1.

States of matter
Objectives:

1.1.Solids, liquids and gases.

1. State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases.
2. Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation,
arrangement and motion.
3. Describe and explain changes of state (melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing and
condensation) in terms of kinetic particle theory.
4. Interpret and explain heating and cooling curves in terms of kinetic particle theory.
5. Describe and explain in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and
pressure on the volume of a gas.
1.2.Diffusion
1. Describe and explain diffusion in terms of kinetic particle theory.
2. Describe and explain the effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of diffusion of
gases.

What is matter and what are its different states?

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. There are three forms of matter: solid,
liquid and gas.
Properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Solids Liquids Gases
Common properties of all Common properties of all Common properties of all
solids: liquids: gases:
• They have a fixed • They have a fixed • They have no fixed
volume. volume. volume.
• They have a fixed shape. • They have no fixed • They have no fixed
• They cannot be shape. shape.
compressed. • They cannot be • They can easily be
• They do not flow. compressed. compressed.
• They flow easily • They flow in all
directions

Note:
1. Some solids are hard while some are soft.
2. Some liquids have a colour while others are colourless.
3. Some gases are coloured while others are colourless.
What are the particulate models of matter?
Because particles are too small to be seen, physical models are used to show the arrangement
of particles in solids, liquids and gases. These are known as particulate (or particle) models
of matter.
Solid Liquid Gas

Particles in a solid Particles in a liquid Particles in a gas

✓ Are packed close ✓ are packed close ✓ Are far apart and in a
together in an together but not in an random arrangement.
orderly orderly arrangement. ✓ Can be compressed
arrangement. ✓ Cannot be easily.
✓ cannot be compressed. ✓ Are free to move
compressed. ✓ Have little empty anywhere in the
✓ Have little empty space between container.
space between particles (more than
them in solids)
✓ can vibrate but ✓ Can move freely
cannot move freely throughout the liquid.
about their fixed
positions.

The Kinetic Particle Theory

Matter is made up of particles according to scientists. Their ideas about particles make up the
kinetic particle theory of matter. The theory states that:

• Particles are discrete and are too small to be seen directly.

• There are spaces between particles of matter, the amount of space between particles is
different in solids, liquids and gases.
• The particles are in constant random motion, they move at different speeds.
How does the Kinetic Particle Theory explain changes in state?

Matter can change from one state to another via different processes like melting, freezing,
boiling, condensation, evaporation and sublimation.

Melting
Melting is the change from a solid to a liquid.
During melting:
• The particles in the solid absorb energy which causes the particles to vibrate faster about
their fixed positions.
• The vibrations of the particles overcome the forces of attraction between them.
• The particles are no longer in fixed positions; they are packed close together and are
free to move randomly.
• The substance is now a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid is called the melting point. A pure substance
has a fixed melting point. It always melts at the same temperature.
Consider the melting of iron having a melting point of 1535 ℃.
Temperature/℃

B C

0 Time from start

(min)
A-B: The temperature of the solid increases until it reaches 1535℃ at B. Then the solid begins
to melt.
B-C: Heat energy is taken in by the particles to overcome the forces of attraction holding the
particles together instead of being used to raise the temperature. This is why the temperature
remains constant during melting. At this temperature a mixture of solid and liquid stearic acid
exists.
C-D: At point C, all the solid iron has melted. The temperature of liquid iron rises as heating
continues.

Freezing
Freezing is the change from a liquid to a solid.
During freezing:
• The particles in the liquid lose energy and begin to move more slowly as the
temperature decreases.
• The particles are overcome by the forces of attraction and no longer move freely.
• The particles settle into fixed and orderly positions and the substance is now a solid.
The temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid is called the freezing point.
Consider molten iron being allowed to cool naturally.
The freezing point is 1535℃ which is the same as the melting point.
Temperature/℃

X Y

Time from start

(min)
W-X: When a liquid is cooled, its temperature decreases until it reaches its freezing point.
X-Y: At the freezing point, the liquid turns into a solid. The temperature remains constant while
the liquid freezes as heat energy is released when the particles slow down to take up fixed and
orderly positions in the solid.
Y-Z: At point Y, all the iron has changed into a solid. The temperature of the solid decreases
as the cooling continues.

