IGCSE Chemistry – Topic 1

Mrs. Larisa Thomas

STATES OF MATTER
PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS
GASES
 SOLIDS
• Solids have a fixed volume and shape

• They have a high density

• The atoms vibrate in position but can’t change

location

• The particles are packed very closely together in

a fixed and regular pattern
• This regular pattern is called a lattice
 LIQUIDS

• Liquids have a fixed volume but adopt the shape

of the container

• They are generally less dense than solids

(except water) but much denser than gases

• The particles move and slide past each other

• This is why liquids adopt the shape of the container
and why they can flow freely
 GASES
• Gases don’t have a fixed volume and take up the shape
of the container
• They have very low density
• There is a lot of space between the particles so gases
can be compressed into a smaller volume
• Particles are far apart and move randomly and quickly
in all directions
• They collide with each other and the sides of a container
• This is how pressure is created inside a can of gas
State Solid Liquid Gas

Particle Particles close together: Particles close together:

Particles far apart
Separation tightly packed loosely packed

Arrangement of
Regular pattern - lattice Randomly arranged Randomly arranged
Particles

Motion of Vibrate around a fixed Move or slide around each Move quickly in all directions
Particles position other (straight lines)

Energy of
Low kinetic energy Medium kinetic energy High kinetic energy
Particles

Density High Medium Low

Not fixed – Fluid shape Not fixed – Fluid shape
Shape Fixed shape
Takes shape of container Takes shape of container
Not fixed – expands to fill
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume
container

2D Diagram
SOLID LIQUID GAS
CHANGES OF STATE
 MELTING
• Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
• Requires an increase in temperature by supplying heat energy which is
transformed into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to vibrate more vigorously
• Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.)

FREEZING
• Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
• This is the reverse of melting and occurs at the same temperature
• The melting and freezing point of a pure substance is the same

• Requires a significant decrease in temperature (loss of heat energy) and

occurs at a specific temperature known as the freezing point
 EVAPORATING
• When a liquid changes into a gas over a range of temperatures
• Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles
can escape from the liquid's surface at low temperatures (below the b.p.)
• The larger the surface area and the warmer the surface of the liquid, the
quicker a liquid can evaporate

BOILING
• Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
• Heating causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid (liquid
particles escape from the surface and within the liquid)
• Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.)
 CONDENSING

• When a gas changes into a liquid

on cooling and it takes place over
a range of temperatures

• When a gas is cooled its particles

lose energy and when they bump
into each other they lack the energy
to bounce away again, instead they
group together to form a liquid Changes of State
 What is the state?
With information about the melting and boiling points of a substance, one can
identify the state the substance is in at a specific temperature

• If the given temperature is below the melting point (freezing point) → the
substance will be a solid at that temperature

• If the given temperature is between the melting point and boiling point→ the
substance will be a liquid at that temperature

• If the given temperature is above the boiling point→ the substance will be a
gas at that temperature
 Melting Boiling
point point

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Between melting and

Below melting point boiling point Above boiling point
 The Kinetic Particle Theory

The Kinetic Particle Theory states the following

• All matter is made up of very small particles

• The particles are in constant random motion → They have kinetic energy

• There are spaces between the particles → Intermolecular spaces

• There are attractive forces between the particles → Intermolecular forces

 State Changes - Kinetic Theory
MELTING → A solid is heated and the heat energy supplied is transformed into kinetic
energy. Increased kinetic energy causes stronger vibrations until the particles have
enough energy to weaken the intermolecular forces holding them in a regular
arrangement. The intermolecular spaces will increase as particles break away from
the lattice arrangement to form a liquid.

FREEZING → As a liquid is cooled down, the kinetic energy of the particles decrease,
and they start moving slower. At a certain temperature, their motion becomes slow
enough for the forces of attraction to be able to hold the particles together in a regular
arrangement of a solid. As the intermolecular forces become stronger, the
intermolecular spaces become smaller.
BOILING → A liquid is heated, and the heat energy supplied is transformed into
kinetic energy. An increase in kinetic energy causes the particles to move faster and
further until the particles move fast enough to overcome (break all) the
intermolecular forces holding them together. The intermolecular spaces will
increase as particles break away from the liquid arrangement to form a gas.

