests.
D. Inversion After ‘So,’ ‘Such,’ and ‘Only After’
When a sentence starts with so, such, or only after, the subject follows the verb.
✅ Examples:
 So beautiful was the view that we took many pictures. (Subject: the view)
 Such was his confidence that he passed the exam easily. (Subject: his
confidence)
 Only after the teacher explained did the students understand. (Subject:
the students)
💡 Common TOEFL Trap:
❌ Incorrect: Only after the teacher explained, the students understood.
✅ Correct: Only after the teacher explained did the students understand.

2. Summary of Inversion Rules

Type Example

Place Expressions On the table is a book.

Negative
Never have I seen such a view.
Expressions

Conditional Had I known, I would have

Sentences attended.

So/Such/Only After So amazing was the concert.

3. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Subject and Verb
Find the subject and verb in each inverted sentence:
1. In the corner sits an old man.
2. Never have I heard such a story.
3. Not only does he play the piano, but he also sings.
4. Had she studied harder, she would have passed.
5. So tired was he that he fell asleep immediately.
B. Choose the Correct Sentence
Which sentence is correct?
 1. (A) Near the park is a new school.
(B) Near the park a new school is.
2. (A) No sooner the bell rang than the students left.
(B) No sooner had the bell rung than the students left.
3. (A) Rarely he watches TV.
(B) Rarely does he watch TV.
4. (A) Had I known about the test, I would have studied.
(B) If had I known about the test, I would have studied.
5. (A) Only after she apologized did he forgive her.
(B) Only after she apologized he forgave her.
✅ Answers:
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. A
5. A

4. Final Tips for TOEFL ITP

✅ Always check if the subject comes after the verb in inverted sentences.
✅ Be careful with negative expressions and conditional sentences.
✅ If the verb is an action verb, use do/does/did in inversion.
✅ Practice spotting place expressions, negative expressions, and
"so/such/only after" structures.

📝 Exercise A: Identify the Subject and Verb

Instructions: Find the subject and verb in each inverted sentence.
1. In the middle of the room stands a large table.
2. Never have I seen such a beautiful waterfall.
3. Rarely does he speak in public.
4. No sooner had the show ended than the audience clapped.
5. Only after the meeting did they make a decision.
6. On the top of the mountain sits an ancient temple.
7. Not only does she sing well, but she also plays the guitar.
 8. Had she known about the exam, she would have prepared better.
9. So delicious was the food that everyone asked for more.
10.Hardly had they arrived when it started to rain.

📝 Exercise B: Correct the Mistakes

Instructions: Each sentence has a mistake. Rewrite the sentence correctly.
1. Never I have seen such a huge castle.
2. Only after the storm passed, the sun appeared.
3. Near the lake a beautiful house is standing.
4. Not only he finished his work, but he also helped his friends.
5. No sooner the guests arrived than dinner was served.
6. Seldom he takes a vacation.
7. So exciting the movie was that we watched it twice.
8. Had he studied harder, he passed the test.
9. On the table a book lies.
10.Rarely she goes to the beach.

📝 Exercise C: Multiple Choice Questions

Instructions: Choose the correct sentence.
1.
(A) Hardly had the teacher entered the class when the students stopped talking.
(B) Hardly the teacher had entered the class when the students stopped talking.
2.
(A) Not only he is smart, but he is also hardworking.
(B) Not only is he smart, but he is also hardworking.
3.
(A) So delicious was the cake that everyone wanted more.
(B) So delicious the cake was that everyone wanted more.
4.
(A) No sooner the sun set than the stars appeared.
(B) No sooner had the sun set than the stars appeared.
 5.
(A) In front of the house is a beautiful garden.
(B) In front of the house a beautiful garden is.
✅ Answer Key:
1. A
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. A

📝 Exercise D: Rewrite the Sentences Using Inversion

Instructions: Rewrite the sentences in an inverted form.
1. The bus arrived, and only then did she realize she had left her phone.
👉 Only then did she realize she had left her phone.
2. She had hardly finished her meal when the waiter took her plate.
👉 Hardly had she finished her meal when the waiter took her plate.
3. He had no sooner stepped outside than it started raining.
👉 No sooner had he stepped outside than it started raining.
4. The birds are sitting on the branch.
👉 On the branch are sitting the birds.
5. The princess was so beautiful that everyone admired her.
👉 So beautiful was the princess that everyone admired her.

