Unit 2

Explain Errors and its types with examples for each. 10 M


errors refer to unintended or undesirable actions or outcomes that
occur during the interaction between users and computer systems.
1. Breifly explain the steps with example for Normans Model
of Interaction 10 M

Norman's Model of Interaction outlines a structured approach to

understanding how users interact with systems.

User Establishes the Goal:

 Users identify what they want to achieve by interacting with
the system. This goal serves as the driving force behind their
actions.
 Example: A user aims to book a flight for an upcoming trip.
2. User Formulates Intention:
 After establishing the goal, the user formulates a plan or
intention regarding how they will achieve it using the system.
This involves mentally mapping out the necessary steps to
reach their objective.
 Example: The user intends to search for available flights,
compare prices, and select the most suitable option.
3. User Specifies Actions at Interface:
 With their intention in mind, the user translates their plan into
specific actions within the system's interface. This step
involves interacting with interface elements to initiate
commands or requests.
 Example: The user navigates to the flight booking section,
enters their departure and destination airports, selects travel
dates, and clicks the search button.
4. User Executes Action:
 In this phase, the user physically performs the actions they've
specified at the interface. This could involve clicking buttons,
entering text, making selections, or any other interaction with
the system.
 Example: The user clicks the "Search" button, prompting the
system to retrieve and display a list of available flights based
on the specified criteria.
5. User Perceives System State:
 After executing the action, the user perceives and observes
the system's response. This includes feedback such as
changes in the interface, notifications, messages, or any other
visual or auditory cues.
 Example: The user sees a list of flight options along with
details such as departure times, airlines, and prices.
6. User Interprets System State:
 Following perception, the user interprets the system's current
state to understand how it aligns with their intended goal and
 expectations. They make sense of the presented information
and assess its relevance.
 Example: The user assesses the flight options based on
factors like price, departure times, airline reputation, and
layover durations.
7. User Evaluates System State with Respect to Goal:
 Finally, the user evaluates whether the system's current state
fulfills their initial goal and requirements. They consider
factors such as suitability, satisfaction, and whether further
actions are needed.
 Example: The user compares the available flights, selects the
most convenient option that meets their criteria, and proceeds
to book the ticket.

Explain different interaction styles a) Menu Selection, b) Direct Manipulation

c) Form Filling D) CLI

a) Menu Selection:
• In menu selection interaction, users navigate through a series of
hierarchical menus to access and select options or commands.
Advantages
• Ideal for novice or intermittent users.
• Can appeal to expert users if display and selection mechanisms are
rapid and if appropriate "shortcuts" are implemented.
• Affords exploration (users can "look around" in the menus for the
appropriate command, unlike having to remember the name of a
command and its spelling when using command language.)
 • Structures decision making.
• Allows easy support of error handling as the user's input does not
have to be parsed (as with command language).

• Disadvantages
• Too many menus may lead to information overload or complexity
of discouraging proportions.
• May be slow for frequent users.
• May not be suited for small graphic displays.

b) Direct Manipulation:
• Direct manipulation interfaces allow users to interact with virtual objects
or elements using intuitive actions such as clicking, dragging, and
dropping.
Direct manipulation systems have the following characteristics:
• Visibility of the object of interest.
• Rapid, reversible, incremental actions.
• Replacement of complex command language syntax by direct
manipulation of the object of interest.
• Advantages
• Visually presents task concepts.
• Easy to learn.
• Errors can be avoided more easily.
 • Encourages exploration.
• High subjective satisfaction.
• Recognition memory (as opposed to cued or free recall memory)

• Disadvantages
• May be more difficult to programme.
• Not suitable for small graphic displays.
• Spatial and visual representation is not always preferable.
• Metaphors can be misleading since the “the essence of metaphor
is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of
another” (Lakoff and Johnson 1983: p. 5), which, by definition,
makes a metaphor different from what it represents or points to.
• Compact notations may better suit expert users.

C) Form Filling:

• Form filling involves users entering data into predefined fields or form
elements to complete tasks such as registration, data entry, or
submission.
Advantages
• Simplifies data entry.
• Shortens learning in that the fields are predefined and need only
be 'recognised'.
• Guides the user via the predefined rules.

• fast for specific types of data

• all information is visible
• Disadvantages
 • Consumes screen space.
• Usually sets the scene for rigid formalisation of the business
processes

• consumes screen space

• requires typing skills

d) Command Line Interface (CLI):

• CLI allows users to interact with the system by typing commands into a
text-based interface.
Advantages
• Flexible.
• Appeals to expert users.
• Supports creation of user-defined "scripts" or macros.
• Is suitable for interacting with networked computers even with
low bandwidth.
•
Disadvantages
• Retention of commands is generally very poor.
• Learnability of commands is very poor.
• Error rates are high.
• Error messages and assistance are hard to provide because of the
diversity of possibilities plus the complexity of mapping from tasks
to interface concepts and syntax.
• Not suitable for non-expert users.
Breifly Explain Human Computer Interaction and Explain the
importance of Human Input and Output Channels. 10M

HCI (Human-Computer Interaction):

1. HCI refers to the interdisciplinary field concerned with the design,

evaluation, and implementation of interactive computing systems.
2. It focuses on studying how users interact with computers and how
to design interfaces that are intuitive, efficient, and user-friendly.
3. HCI aims to improve the usability, accessibility, and overall user
experience of computer systems and applications.
4. It encompasses aspects of psychology, design, computer science,
human factors, and other fields to create effective human-computer
interfaces.