CONDENSING → As a gas is cooled, the kinetic energy of the particles decrease,

and they start moving slower. At a certain temperature, the gas particles will slow
down enough for the attractive forces to become strong enough to hold them together
in a liquid arrangement. As the intermolecular forces become stronger, the
intermolecular spaces become smaller.
 State Changes & Kinetic Theory - Summary
• When substances are heated, the particles absorb heat (thermal) energy which is
converted into kinetic energy
• An increase in kinetic energy in a solid causes the particles to vibrate more and as
the temperature increases, they vibrate so much that the solid expands until the
structure breaks and the solid melts
• On further heating, the particles in the now liquid substance also absorbs heat energy,
which is converted into kinetic energy, causing the particles to move more and faster
• The liquid expands more and some particles at the surface gain enough energy to
overcome the intermolecular forces and evaporate
• When the boiling point temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to
escape, and the liquids boils
 HEATING AND
COOLING CURVES
 State Changes on Graphs
Changes in state can be shown on graphs called heating curves and cooling curves.
These curves show how changes in temperature affect changes of state.
 A heating curve shows the change of state of a
Heating Curve substance from solid to gas when it is heated
 Interpreting a Heating Curve
• Heating a solid results in its temperature rising over the time of heating but the graph
shows two periods during which the temperature remains constant
• The temperature is constant during the phase changes → melting and vaporisation
• In the regions where the temperature rises:
• The heat energy added is transformed into kinetic energy so temperature
increases
• Increased kinetic energy causes the particles to move faster and interact less strongly
• The intermolecular spaces increase as the particles begin to move apart

• In the regions where the temperature is constant:

• The heat energy added is used to overcome the intermolecular forces
• The heat energy causes changes in potential energy NOT kinetic energy
• This results in the temperature staying constant until the phase change is complete
 Plateau
=
Phase change
=
Potential energy
change
 A cooling curve shows the change of state of a
Cooling Curve substance from gas to solid when it is cooled
 Interpreting a Cooling Curve
• Cooling a gas results in its temperature falling over the time of cooling
• The temperature is constant during the two phase changes → condensing and freezing
• In the regions where the temperature falls:
• Kinetic energy is transformed into heat energy that is removed so temperature
decreases
• Decreased kinetic energy causes the particles to move slower and interact stronger
• The intermolecular spaces decrease as the particles begin to move closer together

• In the regions where the temperature is constant:

• The heat energy removed comes from energy released when forming new
intermolecular forces
• The heat energy comes from changes in potential energy NOT kinetic energy
• The temperature stays constant until the phase change is complete
 Pure VS Impure Substances
Pure Substance → A substance that consists of only one type of element or compound
Impure Substance → A substance that consists of more than one type of element
and/or compound not chemically bonded
• Mixtures (pure substances physically mixed with impurities) are impure substances
• Impurities causes the melting point of an impure substance to be lower than the pure
substance and causes it to melt over a range of temperatures
• Impurities causes the boiling point of an impure substance to be higher than the pure
substance and causes it to boil over a range of temperatures

• Pure substances have specific and fixed melting and boiling points
• Phase changes on a heating or cooling curve are horizontal/flat lines

• Impure substances melt and boil over a range of temperatures

• Phase changes on a heating or cooling curve are slope lines with a gradient
Pure Substances Heating Curve

A pure substance
boils at a specific
and constant
temperature

A pure substance
melts at a specific
and constant
temperature
Impure Substances Heating Curve

An impure
substance boils at a
higher temperature
and over a range of
temperatures