📝 Exercise E: TOEFL-Style Sentence Completion

Instructions: Choose the best option to complete the sentence.
1. Only after the project was completed, ______ its true importance.
(A) we understood
(B) did we understand
(C) we had understood
(D) we do understand
2. Not only ______ the exam, but she also scored the highest marks.
(A) she passed
(B) did she pass
(C) she had passed
(D) does she passed
 3. Never before ______ such a breathtaking view.
(A) have I seen
(B) I have seen
(C) saw I
(D) had seen I
4. Seldom ______ a mistake in his reports.
(A) does he make
(B) he makes
(C) is he making
(D) he does make
5. Had we left earlier, we ______ the traffic jam.
(A) avoid
(B) avoided
(C) would have avoided
(D) had avoided
✅ Answer Key:
1. B
2. B
3. A
4. A
5. C

🔹 Inverted Sentences: A Detailed Explanation

1. What is Inversion?
Inversion occurs when the normal order of a sentence (subject + verb) is reversed
(verb + subject) for emphasis, formality, or grammatical rules in questions.
✅ Normal Sentence:
👉 She seldom visits her grandparents.
✅ Inverted Sentence:
👉 Seldom does she visit her grandparents.

🔹 2. Types of Inversions
There are two main types of inversions:
1️⃣Question Inversion (Common in questions)
2️⃣Negative/Emphatic Inversion (Used for emphasis)
1️⃣Question Inversion
In yes/no questions and wh-questions, the auxiliary verb comes before the
subject.
✅ Examples:
 Does she like coffee? (instead of "She likes coffee.")
 Where is he going? (instead of "He is going where?")
 Have you ever seen such a big house?
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Auxiliary Verb) + Subject + Main Verb + Object

2️⃣Negative & Emphatic Inversion

Inversion is also used in formal writing, literature, or speeches for emphasis,
especially after negative adverbs.
A. Negative Adverbs & Expressions
Certain negative words and phrases trigger inversion when placed at the beginning
of a sentence.
✅ Common Negative Adverbs & Phrases:
 Never (Never have I seen...)
 Rarely (Rarely does he go...)
 Seldom (Seldom do we meet...)
 Hardly...when (Hardly had she arrived when...)
 No sooner...than (No sooner had we left than...)
 Little (Little did they know...)
 Only after/before (Only after the meeting did she speak...)
✅ Examples:
 Never have I seen such beautiful scenery. (instead of "I have never seen
such beautiful scenery.")
 Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
 No sooner had the show started than the audience clapped.
 Only after the test did he relax.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Negative Adverb) + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb
B. Inversion After ‘Only’ Phrases
Phrases starting with "Only" cause inversion.
✅ Examples:
 Only after the storm passed did we go outside.
 Only when she left did I realize her importance.

C. Conditional Inversion (‘Had’, ‘Should’, ‘Were’)

In formal English, conditional sentences (if-clauses) can be rewritten using
inversion.
✅ Examples:
❌ If I had known about the exam, I would have studied.
✅ Had I known about the exam, I would have studied.
❌ If she were here, she would help.
✅ Were she here, she would help.
❌ If you should need assistance, call me.
✅ Should you need assistance, call me.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Had/Should/Were) + Subject + Main Verb

D. Inversion After ‘So’, ‘Such’, and ‘Not Only…But Also’

1. So + Adjective + That Clause
o So beautiful was the scenery that I took many pictures.

2. Such + Noun + That Clause

o Such was the surprise that I couldn’t speak.

3. Not only… but also

o Not only does she sing, but she also dances.