Input Channels:

1. Sight:
 Sight is one of the primary input channels for HCI. Users
perceive graphical interfaces, text, icons, images, and other
visual elements presented on computer screens.
 Importance: Visual input allows users to navigate interfaces,
interpret information, and interact with digital content
effectively.
2. Hearing:
 Hearing enables users to receive auditory feedback, such as
system notifications, alerts, audio prompts, and multimedia
content.
 Importance: Auditory input enhances user engagement,
provides feedback on system events, and supports
accessibility for users with visual impairments.
3. Touch:
 Touch input involves tactile interactions with touchscreens,
trackpads, buttons, sliders, and other physical controls.
 Importance: Touch enables direct manipulation of objects,
gestures, and controls, enhancing the intuitiveness and
responsiveness of user interfaces.
4. Taste and Smell:
 While taste and smell are not commonly utilized in HCI due to
technological limitations, they may have applications in
specialized contexts such as virtual reality simulations or
sensory feedback systems.

Output Channels:
 1. Limbs:
 Limbs, including fingers, hands, arms, and legs, are output
channels through which users interact with physical input
devices and manipulate objects in the environment.
 Importance: Limb movements translate user intentions into
actions, facilitating direct manipulation and control of digital
interfaces.
2. Fingers:
 Fingers play a crucial role in interacting with touchscreens,
keyboards, mice, and other input devices to navigate
interfaces, input text, and perform gestures.
 Importance: Precise finger movements enable accurate and
efficient interaction with digital content, enhancing user
productivity and satisfaction.
3. Eyes:
 Eyes receive visual output presented on computer screens,
including text, graphics, animations, videos, and interface
elements.
 Importance: Visual feedback from the eyes guides users'
attention, provides context, and conveys information,
supporting comprehension and task completion.
4. Head:
 Head movements may be used in specialized HCI applications,
such as virtual reality systems or head-controlled interfaces,
to manipulate viewpoints, navigate environments, or trigger
actions.
5. Vocal System:
 The vocal system enables users to produce spoken
commands, interact with voice-controlled interfaces, and
engage in communication with virtual assistants and speech
recognition systems.
 Importance: Voice output channels offer hands-free
interaction, support accessibility for users with mobility
impairments, and enhance natural language communication
with computers.

Brief the importance of ergonomics and usability in

User Interface 10M
Ergonomics and usability play crucial roles in Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI) by enhancing user experience, productivity, and overall
satisfaction. Here's how they are important:
1. Ergonomics:
 Ergonomics focuses on designing products and systems to
optimize human well-being and performance. In HCI,
ergonomic principles ensure that user interfaces are
comfortable, safe, and efficient to use.
 Importance in HCI:
 Physical comfort: Ergonomic design minimizes physical
strain and discomfort during prolonged use of computer
systems, reducing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
 Accessibility: Ergonomic considerations accommodate
users with diverse physical abilities, ensuring that
interfaces are accessible and usable for everyone.
 Productivity and performance: Ergonomically designed
interfaces promote user efficiency and effectiveness by
reducing fatigue and errors, ultimately enhancing
productivity.
 User satisfaction: Comfortable and user-friendly
interfaces contribute to positive user experiences,
fostering satisfaction and engagement with technology.
2. Usability:
 Usability refers to the ease of use and effectiveness of a
system or interface in helping users achieve their goals.
Usability principles guide the design and evaluation of
interfaces to maximize user satisfaction and task
performance.
 Importance in HCI:
 User-centered design: Usability places users at the
center of interface design, ensuring that systems are
intuitive, efficient, and aligned with user needs and
expectations.
 Learnability: Usable interfaces are easy to learn and
navigate, reducing the time and effort required for users
to become proficient with the system.
 Error reduction: Usability techniques aim to minimize
user errors by providing clear feedback, intuitive
controls, and error-prevention mechanisms, enhancing
user confidence and trust in the system.
 Task efficiency: Usable interfaces streamline user
interactions and workflows, enabling users to
accomplish tasks more quickly and effectively.
 Accessibility: Usability principles promote accessibility
by designing interfaces that are perceivable, operable,
and understandable for users with diverse abilities and
disabilities.
Define HCI? Define Human, Computer AND Interaction and their limitations.
Rubrics: Definition 2 marks, Limitation of each 8 marks. 10M
• **HCI (Human-Computer Interaction):**
• 1. HCI refers to the interdisciplinary field concerned with the design,
evaluation, and implementation of interactive computing systems.
• 2. It focuses on studying how users interact with computers and how to
design interfaces that are intuitive, efficient, and user-friendly.
• 3. HCI aims to improve the usability, accessibility, and overall user experience
of computer systems and applications.
• 4. It encompasses aspects of psychology, design, computer science, human
factors, and other fields to create effective human-computer interfaces.
•
• **Human:**
• 1. In HCI, "human" refers to the user or users who interact with computer
systems.
• 2. Humans have varying cognitive, physical, and emotional capabilities and
limitations.
• 3. Understanding human behaviors, preferences, and limitations is essential
for designing interfaces that meet users' needs.
• 4. Humans bring diversity in terms of cultural backgrounds, language
proficiency, age, abilities, and disabilities, which must be considered in
interface design.
•
• **Computer:**
• 1. In the context of HCI, "computer" refers to the hardware and software
components of computing systems.
• 2. This includes devices such as desktop computers, laptops, smartphones,
tablets, and wearable devices.
• 3. Computers run operating systems, applications, and software programs
that users interact with.
• 4. The capabilities and limitations of computer hardware and software
influence the design and functionality of human-computer interfaces.
•
• **Interaction:**
• 1. "Interaction" in HCI involves the exchange of information between humans
and computers.
• 2. It includes the actions users take to input commands or data into the
computer system and the responses provided by the computer.
• 3. Interaction can occur through various means, such as touch, gestures, voice
commands, mouse clicks, and keystrokes.
• 4. Effective interaction design aims to make the exchange of information
between humans and computers seamless, efficient, and intuitive.
•
• **Limitations:**
• 1. Physical Limitations:
• - Users may have physical disabilities or injuries that affect their ability to
interact with traditional input devices.
• - Designing interfaces that accommodate diverse physical abilities can be
challenging.
• 2. Cognitive Limitations:
• - Users vary in cognitive abilities such as attention span, memory, and
problem-solving skills.
• - Interfaces must consider cognitive limitations to ensure ease of
understanding and use.
• 3. Technological Limitations:
• - The capabilities of computer hardware and software can impact interface
design.
• - Factors like processing speed, memory, and network connectivity influence
system performance and usability.
• 4. Social and Cultural Factors:
• - Societal norms and cultural preferences affect how people interact with
computers.
• - Interfaces should be sensitive to social and cultural differences to ensure
inclusivity.
• 5. Ethical Considerations:
• - HCI designers must address ethical issues such as privacy, security, and
accessibility.
• - Balancing innovation with ethical responsibilities is crucial in HCI design.
Human is intelligent. Discuss Human Processor Model Rubrics:
Overall breifing of Understanding of model 4 marks, Discussion of 3
major subsystem 3*2 = 6 marks 10M
 It is a simplified view of human processing involved in
interacting with computing systems