An impure
substance melts at a
lower temperature
and over a range of
temperatures
VOLUME OF GASES
 Effect of Temperature & Pressure on
the VOLUME of a Gas
Inversely
Changing the external pressure on a sample of gas Proportional

• An increase in pressure produces a decrease in volume → Gas is compressed

• A decrease in pressure produces an increase in volume → Gas expands
Directly
Changing the temperature of a sample of gas Proportional

• An increase in temperature produces an increase in volume → Gas expands

• A decrease in temperature produces a decrease in volume → Gas is compressed

The large intermolecular spaces in gases explain why the volume is easily
changed by changes in temperature and pressure
Effect of Temperature on the Volume of a Gas
Kinetic Theory
Increase in temperature → The kinetic energy of the gas particles
increase; they move faster and there is less chance of interaction between
them as the intermolecular forces become almost negligent. They can
move further apart to occupy a greater volume.

Decrease in temperature → The kinetic energy of the gas particles

decrease; they move slower, and they are more likely to interact with each
other as the intermolecular forces have a greater effect. They will move
closer together to occupy a smaller volume.
 Effect of Pressure on the Volume of a Gas
Kinetic Theory
Increase in pressure→ The gas particles are pushed closer together and are
more likely to interact with each other as the intermolecular forces have a
greater effect. They will move closer together to occupy a smaller
space/volume.

Decrease in pressure→ The gas particles are not pushed together and are
less likely to interact with each other as the intermolecular forces will have less
of an effect. They will move further apart and occupy a greater space/volume.
 Gas Pressure

• Gas particles are in constant

and random motion

• The pressure that a gas creates

inside a closed container is
produced by the gas particles hitting
the inside walls of the container
 Effect of Temperature and Volume
on Gas Pressure
IINCREASE in TEMPERATURE → The heat energy supplied is transformed
into kinetic energy. This increases the kinetic energy of the gas particles, so
they move faster and collide with the walls of the container more
frequently. The pressure will increase.

DECREASE in VOLUME → If the container is made smaller, the same amount

of gas particles will have less space available to move in and will collide with
the walls of the container more frequently. The pressure will increase.
Decreasing the volume of a container increases the gas pressure
DIFFUSION
 Diffusion
The movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration, down a concentration gradient, until equilibrium is reached

• Equilibrium means that eventually the concentration of particles will be equal

as they spread out evenly to occupy all the available space
• This is the process by which different gases or liquids mix and is due to the
random motion of their particles
• Diffusion can only happen in fluids (liquids and gases) because they have large
enough intermolecular spaces for the particles to move around and spread out
• Diffusion cannot happen in solids because the intermolecular spaces are very
small and the particles only vibrate, they do not move around to spread out evenly
Diffusion of potassium manganate(VII),
KMnO4 , in water. After a few hours, the
concentration of KMnO4 is the same
throughout the solution
 Diffusion Rate & Molecular Mass
• Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move
much quicker than liquid particles

• At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate

• This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses

• Particles with a lower relative molecular mass is lighter, can move faster and
further and therefore will diffuse at a faster rate

• Particles with a higher relative molecular mass is heavier, they move slower
and therefore will diffuse at a slower rate
 This can be demonstrated in the reaction between ammonia (NH3) and
hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) inside a long glass tube
• Where the two gases meet, a white smoke of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) forms
• This does not occur in the middle of the tube, but much closer to the end with
the hydrogen chloride
• Hydrogen chloride has a relative molecular mass of 36.5 and ammonia of 17
• The ammonia molecules are lighter, move faster and thus diffuse faster
 Diffusion Rate & Temperature
• Diffusion is a passive process, which means that it happens on its own and
no energy input is required

• Particles of the same substance has the same molecular mass but will
diffuse at different rates if the temperature differs

• For the same substance, the rate of diffusion is faster at a higher

temperature as the particles will have more kinetic energy and move faster

• For the same substance, the rate of diffusion is slower at a lower

temperature as the particles will have less kinetic energy and move slower
Topic Summary