🔹 3. Summary of Inversion Rules

Type of Inversion Example

Negative Adverb + Inversion Seldom does he visit.

Type of Inversion Example

Only + Time Phrase +

Only after he left did I understand.
Inversion

No sooner had I arrived than it started

No sooner...than
raining.

Conditional
Had I known, I would have helped.
(Had/Should/Were)

So cold was the weather that we stayed

So + Adjective + That
inside.

Such was the storm that flights were

Such + Noun + That
cancelled.

Not only does he study, but he also

Not only... but also
works.

🔹 4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Inversion
Find the inverted word order in these sentences:
1. No sooner had she left than the phone rang.
2. Rarely do we see such kindness.
3. Not only does he play football, but he also swims.
4. Only after she explained did I understand.
5. Had I known, I would have called earlier.
B. Correct the Errors
Rewrite the incorrect sentences in correct inversion:
1. Never I have seen such a beautiful view.
2. Only after the rain stopped, the game started.
3. No sooner the bell rang than the students left.
4. Seldom he goes to the gym.
5. Had knew I, I would have arrived early.

🔹 5. Key Takeaways
✔ Inversion is used in questions, negatives, conditional sentences, and
emphatic statements.
✔ Negative adverbs (Never, Seldom, Hardly, No sooner... than) cause inversion.
✔ In formal writing, you can use inversion in conditional sentences instead of if.
✔ Only phrases also trigger inversion.

Inverted Sentences: A Detailed Explanation

1. What is Inversion?
Inversion occurs when the normal order of a sentence (subject + verb) is reversed
(verb + subject) for emphasis, formality, or grammatical rules in questions.
✅ Normal Sentence:
👉 She seldom visits her grandparents.
✅ Inverted Sentence:
👉 Seldom does she visit her grandparents.

2. Types of Inversions
There are two main types of inversions:
1️⃣Question Inversion (Common in questions)
2️⃣Negative/Emphatic Inversion (Used for emphasis)

1️⃣Question Inversion
In yes/no questions and wh-questions, the auxiliary verb comes before the
subject.
✅ Examples:
 Does she like coffee? (instead of "She likes coffee.")
 Where is he going? (instead of "He is going where?")
 Have you ever seen such a big house?
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Auxiliary Verb) + Subject + Main Verb + Object

2️⃣Negative & Emphatic Inversion

Inversion is also used in formal writing, literature, or speeches for emphasis,
especially after negative adverbs.
A. Negative Adverbs & Expressions
Certain negative words and phrases trigger inversion when placed at the beginning
of a sentence.
✅ Common Negative Adverbs & Phrases:
 Never (Never have I seen...)
 Rarely (Rarely does he go...)
 Seldom (Seldom do we meet...)
 Hardly...when (Hardly had she arrived when...)
 No sooner...than (No sooner had we left than...)
 Little (Little did they know...)
 Only after/before (Only after the meeting did she speak...)
✅ Examples:
 Never have I seen such beautiful scenery. (instead of "I have never seen
such beautiful scenery.")
 Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
 No sooner had the show started than the audience clapped.
 Only after the test did he relax.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Negative Adverb) + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb

B. Inversion After ‘Only’ Phrases

Phrases starting with "Only" cause inversion.
✅ Examples:
 Only after the storm passed did we go outside.
 Only when she left did I realize her importance.

C. Conditional Inversion (‘Had’, ‘Should’, ‘Were’)

In formal English, conditional sentences (if-clauses) can be rewritten using
inversion.
✅ Examples:
❌ If I had known about the exam, I would have studied.
✅ Had I known about the exam, I would have studied.
❌ If she were here, she would help.
✅ Were she here, she would help.
❌ If you should need assistance, call me.
✅ Should you need assistance, call me.
✅ Formula:
🔹 (Had/Should/Were) + Subject + Main Verb

D. Inversion After ‘So’, ‘Such’, and ‘Not Only…But Also’

1. So + Adjective + That Clause
o So beautiful was the scenery that I took many pictures.

2. Such + Noun + That Clause

o Such was the surprise that I couldn’t speak.