1. Sensory Input: Information is received through sensory organs like

eyes and ears.
 2. Perception and Attention: Selected sensory data is processed
and attended to.
3. Short-Term Memory (STM): Information is temporarily stored and
manipulated for immediate use.
4. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Information is encoded and stored for
long-term retention and retrieval.

This model simplifies human information processing but lacks intricacies

like emotions and social factors, limiting its comprehensiveness.

Model consists of three subsystems-

1. Perceptual
2. Motor
3.Cognitive
Perceptual Subsystem:

 Receives, interprets, and organizes sensory information.

 Involves sensory organs like eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue.
 Helps individuals understand surroundings, recognize patterns, and
distinguish stimuli.
 Filters and processes incoming sensory data for further analysis.

Motor Subsystem:

 Executes physical actions and responses based on processed

sensory information.
 Involves muscles, nerves, and brain motor control centers.
 Translates cognitive intentions into physical actions.
 Facilitates voluntary and involuntary movements, including fine and
gross motor skills.

Cognitive Subsystem:
 Manages higher-level mental processes like perception, memory,
attention, reasoning, and decision-making.
 Includes functions such as attention, memory encoding, information
processing, and executive functions.
 Enables interpretation, analysis, judgment, and adaptation to
internal and external stimuli.
 Crucial for learning, problem-solving, planning, and adapting to
environments.
With the help of Norman's Model of Interaction, Design an Interaction Steps
for " Inserting an Image in Word file". Rubrics: Correct Steps of Normans
Model 5 marks Application of Normans model for desinging an interaction 5
marks 10M
 Norman's Model of Interaction outlines a structured approach to
understanding how users interact with systems.

User Establishes the Goal:

 Users identify what they want to achieve by interacting with
the system. This goal serves as the driving force behind their
actions.
 Example: A user aims to book a flight for an upcoming trip.
8. User Formulates Intention:
 After establishing the goal, the user formulates a plan or
intention regarding how they will achieve it using the system.
This involves mentally mapping out the necessary steps to
reach their objective.
 Example: The user intends to search for available flights,
compare prices, and select the most suitable option.
9. User Specifies Actions at Interface:
 With their intention in mind, the user translates their plan into
specific actions within the system's interface. This step
involves interacting with interface elements to initiate
commands or requests.
 Example: The user navigates to the flight booking section,
enters their departure and destination airports, selects travel
dates, and clicks the search button.
10. User Executes Action:
 In this phase, the user physically performs the actions they've
specified at the interface. This could involve clicking buttons,
entering text, making selections, or any other interaction with
the system.
 Example: The user clicks the "Search" button, prompting the
system to retrieve and display a list of available flights based
on the specified criteria.
11. User Perceives System State:
 After executing the action, the user perceives and observes
the system's response. This includes feedback such as
changes in the interface, notifications, messages, or any other
visual or auditory cues.
 Example: The user sees a list of flight options along with
details such as departure times, airlines, and prices.
12. User Interprets System State:
 Following perception, the user interprets the system's current
state to understand how it aligns with their intended goal and
expectations. They make sense of the presented information
and assess its relevance.
 Example: The user assesses the flight options based on
factors like price, departure times, airline reputation, and
layover durations.
13. User Evaluates System State with Respect to Goal:
  Finally, the user evaluates whether the system's current state
fulfills their initial goal and requirements. They consider
factors such as suitability, satisfaction, and whether further
actions are needed.
 Example: The user compares the available flights, selects the
most convenient option that meets their criteria, and proceeds
to book the ticket.
Here's how we can design the interaction steps for "Inserting an Image in
a Word file" using Norman's Model of Interaction:

1. User Establishes the Goal:

 The user wants to enhance the visual appeal of their
document by inserting an image.
2. User Formulates Intention:
 The user intends to locate the appropriate menu or tool to
insert an image into their Word document.
3. User Specifies Actions at Interface:
 The user navigates to the "Insert" tab on the Word toolbar, as
this is typically where image insertion options are located.
 Alternatively, the user may right-click within the document
and select the "Insert" option from the context menu.
4. User Executes Action:
 Once on the "Insert" tab, the user clicks on the "Pictures" or
"Image" button, depending on the Word version.
 A dialog box opens, allowing the user to browse and select the
image file they want to insert.
 After selecting the image file, the user clicks the "Insert"
button.
5. User Perceives System State:
 The system processes the user's action and inserts the
selected image into the Word document at the cursor's
location.
 The user perceives the visual change in the document as the
image appears on the page.
6. User Interprets System State:
 The user interprets the appearance and placement of the
inserted image within the document.
 They may verify if the image is positioned correctly and if it
aligns with their intended layout.
7. User Evaluates System State with Respect to Goal:
 The user evaluates whether the inserted image meets their
goal of enhancing the visual appeal of the document.
 They may assess factors such as image quality, size,
placement, and overall document aesthetics.
 If satisfied, the user continues with their document editing
tasks; otherwise, they may adjust the image properties or
layout as needed.
Application of Norman's Model:

 Norman's Model helps structure the interaction design process by

emphasizing user goals, intentions, actions, and feedback.
 By following the model, we ensure that users can navigate the Word
interface effectively to achieve their goal of inserting an image.
 The model guides the user through a logical sequence of steps, from
goal establishment to evaluation, promoting a user-centered
approach to interaction design.
 It highlights the importance of user feedback and system response
in facilitating successful interactions and achieving user satisfaction.

With an example for each explain the importance of a) Gulf of Execution, b)

Gulf of Evaluation. RUbrics: Examples of each 2.5 * 2 = 5 marks Definitions of
each 2.5 * 2 = 5 marks 10 M
a.Gulf of Execution
user’s formulation of actions
≠ actions allowed by the system

Gulf of execution is the degree of ease with which a user can

understand the current state of a system. It is the difference
between the intentions of the users and what the system allows
them to do or how well the system supports those actions”

b. Gulf of Evaluation
user’s expectation of changed system state
≠ actual presentation of this state
Gulf of evaluation is the degree of ease with which a user can
perceive and interpret whether or not the action they performed
was successful. This gulf is small when the system provides
information about its state in a form that is easy to receive,
interpret, and matches the way the person thinks of the system.

Gulf of Execution Example:

 Suppose you're designing a smartphone app for ordering food
online. If the app's interface is cluttered with too many options and
lacks clear navigation, users may struggle to find the "Order Now"
button. This gap between users' goal (ordering food) and the
available actions (finding the order button) represents the Gulf of
Execution. By simplifying the interface and prominently displaying
the order button, you can minimize the Gulf of Execution, making it
easier for users to achieve their goal of placing an order.

OR
For example, a person can look at a light switch and easily tell
what the current state of the system is (i.e., whether the light is
on or off) and how to operate the switch. This means that the gulf
of execution is small. Norman states that, in order to design the
best interfaces, the gulf must be kept as small as possible.

Gulf of Evaluation Example:

Example: Consider a website where users submit a form, but upon submission,
they receive a generic error message without clear instructions on how to correct
the mistake. In this case, the gulf of evaluation exists because users struggle to
understand the error message and its implications.

Or
Example: Imagine a smart home system with voice control features. A
user wants to turn on the lights in the living room by issuing a voice
command to the smart assistant. However, after issuing the command,
the smart assistant responds with a generic acknowledgment sound, but
the lights remain off.

In this scenario:

 Gulf of Execution: The user's goal is to turn on the lights using voice
commands, but the system lacks clear feedback on whether the
command was understood and executed successfully. The gap
exists between the user's intention and the system's response to
the command.
 Gulf of Evaluation: The user receives ambiguous feedback from the
system (acknowledgment sound), but there is no clear indication of
whether the lights have been turned on. The gap exists between the
system's output (acknowledgment sound) and the user's
understanding of whether the lights have been activated.

To bridge the Gulf of Evaluation in this example, the smart home system
could provide clear and informative feedback confirming the successful
execution of the user's command. For instance, the smart assistant could
respond with a verbal confirmation such as, "Lights in the living room are
now turned on," or provide visual feedback on a display indicating the
status of the lights. By closing this gap, users can better understand and
interpret the system's response, leading to a more seamless and intuitive
user experience.

Briefly Describe the three pillars of Deisgn for successful design of User
Interfaces Rubrics:Listing 1 marks, pillars breif 3 * 3 = 9 marks
User Interface Requirements:

 Functional and non-functional specifications for meeting user needs

and system objectives.
 Gathered through research, interviews, and analysis.
 Includes navigation, input methods, presentation, and performance.
  Documented comprehensively to guide design and development
effectively.

Guidelines Documents and Process:

 Provide recommendations and standards for interface design.

 Cover layout, typography, color, accessibility, etc.
 Based on research and usability principles.
 Followed iteratively throughout the design process for consistency
and quality.

User Interface Software Tools:

 Facilitate creation, prototyping, and testing of interfaces.

 Include graphic design, wireframing, and prototyping tools.
 Examples: Adobe XD, Sketch, Figma.
 Offer features like drag-and-drop, collaboration, and usability
testing.

Expert Reviews and Usability Testing:

 Evaluation by usability experts and actual users.

 Identifies usability issues and gathers feedback.
 Methods include think-aloud, task scenarios, surveys.
 Integral for iterative improvement of interface design.