Boiling
Boiling is the change from a liquid to a gas.
During boiling:
• The particles in the liquid absorb energy and move faster as temperatue increases.
• The particles have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction holding them
together.
• As a result, the particles spread further apart and move freely and the substance is now
a gas.
The temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas is called the boiling point. The apparatus
below can be used to determine the boiling point of a liquid.

Figure 1. Determining the boiling point of 1,1,1-trichloroethane.

When heating the 1,1,1-trichloroethane, the temperature is recorded at regular time intervals
until it has boiled for a few minutes. The condenser cools the gaseous 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
converting it into a liquid again.
The results of the experiment on heating 1,1,1-trichloroethane are plotted on a graph as shown
below.
Temperature/℃

A B

Time from start

(min)

0-A: The temperature increases until the liquid boils at 74℃ (boiling point of 1,1,1-
trichloroethane).
At A: The liquid begins to change into a gas.
A-B: Heat energy is absorbed by the particles of the liquid during boiling. It is used to break
all the forces holding the particles together. As a result, the temperature remains constant
during boiling.

Condensation
When a gas is cooled, it changes into a liquid. This is called condensation. Heat energy is
given out during condensation.

Evaporation
Evaporation is the conversion of a liquid into a gas without boiling. Evaporation occurs below
the boiling point of the liquid. The particles escape from the surface of the liquid to form a gas.
Evaporation is different from boiling since it occurs at the surface and is very slow whereas
boiling takes place throughout the liquid.
Sublimation
Sublimation occurs when solids change into gases without melting. for instance, when solid
iodine is warmed, it changes into a gas at 114℃, it is said that it sublimes at 114℃. To describe
the reverse of sublimation, that is, the change from a gas directly to a solid, the term
condensation is also used.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading and mixing of particles in liquids and gases. (or movement of
particles in liquids and gases from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration).
Examples of diffusion:
1) When a bottle of perfume is opened, we can soon smell the scent of the perfume.
2)

Diffusion in gases.
Consider a few drops of liquid bromine placed in a gas jar.

Figure 2. A simple diffusion experiment.

Procedure
• The bromine evaporates to fill the gas jar with a heavy reddish-brown vapour.
• A gas jar full of air is then placed on top of the gas jar full of bromine vapour.
• The reddish-brown vapour spreads throughout the two gas jars over a period of time,
even though the bromine vapour is denser than air.
Explanation
Bromine particles move upwards from th lower jar to settle in between the air particles in the
upper jar. At the same time, air particles move downwards from the upper jar to mix with the
bromine particles in the lower jar. Eventually, the bromine and air particles are completely
mixed.

Diffusion in liquids.
Consider a tiny crystal of potassium permanganate (VII) placed in water.

Figure 3.Diffusion in potassium manganate (VII) solution.

When a tiny crystal of potassium manganate (VII) is placed in water, it dissolves to form a
purple solution. The purple colour spreads into the water. It can be inferred that the purple
particles have diffused throughout the water.
Effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion.
When matter is heated, the particles of matter absorb energy which causes them to move faster.
The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move and so the faster the rate of diffusion.
For example, the colour of potassium manganate (VII) spreads through hot water much more
quickly than in cold water.
Effect of mass of particles on the rate of diffusion.
the greater the mass, the slower the particles diffuse; the smaller the mass, the faster the
particles diffuse.
 Figure 4. Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas.

• After some time, a white cloud of solid ammonium chloride produced from the reaction
of ammonia and hydrogen chloride appears inside the glass tube.
• The white cloud is closer to the hydrochloric acid end of the tube rather than to the
ammonia end. This is because the ammonia particles have a smaller molecular mass,
thus they move more quickly than the hydrogen chloride particles.
• The ammonia particles move further along the tube than the hydrogen chloride particles
before they meet and react to form the white solid.