3. Not only… but also

o Not only does she sing, but she also dances.

3. Summary of Inversion Rules

Type of Inversion Example

Negative Adverb + Inversion Seldom does he visit.

Only + Time Phrase +

Only after he left did I understand.
Inversion

No sooner had I arrived than it started

No sooner...than
raining.

Conditional
Had I known, I would have helped.
(Had/Should/Were)

So cold was the weather that we stayed

So + Adjective + That
inside.

Such was the storm that flights were

Such + Noun + That
canceled.

Not only does he study, but he also

Not only... but also
works.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Inversion
Find the inverted word order in these sentences:
1. No sooner had she left than the phone rang.
2. Rarely do we see such kindness.
3. Not only does he play football, but he also swims.
4. Only after she explained did I understand.
5. Had I known, I would have called earlier.
B. Correct the Errors
Rewrite the incorrect sentences in correct inversion:
1. Never I have seen such a beautiful view.
2. Only after the rain stopped, the game started.
3. No sooner the bell rang than the students left.
4. Seldom he goes to the gym.
5. Had knew I, I would have arrived early.

5. Key Takeaways
✔ Inversion is used in questions, negatives, conditional sentences, and
emphatic statements.
✔ Negative adverbs (Never, Seldom, Hardly, No sooner... than) cause inversion.
✔ In formal writing, you can use inversion in conditional sentences instead of if.
✔ Only phrases also trigger inversion.

Parallel Structure (Parallelism) in TOEFL ITP

1. What is Parallel Structure?
Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the use of the same grammatical form
for words, phrases, or clauses in a list or comparison. It makes sentences clearer,
more balanced, and easier to read.
✅ Correct Example:
👉 She likes swimming, running, and hiking.
❌ Incorrect Example:
👉 She likes swimming, to run, and hiking. ❌ (Different forms: swimming
(gerund), to run (infinitive), and hiking (gerund) are inconsistent.)
2. Rules of Parallel Structure
A. Parallelism in Lists
When listing items, all elements should have the same form.
✅ Correct:
👉 The students enjoy reading, writing, and studying.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 The students enjoy reading, to write, and studying. ❌
✅ Correct:
👉 The job requires patience, dedication, and hard work.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 The job requires patience, to be dedicated, and hard work. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Noun, Noun, and Noun
🔹 Gerund, Gerund, and Gerund
🔹 Infinitive, Infinitive, and Infinitive

B. Parallelism in Comparisons
When using words like than or as, the items being compared must be parallel.
✅ Correct:
👉 Running is harder than swimming.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 Running is harder than to swim. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Noun + than/as + Noun
🔹 Verb + than/as + Verb

C. Parallelism in Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions (both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also)
require parallel forms.
✅ Correct:
👉 She is not only smart but also hardworking.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 She is not only smart but also works hard. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Both + Noun + and + Noun
🔹 Not only + Adjective + but also + Adjective
D. Parallelism in Verb Forms
When using multiple verbs in a sentence, they must follow the same tense and
form.
✅ Correct:
👉 He came, saw, and conquered.
❌ Incorrect:
👉 He came, was seeing, and conquers. ❌
✅ Formula:
🔹 Verb (past), Verb (past), and Verb (past)

3. Common TOEFL ITP Parallelism Errors

A. Incorrect Verb Forms
❌ The company is growing quickly, expanding its market, and to hire new
employees.
✅ Corrected: The company is growing quickly, expanding its market, and
hiring new employees.
B. Mismatched Structures in Lists
❌ I like to read, watching movies, and dance.
✅ Corrected: I like reading, watching movies, and dancing.
C. Incorrect Use with Correlative Conjunctions
❌ She is both talented and has experience.
✅ Corrected: She is both talented and experienced.

4. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Error
Find and correct the error in parallel structure:
1. She likes running, to swim, and hiking.
2. The manager is responsible for hiring employees, training staff, and to
oversee operations.
3. The teacher is not only friendly but also explains clearly.
B. Choose the Correct Answer
1. He enjoys (A) read, (B) reading, (C) to reading novels and writing poetry.
 2. The project is designed (A) both efficient and cost-effective, (B) both
efficiently and cost-effectively, (C) both efficiency and cost-
effectiveness.

5. Summary of Parallelism Rules

Type of Parallelism Example

I like reading, writing, and

Lists
drawing.

Comparisons Swimming is easier than running.

Correlative She is not only kind but also

Conjunctions generous.

Verb Forms He came, saw, and conquered.

✅ Mastering parallel structure will improve sentence clarity and help you
avoid common TOEFL errors!

What Are Coordinating Conjunctions?

Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or independent clauses of
equal importance.
The FANBOYS Acronym
There are seven main coordinating conjunctions, and you can remember them
using FANBOYS:
 F – For (reason) → She was tired, for she had worked all day.
 A – And (addition) → I like apples and oranges.
 N – Nor (negative addition) → He doesn’t like tea, nor does he drink coffee.
 B – But (contrast) → She is friendly, but sometimes shy.
 O – Or (choice) → Do you want tea or coffee?
 Y – Yet (contrast, like "but") → She was tired, yet she kept working.
 S – So (result) → It was raining, so we stayed inside.
Coordinating vs. Correlative Conjunctions
 Correlative
Feature Coordinating Conjunctions
Conjunctions

Number of Pair of words (e.g.,

Single word (e.g., and, but)
words either...or)

Joins equal parts (words, phrases,

Function Joins equal parts in pairs
clauses)

Example I like coffee and tea. I like either coffee or tea.

the difference between Coordinating Conjunctions and Correlative

Conjunctions with clear examples.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

These are single words that connect equal parts (words, phrases, or clauses).
👉 Example:
 I like apples and oranges. (joins two words)
 She was tired, but she kept working. (joins two independent clauses)
💡 Key Point: Coordinating conjunctions stand alone and don’t need a partner.

2. Correlative Conjunctions (Pairs)

These come in pairs and work together to join two equal parts.
👉 Example:
 I like both apples and oranges. (both...and)
 She is not only smart but also kind. (not only...but also)
💡 Key Point: Correlative conjunctions always come in pairs (you can’t use one
without the other).

Comparison Table

Feature Coordinating Conjunctions Correlative Conjunctions

Number of
Single word (and, but, or) Word pairs (either...or, both...and)
Words

Joins words, phrases, or Joins words, phrases, or clauses in a

Function
independent clauses balanced way

Example I like tea and coffee. I like either tea or coffee.

Extra Tip:
✅ If you only see one conjunction → Coordinating
✅ If you see two conjunctions working together → Correlative
1️⃣Noun Clause
A Noun Clause is a dependent clause (has a subject and a verb) that functions
as a noun.
Examples:
 I don’t know what he wants. (noun clause as an object)
 What she said is true. (noun clause as a subject)
 The fact that he is late annoys me. (noun clause as a complement)
👉 Key Features:
✅ Contains a subject + verb
✅ Starts with that, what, where, why, how, if, whether, etc.
✅ Functions as a subject, object, or complement

2️⃣Noun Phrase
A Noun Phrase is a group of words that acts as a noun. It does not contain a
subject + verb like a clause.
Examples:
 The big black cat is sleeping. (noun phrase as a subject)
 I saw a very interesting book. (noun phrase as an object)
 She is an amazing teacher. (noun phrase as a complement)
👉 Key Features:
✅ Contains a noun + modifiers (adjectives, determiners, etc.)
✅ Does not have a subject + verb
✅ Functions as a subject, object, or complement

🔎 Comparison Table

Feature Noun Clause Noun Phrase

Contains
✅ Yes (has a subject & verb) ❌ No (just a noun + modifiers)
Verb?

Starts With? that, what, where, why, Articles, adjectives,

Feature Noun Clause Noun Phrase

how determiners

I don’t know what he

Example She bought a beautiful dress.
wants.