 Principles of Good Design

 Principles of learnability
 Principles of flexibility
 Principles of Robustness
 List and discuss principles of flexibility. Rubrics: Only Listing 2 marks, Detailed
explaination of minimum 4 principles 4*2 = 8 marks

1. Dialogue Initiative:
a. Dialogue initiative refers to the ability of the user to control the
interaction with the system..
b. systems should allow users to initiate and guide interactions based
on their preferences and needs..
c. Emphasizes autonomy and empowerment.
d. Design supports clear navigation and customization.
2. Multithreading:
a. Multithreading involves supporting concurrent execution of multiple
tasks or processes within the interface.
b. multithreading enables users to perform several actions
simultaneously or switch between tasks seamlessly. .
c. Recognizes user multitasking needs.
d. Design includes features like tabbed browsing or split-screen
views.
3. Task Migratability:
a. Task migratability refers to the ability to transfer tasks or work
contexts between different devices or environments.
b. users may switch between devices (e.g., from desktop to mobile) or
locations while performing tasks, and interfaces should support this
seamless transition.
c. Supports seamless transitions between platforms.
d. Design includes cross-device compatibility and responsive
layout.
4. Substitutivity:
a. Substitutivity involves providing alternative methods or
representations for accomplishing tasks within the interface.
b. Offers customization options.
c. Supports various input methods.
d. Design includes customizable settings and alternative input
options.
5. Customizability:

a) Customizability refers to the ability of users to personalize the interface

according to their preferences and requirements.
b) Interfaces offer options for customization.
c) Acknowledges diverse user needs and preferences.
d) Design includes configurable settings, themes, layouts, and
personalized dashboards.
e) Empowers users to tailor the interface to their workflow and usage
patterns.

List and discuss principles of learnability. Rubrics: Only Listing 2 marks,

Detailed explaination of minimum 4 principles 4*2 = 8 marks
1. Predictability:
 Predictability refers to the ability of users to anticipate the
system's behavior based on previous interactions.
 Users should be able to predict the outcome of their actions
within the interface.
 Design elements should behave in a consistent manner to
enhance predictability.
 Providing feedback and visual cues can help users anticipate
system responses.
2. Synthesizability:
 Synthesizability involves the ease with which users can
understand and integrate new information into their mental
models of the system.
 Users should be able to comprehend how different elements
of the interface relate to each other.
 Design should present information in a clear and structured
manner to facilitate understanding and synthesis.
 Visual hierarchy, grouping related elements, and providing
contextual help can aid in synthesizability.
3. Familiarity:
 Familiarity refers to the degree to which the interface
resembles existing systems or conventions that users are
already familiar with.
 Leveraging existing design patterns and conventions can
enhance familiarity and reduce the learning curve.
 Design should align with users' mental models and
expectations to promote ease of use.
 Providing consistent terminology and interaction patterns
reinforces familiarity.
4. Generalizability:
 Generalizability involves the ability of users to apply
knowledge gained from using one part of the interface to
other parts or similar contexts.
  Users should be able to transfer learned skills and knowledge
across different tasks or functionalities.
 Design should maintain consistency in design elements and
interaction patterns across the interface.
 Providing clear affordances and consistent navigation aids in
generalizability.
5. Consistency:
 Consistency emphasizes uniformity and coherence in design
elements and interaction patterns throughout the interface.
 Users should encounter consistent terminology, layout, and
behavior across different parts of the system.
 Design consistency reduces cognitive load and facilitates
learning by establishing patterns that users can rely on.
 Using a style guide, design system, or pattern library helps
maintain consistency in interface design.

List and discuss principles of Robustness. Rubrics: Only Listing 2 marks,

Detailed explaination of minimum 4 principles 4*2 = 8 marks

1. Observability:
 Observability refers to the system's ability to provide clear
and informative feedback to users about its internal state and
ongoing processes.
 In HCI, observability ensures that users can easily understand
what the system is doing and why.
 Robust interfaces should offer visible indicators, progress
bars, status messages, or other feedback mechanisms to keep
users informed about the system's operations.
 Designing interfaces with intuitive feedback enhances user
confidence and reduces uncertainty, especially during
complex or time-consuming tasks.
2. Recoverability:
 Recoverability involves the system's ability to recover
gracefully from errors, failures, or user mistakes without losing
data or causing user frustration.
 In HCI, recoverability is essential for maintaining user trust
and satisfaction, especially in critical or high-stakes
applications.
 Robust interfaces should provide mechanisms for error
detection, error correction, and data recovery to minimize the
impact of failures.
 Designing interfaces with undo functionality, automatic
saving, and error handling prompts helps users recover from
mistakes and continue their tasks with minimal disruption.
3. Responsiveness:
  Responsiveness refers to the system's ability to provide timely
and accurate responses to user input or requests.
 In HCI, responsiveness is crucial for maintaining user
engagement and flow during interactions with the system.
 Robust interfaces should prioritize responsiveness by
minimizing latency, processing delays, and waiting times.
 Designing interfaces with efficient algorithms, optimized code,
and responsive UI components ensures smooth and fluid
interactions, enhancing user satisfaction and productivity.
4. Task Conformance:
 Task conformance involves the system's ability to perform
tasks accurately and consistently according to users'
expectations and requirements.
 In HCI, task conformance ensures that users can achieve their
goals effectively and efficiently without encountering
unexpected behavior or errors.
 Robust interfaces should conform to users' mental models,
task workflows, and established conventions to facilitate task
completion.
 Designing interfaces with clear affordances, logical workflows,
and intuitive navigation supports task conformance, reducing
user errors and cognitive load.

By incorporating these principles of robustness into interface design, HCI

practitioners can create systems that are reliable, resilient, and user-
friendly, ultimately enhancing user satisfaction and overall system
performance.