📝 Practice Question
Choose whether the bold part is a Noun Clause or Noun Phrase:
1. What you said was surprising. (?)
2. I like the delicious food. (?)
3. She didn’t understand why he left. (?)
4. The big red car is mine. (?)

1️⃣What you said was surprising. → (Noun Clause ✅)

✔ Why?
 "What you said" contains a subject ("you") and a verb ("said"), so it is a
clause.
 It acts as the subject of the sentence.

2️⃣I like the delicious food. → (Noun Phrase ✅)

✔ Why?
 "The delicious food" contains a noun ("food") and modifiers ("the,
delicious"), but no verb.
 It acts as the object of the sentence.

3️⃣She didn’t understand why he left. → (Noun Clause ✅)

✔ Why?
 "Why he left" contains a subject ("he") and a verb ("left"), so it is a
clause.
 It acts as the object of the verb "understand".
4️⃣The big red car is mine. → (Noun Phrase ✅)
✔ Why?
 "The big red car" contains a noun ("car") and modifiers ("the, big, red"),
but no verb.
 It acts as the subject of the sentence.

💡 Summary

Sentence Answer Why?

Has a subject + verb ("you

What you said was surprising. Noun Clause ✅
said")

Just a noun + modifiers (no

I like the delicious food. Noun Phrase ✅
verb)

She didn’t understand why he Has a subject + verb ("he

Noun Clause ✅
left. left")

Just a noun + modifiers (no

The big red car is mine. Noun Phrase ✅
verb)

2️⃣What is an Adjective Clause?

An Adjective Clause (also called a Relative Clause) is a dependent clause that
functions as an adjective. It modifies (describes) a noun by providing more
information about it.
Since it is a clause, it must have a subject and a verb.
It usually begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) or a
relative adverb (where, when, why).

🔹 Functions of an Adjective Clause

An adjective clause functions like an adjective, meaning it describes a noun by
giving extra details.
 Which one?
 What kind?
 Who?
 Where?
 When?
🔹 Key Features of an Adjective Clause
✅ It contains a subject and a verb.
✅ It describes (modifies) a noun.
✅ It begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) or a
relative adverb (where, when, why).
✅ It is a dependent clause (cannot stand alone).

📝 Examples and Explanations

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "That"
 The book that I borrowed was interesting.
o Explanation: "That I borrowed" describes "the book" (Which book? →
"that I borrowed").
o "that" = relative pronoun

o "I" = subject, "borrowed" = verb

✅ Test: If we remove the adjective clause, the sentence still makes sense:
 The book was interesting.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "Who"

 The girl who sits next to me is my friend.
o Explanation: "Who sits next to me" describes "the girl" (Which girl? →
"who sits next to me").
o "who" = relative pronoun

o "sits" = verb

✅ Test: If we remove the adjective clause, the sentence still makes sense:
 The girl is my friend.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "Whom"

 The teacher whom we respect is retiring.
o Explanation: "Whom we respect" describes "the teacher" (Which
teacher? → "whom we respect").
o "whom" = object of "respect"
 o "we" = subject, "respect" = verb

✅ Test: Without the adjective clause:

 The teacher is retiring.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "Whose"

 The boy whose father is a doctor won the competition.
o Explanation: "Whose father is a doctor" describes "the boy" (Which
boy? → "whose father is a doctor").
o "Whose" shows possession.

✅ Test: Without the adjective clause:

 The boy won the competition.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "Which"

 I bought a car which is very fast.
o Explanation: "Which is very fast" describes "a car" (Which car? →
"which is very fast").
✅ Test: Without the adjective clause:
 I bought a car.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "Where"

 This is the house where I was born.
o Explanation: "Where I was born" describes "the house" (Which house?
→ "where I was born").
o "Where" refers to a place.

✅ Test: Without the adjective clause:

 This is the house.

🔸 Adjective Clause Using "When"

 I remember the day when we met.
o Explanation: "When we met" describes "the day" (Which day? →
"when we met").
 o "When" refers to a time.

✅ Test: Without the adjective clause:

 I remember the day.

🔎 Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause can be restrictive or non-restrictive.

Type Description Example

Restrictive Necessary for the sentence to The book that I borrowed

Clause make sense. No commas. was interesting.

Non-Restrictive My car, which is red, is

Extra information. Use commas.
Clause parked outside.

🔹 Restrictive: The students who study hard pass the exam. (Only those
students pass)
🔹 Non-Restrictive: My brother, who lives in Jakarta, is a doctor. (Extra detail
about my brother)

📝 Practice Questions
Identify the adjective clause in each sentence:
1️⃣The laptop that I bought yesterday is expensive.
2️⃣The woman who called you is my aunt.
3️⃣My uncle, whose house is near the beach, is visiting us.
4️⃣The city where I grew up is very crowded.
5️⃣This is the restaurant which serves the best sushi.
📌 Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause provides additional information about a noun, but it can be
either essential (restrictive) or extra (non-restrictive).

1️⃣Restrictive Adjective Clauses (Essential Information)

A restrictive (or defining) adjective clause is necessary because it identifies or
specifies the noun.
🚫 No commas are used because the information is essential.
📝 Examples:
✅ The students who study hard pass the exam.
 The clause "who study hard" tells us which students.
  If we remove it, the sentence loses meaning.
 Without the clause: The students pass the exam. (Too general!)
✅ The book that I borrowed from the library is very interesting.
 "That I borrowed from the library" tells us which book.
 If we remove it, we don't know which book is interesting.
✅ People who smoke should quit for their health.
 "Who smoke" specifies which people (not all people).

2️⃣Non-Restrictive Adjective Clauses (Extra Information)

A non-restrictive (or non-defining) adjective clause adds extra information that
is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
✅ Commas are required to separate the clause.
📝 Examples:
✅ My brother, who lives in Jakarta, is a doctor.
 "Who lives in Jakarta" is extra information about "my brother".
 If we remove it, the sentence still makes sense: My brother is a doctor.
✅ The Eiffel Tower, which is in Paris, is a famous landmark.
 "Which is in Paris" adds extra information but does not define "The Eiffel
Tower".
 If we remove it, the sentence is still clear: The Eiffel Tower is a famous
landmark.
✅ My car, which is red, is parked outside.
 "Which is red" gives extra information about my car.

🔎 Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive: Key Differences

Non-Restrictive Clause
Feature Restrictive Clause (Essential)
(Extra)

Purpose Identifies or limits the noun Adds extra detail

Commas? 🚫 No commas ✅ Uses commas

Relative
who, that, which who, which
Pronouns
 Non-Restrictive Clause
Feature Restrictive Clause (Essential)
(Extra)

The man who called me is my My uncle, who called me, is

Example
uncle. kind.

Can be ✅ Yes (sentence still makes

🚫 No (sentence loses meaning)
removed? sense)

🔎 "Which" vs. "That" in Restrictive & Non-Restrictive Clauses

 "Which" is used for non-restrictive clauses (with commas).
 "That" is used for restrictive clauses (no commas).
📝 Examples:
✅ Restrictive: The book that I borrowed was amazing. (Which book? The one I
borrowed!)
✅ Non-Restrictive: The book, which I borrowed, was amazing. (Just extra
detail—any book!)

📝 Practice Questions
Decide if the adjective clause is restrictive (essential) or non-restrictive
(extra, needs commas).
1️⃣The car that I bought last year is very fast. (Restrictive or Non-Restrictive?)
2️⃣My best friend, who is from Surabaya, loves to travel. (Restrictive or Non-
Restrictive?)
3️⃣The hotel where we stayed had a great view. (Restrictive or Non-Restrictive?)
4️⃣My laptop, which I use for work, is very expensive. (Restrictive or Non-
Restrictive?)
5️⃣The teacher who teaches English is very strict. (Restrictive or Non-Restrictive?)
Adjective Clauses in TOEFL ITP
1. What is an Adjective Clause?
An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) is a dependent clause that
functions as an adjective to describe a noun or pronoun. It provides additional
information about the noun it modifies.
✅ Example:
👉 The book that I borrowed from the library is very interesting.
(that I borrowed from the library is the adjective clause describing the book.)