List & explain Neilsen's 10 heuristics. Rubrucs: 10 points with explaination 10

marks
1. Visibility of system status:
 Users should always be informed about what is happening
within the system through appropriate feedback. This includes
providing feedback for completed actions, ongoing processes,
and error messages.
2. Match between system and the real world:
 The system's language, concepts, and workflows should
match the user's mental model and real-world expectations.
Users should be able to understand and interpret the system's
functions easily.
3. User control and freedom:
  Users should have the freedom to navigate through the
system without feeling trapped or constrained. Providing
undo, redo, and cancel options empower users to correct
mistakes and backtrack as needed.
4. Consistency and standards:
 Interfaces should follow consistent design patterns and adhere
to established conventions. Consistency in layout,
terminology, and functionality across the system enhances
predictability and reduces cognitive load for users.
5. Error prevention:
 Systems should be designed to prevent errors whenever
possible. This involves anticipating user mistakes and
providing safeguards such as confirmation dialogs,
constraints, and clear instructions to minimize errors.
6. Recognition rather than recall:
 Interfaces should be designed to minimize the user's memory
load. Providing visible cues, prompts, and labels that help
users recognize available options rather than relying on
memory improves usability.
7. Flexibility and efficiency of use:
 Interfaces should cater to both novice and experienced users
by offering shortcuts, accelerators, and customization options.
Experienced users should be able to perform tasks more
efficiently without hindering the experience for novices.
8. Aesthetic and minimalist design:
 Interfaces should maintain a clean and minimalist design
aesthetic, presenting only essential information and controls.
Clutter-free interfaces reduce cognitive overload and enhance
user focus and comprehension.
9. Help users recognize, diagnose, and recover from errors:
 Error messages should be expressed in plain language,
precisely indicate the problem, and suggest constructive
solutions. Providing clear and actionable error feedback helps
users understand and resolve issues effectively.
10. Help and documentation:
 Interfaces should include comprehensive help resources and
documentation to support users in understanding the system's
features and functionalities. Accessible help content, tutorials,
and FAQs aid users in troubleshooting problems and learning
how to use the system effectively.

Explain Importance of a) Online Help, b) Tutorials c) Error Messages d)

Warning Messages e) Groupwares in HCI Rubrics: 2 marks each
a) Online Help:
  Online help provides users with immediate assistance and guidance
while they are interacting with a software application.
 It is important in HCI as it offers users a way to quickly find answers
to their questions or solutions to problems they encounter during
their interaction with the interface.
 Online help enhances usability by reducing the need for users to
search external sources for assistance, thus improving their overall
experience and productivity.

b) Tutorials:

 Tutorials offer step-by-step instructions or demonstrations to help

users learn how to use a software application effectively.
 They are crucial in HCI as they provide users with structured
guidance on how to navigate through the interface, perform tasks,
and utilize features.
 Tutorials contribute to the learnability of the interface by providing
users with the necessary knowledge and skills to become proficient
users.

c) Error Messages:

 Error messages inform users about issues or problems that have

occurred during their interaction with the interface.
 They are essential in HCI as they help users recognize, diagnose,
and recover from errors effectively.
 Well-designed error messages provide clear and concise information
about the problem and offer guidance on how to resolve it, thereby
minimizing user frustration and improving usability.

d) Warning Messages:

 Warning messages alert users about potential risks or consequences

associated with their actions within the interface.
 They are important in HCI as they help users make informed
decisions and avoid unintended outcomes.
 Warning messages enhance safety and prevent users from taking
actions that may lead to data loss, system crashes, or other
undesirable consequences, thereby contributing to the overall
usability and user satisfaction.

e) Groupwares:

 Groupwares are software applications designed to support

collaboration and communication among users working together on
common tasks or projects.
  They are significant in HCI as they facilitate social interaction,
coordination, and cooperation among users, especially in distributed
or remote settings.
 Groupwares improve productivity and efficiency by enabling users
to share resources, exchange information, and collaborate in real-
time, thus enhancing the overall usability and effectiveness of
collaborative work environments.

Illustrate the limitations of Interative Performance 10 M

1. Computational Bound
2. Storage channel bound
3. Graphics bound
4. Network bound
1. Computational Bound:
a. This limitation arises when the computational resources of the
system, such as CPU processing power or memory, become
the bottleneck for interactive performance.
b. Examples include complex calculations or algorithms that
require significant processing time, leading to delays in
system response to user inputs.
c. Solutions may involve optimizing algorithms, improving code
efficiency, or upgrading hardware components to handle
computational tasks more efficiently.
2. Storage Channel Bound:
a. This limitation occurs when the speed or capacity of storage
channels, such as hard drives or solid-state drives (SSDs),
restricts the system's ability to retrieve or store data quickly.
b. For interactive applications, slow storage access can result in
delays in loading or saving user data, impacting
responsiveness.
c. Addressing this limitation may involve upgrading to faster
storage technologies, optimizing data storage and retrieval
methods, or implementing caching mechanisms to reduce disk
access times.
3. Graphics Bound:
a. Graphics-bound limitations occur when rendering complex
graphics or visual elements strains the system's graphics
processing unit (GPU) or graphics memory.
b. Interactive applications with high-resolution graphics,
intensive animations, or 3D rendering may experience
slowdowns or frame rate drops due to graphics bottlenecks.
 c. Solutions may include optimizing graphics rendering pipelines,
reducing the complexity of visual effects, or upgrading GPU
hardware to better handle graphical workloads.
4. Network Bound:
a. Network-bound limitations arise when the performance of the
network connection, such as bandwidth or latency, constrains
the transfer of data between client and server or between
peers in a networked application.
b. Interactive applications that rely on real-time data exchange,
multiplayer gaming, or video streaming may suffer from lag or
buffering due to network bottlenecks.
c. Mitigating this limitation involves optimizing network
protocols, reducing data transfer overhead, or using content
delivery networks (CDNs) to improve data distribution
efficiency.

Each of these limitations can impact interactive performance in different

ways, and addressing them requires specific strategies tailored to the
underlying bottleneck. By identifying and mitigating these limitations,
developers can optimize interactive applications to deliver a smoother and
more responsive user experience.

Explain Fitts' Law ? Discuss the significance of Fitts' Law for the
operator working with interface at biiling counter of D-Mart shopping
mall. 10M
OR
Explain Fitts' Law ? Discuss the significance of Fitts' Law for the
operator working with interface at biiling counter of BigBazar-
shopping mall.

Fitts' law states that the amount of time required for a

person to move a pointer (e.g., mouse cursor) to a target area
is a function of the distance to the target divided by the size of
the target.

MT=a+b⋅log2(D/W+1)

Where:

 MT is the movement time required to reach the target.

 D is the distance to the target.
 W is the width of the target.
 a and b are empirically determined constants.

According to Fitts' Law, the time to move to a target increases as the

distance to the target increases and decreases as the size of the target
increases.

In the context of a billing counter at BigBazar, where operators work with

interfaces to process transactions, Fitts' Law holds significant relevance:

1. Efficiency of Target Selection: The law suggests that larger and

closer targets are easier and quicker to select. In the billing
interface, buttons or interactive elements such as item icons,
payment options, or discount buttons can be designed larger and
placed strategically closer to the operator, reducing the time
required to navigate and select options during the billing process.
2. Reduced Errors: By applying Fitts' Law, designers can minimize
the chances of selection errors. Enlarging interactive elements and
spacing them appropriately can help operators accurately select the
intended options, reducing instances of mis-taps or misclicks, which
can streamline the billing process and enhance overall efficiency.
3. Speed and Accuracy: Fitts' Law emphasizes the trade-off between
speed and accuracy in target selection. Designing interfaces with
well-sized and properly spaced targets can help operators achieve a
balance between fast transaction processing and accurate selection
of options, ultimately improving their performance at the billing
counter.
4. Ergonomics and Comfort: Considering the repetitive nature of
tasks at a billing counter, adhering to Fitts' Law in interface design
can contribute to ergonomic comfort for operators. Well-designed
interfaces with optimized target sizes and distances can reduce
strain and fatigue associated with frequent interactions, promoting
operator well-being and productivity.

In summary, Fitts' Law offers valuable insights for optimizing interface

design at the billing counters of BigBazar shopping malls.
Outline Four Ergonomics aspects
Introduction to Ergonomics:

1. Ergonomics, also known as human factors, enhances user

performance by studying human interaction with systems.
2. It's closely related to human-computer interaction (HCI) and
incorporates aspects of human psychology.

Arrangement of Controls and Displays:

1. Functional Grouping:
 Arrange controls with similar functions together.
 Enhances rapid access and usability.
2. Sequential Order:
 Organize controls in the order of task sequence.
 Prevents user distraction and errors.
3. Frequency-Based Arrangement:
 Place frequently used controls in easily accessible
locations.
 Improves efficiency and user experience.

Use of Colors:

1. Distinctiveness of Colors:
 Colors should be easily distinguishable.
2. Unaffected by Changing Contrast:
 Maintain color clarity in different contrast settings.
3. Conventions of Color Usage:
 Follow color conventions for indicating actions (e.g., red
for warnings).

Physical Environment Considerations:

1. Accessibility for Users:

 Controls should be accessible to users of all sizes.
2. Environmental Context:
 Consider distraction levels in public vs. personal
environments.
3. Seating Comfort:
 Provide comfortable seating, especially for prolonged
computer use.

Health Issues:
 1. Physical Position:
 Ensure interactions are not tiring and controls are
easily accessible.
2. Temperature:
 Maintain comfortable temperature levels for user
performance.
3. Lighting:
 Adequate lighting to prevent discomfort and eye strain.
4. Interaction Time:
 Limit prolonged interaction time to prevent
overexposure to displays.
5. Noise Levels:
 Maintain appropriate noise levels to avoid disturbance
and hearing loss.

Summerize the Usability Matrics for ISO 9241

The usability metrics outlined in ISO 9241 provide a comprehensive

framework for evaluating and measuring the usability of interactive
systems. Here's a summary:

1. Effectiveness: Measures the accuracy and completeness with

which users achieve specified goals. It assesses how well users can
accomplish tasks using the system.
2. Efficiency: Evaluates the resources expended in relation to the
accuracy and completeness of goals achieved. It assesses the speed
and ease with which users can complete tasks.
3. Satisfaction: Measures the user's subjective perception of using
the system, including aspects such as comfort, enjoyment, and
overall satisfaction with the user experience.
4. Learnability: Assesses how easy it is for users to learn how to use
the system, including the time and effort required to acquire new
skills and knowledge.
5. Memorability: Evaluates how well users can remember how to use
the system after a period of non-use. It assesses the system's ease
of recall and relearning.
 6. Error Frequency and Severity: Measures the frequency and
severity of errors made by users while interacting with the system.
It assesses the system's ability to prevent errors and recover from
them.
7. Subjective Workload: Assesses the perceived mental and physical
workload experienced by users while using the system. It measures
the cognitive and physical demands imposed by the system.
8. Accessibility: Evaluates the extent to which the system can be
accessed and used by users with diverse abilities and disabilities. It
assesses the system's inclusivity and accommodation of diverse
user needs.