2. Structure of Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause consists of:
 A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) OR a relative adverb
(where, when, why).
 A subject and a verb.
✅ Formula:
🔹 Relative Pronoun + Subject + Verb
🔹 Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb
✅ Examples:
👉 The woman who teaches English is very kind.
👉 The car that I bought last week is fast.

3. Types of Adjective Clauses

A. Subject Relative Clauses
In these clauses, the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
✅ Examples:
👉 The boy who sits next to me is my friend.
👉 The car that is parked outside belongs to my brother.
B. Object Relative Clauses
In these clauses, the relative pronoun is the object of the clause.
✅ Examples:
👉 The book that I read was amazing.
👉 The girl whom I met is very nice.
✅ Note: The relative pronoun (that, whom) can sometimes be omitted in object
relative clauses: 👉 The book I read was amazing. ("that" is omitted)
C. Possessive Relative Clauses
These clauses use whose to show possession.
✅ Examples:
👉 The student whose book was lost is looking for it.
👉 The teacher whose lessons are interesting is very popular.
D. Relative Adverbs (Where, When, Why)
Relative adverbs introduce adjective clauses that describe place, time, or reason.
✅ Examples:
👉 This is the school where I studied. ("where" = place) 👉 Do you remember the
day when we first met? ("when" = time) 👉 The reason why I called you is
important. ("why" = reason)
4. Reduced Adjective Clauses
Sometimes, adjective clauses can be reduced to make sentences shorter and more
natural.
✅ Reduction Rules:
1. If the relative pronoun is followed by "be", remove both the relative
pronoun and "be".
o Full: The woman who is sitting over there is my aunt.

o Reduced: The woman sitting over there is my aunt.

2. If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb (without "be"), remove

the relative pronoun and change the verb to its -ing form.
o Full: The book that lies on the table is mine.

o Reduced: The book lying on the table is mine.

5. Common TOEFL ITP Adjective Clause Errors

A. Incorrect Use of Relative Pronouns
❌ The girl which is sitting there is my friend.
✅ Corrected: The girl who is sitting there is my friend. (Use "who" for people,
not "which".)
B. Omitting Necessary Relative Pronouns
❌ The book I borrowed from the library is very interesting.
✅ Corrected: The book that I borrowed from the library is very interesting.
("That" is necessary in formal writing.)
C. Using "That" Instead of "Who" for People
❌ The teacher that teaches English is very kind.
✅ Corrected: The teacher who teaches English is very kind. (Use "who" for
people.)
D. Incorrect Word Order in Adjective Clauses
❌ The place where we went last night it was beautiful.
✅ Corrected: The place where we went last night was beautiful.

6. Practice Exercises
A. Identify the Error
Find and correct the mistake in the following sentences:
1. The man which is standing near the door is my uncle.
2. The city where I born is very large.
3. The movie who we watched last night was interesting.
B. Choose the Correct Answer
1. The woman (A) who, (B) which, (C) whom lives next door is a doctor.
2. The book (A) where, (B) whose, (C) which cover is red is mine.
3. This is the house (A) when, (B) where, (C) that I grew up.

7. Summary of Adjective Clause Rules

Relative
Type Example
Pronoun

People (Subject) who The boy who sits there is my friend.

People (Object) whom The girl whom I met is kind.

Things
that / which The car that is red is mine.
(Subject/Object)

The teacher whose book was lost is

Possession whose
looking for it.

Places where This is the school where I studied.

Time when I remember the day when we met.

Reason why The reason why I called is important.

✅ Mastering adjective clauses will help improve sentence clarity and avoid
common TOEFL errors!