Explain Screen Design Principles with Example. (each point such as grouping
of items, order of items, decoration, alignment of items, white spaces; carries
2 marks)

Screen design principles are essential for creating user interfaces that are
intuitive, visually appealing, and easy to navigate. Let's delve into each
principle along with examples:

1. Grouping of Items:
 Grouping related items together improves visual organization
and helps users quickly identify and locate information.
 Example: In an e-commerce app, grouping product details
such as name, price, and description together in a card layout
enhances readability and makes it easier for users to compare
products.
2. Order of Items:
 Presenting information in a logical sequence or order guides
users through the interface and facilitates task completion.
 Example: In a registration form, arranging fields such as
name, email, and password in a top-to-bottom sequence
follows a natural flow of information input.
3. Decoration:
  Use of visual elements such as icons, colors, and imagery can
enhance the aesthetic appeal and convey meaning or
importance.
 Example: Using a vibrant color scheme and icons to highlight
primary action buttons like "Submit" or "Checkout" draws
users' attention and prompts interaction.
4. Alignment of Items:
 Consistent alignment of elements creates a sense of order and
professionalism, improving readability and visual appeal.
 Example: Aligning text labels and input fields in a form
ensures a neat and organized layout, reducing cognitive load
for users.
5. White Spaces:
 Incorporating ample white space around elements provides
breathing room, improves readability, and directs users' focus.
 Example: In a news article layout, generous white space
between paragraphs and sections enhances readability and
prevents information overload.

By applying these screen design principles effectively, designers can

create user interfaces that are visually appealing, easy to navigate, and
optimized for user engagement and satisfaction.

List the 8-golden rules of interface design. Summerize any four with
appropriate example. (Writing 8-golden rules- 2 marks and summerising each
rule- 2 marks)

the list of the rules:

1. Strive for Consistency

2. Enable Frequent Users to Use Shortcuts
3. Offer Informative Feedback
4. Design Dialogues to Yield Closure
5. Offer Error Prevention and Simple Error Handling
6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions
7. Support Internal Locus of Control
8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load

The 8 golden rules of interface design, as proposed by Ben Shneiderman,

provide guiding principles for creating effective and user-friendly
interfaces:

1. Strive for Consistency:

 Maintain consistency in design elements, terminology, and
layout throughout the interface.
  Example: In a word processing software, ensuring that the
"Save" function is always represented by the same icon or
menu option across all screens maintains consistency and
helps users quickly locate the desired action.
2. Enable Regular Users to Use Shortcuts:
 Provide shortcuts and accelerators to facilitate efficient
interaction for experienced users.
 Example: In a photo editing app, allowing users to apply
common filters or adjustments using keyboard shortcuts (e.g.,
Ctrl + C for Crop) accelerates the editing process for
experienced users.
3. Offer Informative Feedback:
 Provide clear and timely feedback to users to confirm that
their actions have been successfully completed or to alert
them of errors.
 Example: When submitting a form online, displaying a
confirmation message (e.g., "Your form has been successfully
submitted!") or highlighting fields with errors upon submission
provides informative feedback to users.
4. Design Dialogues to Yield Closure:
 Structure interactions in a way that guides users through a
clear beginning, middle, and end.
 Example: In an e-commerce checkout process, guiding users
through sequential steps (e.g., Cart > Shipping Information >
Payment > Confirmation) provides closure at each stage and
helps users navigate the process smoothly.
5. Prevent Errors:
 Design interfaces to minimize the occurrence and impact of
user errors through clear instructions, constraints, and
validation.
 Example: In a password creation form, providing guidelines on
password requirements (e.g., minimum length, special
characters) and offering real-time validation prevents users
from entering invalid passwords.
6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions:
 Allow users to easily undo or reverse actions to recover from
mistakes or changes in preferences.
 Example: In a document editing software, providing a "Undo"
button or keyboard shortcut (e.g., Ctrl + Z) enables users to
revert unintended changes made to the document.
7. Support Internal Locus of Control:
 Empower users by providing control over their interactions
and allowing them to initiate and control actions.
 Example: In a music streaming app, allowing users to create
custom playlists, adjust playback settings, and explore
personalized recommendations supports their internal locus of
control and enhances their overall experience.
8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load:
  Minimize cognitive load by presenting information in a way
that is easy to process and remember.
 Example: In a calendar app, displaying upcoming events and
reminders prominently on the home screen reduces users'
short-term memory load and helps them stay organized and
informed.

By adhering to these golden rules of interface design, designers can

create interfaces that are intuitive, efficient, and satisfying for users to
interact with.

llustrate Universal Design benefits for people of all ages and

abilities.
1. Inclusivity: Universal design ensures that everyone, regardless of
age, ability, or disability, can access and use products and services
without barriers or discrimination. This promotes social inclusion and
equal participation in various activities.
2. Accessibility: By considering diverse needs and abilities from the
outset, universal design creates environments and products that are
accessible to a wider range of users. This includes individuals with
disabilities, older adults, children, and those with temporary
impairments.
3. Flexibility: Universal design provides flexibility in how products and
environments can be used, accommodating different preferences,
needs, and circumstances. This allows users to adapt and customize
their experiences according to their unique requirements.
4. Safety: Universal design incorporates features that enhance safety
for all users, reducing the risk of accidents, injuries, or discomfort.
This includes ergonomic designs, clear signage, non-slip surfaces,
and well-lit environments.
5. Usability: By prioritizing user-friendly design principles, universal
design enhances usability for everyone. This includes intuitive
layouts, clear instructions, easy-to-use controls, and consistent
interfaces, leading to improved user satisfaction and productivity.
6. Longevity: Universal design creates products and environments that
remain relevant and usable over time, even as users' needs and
abilities change. This promotes sustainability by reducing the need
for frequent replacements or modifications.
7. Cost-effectiveness: Investing in universal design upfront can lead to
long-term cost savings by minimizing the need for retrofits,
adaptations, or specialized accommodations. It also expands the
potential market for products and services, increasing their
economic viability.
Suppose you are typing a text in MSWord. Suddenly [10] CO4 L3 you noticed
a typing error, in the form of a mistyped letter, eg. shown in screen-shot
below. Build a KLM model by writing all steps appropriately for the above
scenario. State the assumptions clearly. [K=0.28, B=0.10/0.20, P=1.10,
H=0.40, M=1.35]