FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1

-Monil Salot
SYLLABUS UNIT 1
 General:
 Introduction to metal casting and foundry industry in
modern industrial scenario.
 Advantages and limitations of casting methods.
Classification of foundries.
 Different sections in a foundry and their functions.
 Important cast metals and alloys-their composition,
properties and uses.
 Patternmaking:
 Patterns: Types.
 Pattern making materials and their selection,
 Color code
 Pattern allowances 2
 Core-boxes and their types.
INTRODUCTION TO METAL CASTING AND
FOUNDRY INDUSTRY

 The metal casting industry plays a key role in all

the major sectors of our economy. There are
castings in locomotives, cars, trucks, aircraft,
factories, and everywhere. Metal casting is one of
the oldest manufacturing methods.
 In metal casting, metal is melted and poured into
a cavity and after solidification of the metal in
the cavity, the metal takes the exact shape of the
cavity.
 The solidified object is then taken out from the
cavity either by breaking the cavity or taking the
cavity apart. The solidified object is called the
casting. The cavity is also known as mould. 3
 The shape and size of the mould matches with
the product requirement. However, depending
upon the shape complexity and the metal the size
of the mould may differ with the size of the
product requirement. the mould into which the
molten metal is poured is made of heat resistant
material. Sand, being the heat resistant, is the
most often used material for making the mould.
 However, permanent mould made of metal can
also be used to cast various products. This
process allows to produce the complex parts in
one go. 4
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL SHAPING
PROCESSES:

 1. Casting : Pouring molten metal into mould and

freezing it there.
 2. Mechanical Working : Plastic deformation
above or below Recrystallization temp.(Hot
working/cold working,) Starting material is cast
ingot or billet. Example, Bars, Plates, Sheets and
Sections, other methods are – extrusion and
forging
 3. Fabrication by joining: Joining Smaller
Components manufactured by other
ways.(Riveting, bolting and other fastening
devices) 5
 4. Machining: Production of shaped articles by
cutting from plain or roughly shaped forms using
machine tools. It is also a finishing operation to
develop final dimensions.
 5. Powder metallurgy: Metal Powders are
compacted in the die and the compacts are
sintered to get the desired products.
 6. Hybrid Process: Semi mould processing and
squeeze casting, advantage is both cast and
wrought product combination in the same
manufactured component.
6
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTING
PROCESS

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SCOPE OF METAL CASTING INDUSTRY
 Metal casting process is the oldest manufacturing
process. metal cast products find their
application in most of the application product and
almost all automobile product use cast product (s)
as its component. It can be said that Foundry
industry is the mother of all industries.
 In India, There are around 5100 foundries both
large as well small units registered in India. Of
these, around 3000 units are grey iron foundries,
producing about 5.1 million tons of grey iron
casting. About 300 foundries are in the large
sector. Out of total units, 80 percent are small
units, 15 percent are medium- size and only 5 10
percent are in large sector.
 In India the scope of metal casting industry is
increasing as the government has made tremendous
efforts to improve infrastructure including power
generation. The efforts will help metal casting
industries, which are power extensive industries, to
grow.
 The knowledge and application of technology in the
area of metal casting will help the industries to excel
in all of its application areas. The scope of metal
casting industry has widen up. It is now-a-days not
limited to metal products, but the application of cast
product also include, plastic products, composite, civil
and building infrastructure development, bridge
construction etc.
 The new initiatives and additional scope of foundry
industry will require the skilled manpower in this
field. This will enhance the metal casting industry
jobs to huge number of metal casting professionals. 11
THE PRESENT CHALLENGES TO INDIAN
METAL CASTING INDUSTRIES
 The high cost of technology and related modern
equipment
 The cost of energy, which is increasing every time

 High rate of interest on loans

 Industry and Taxation law policies has become a

barrier in the growth and export business
 Irregular supply of raw material

 Environment Pollution

12
THE FOCUS OF METAL CASTING
INDUSTRIES MUST BE ON
 quality not on the quantity with a spirit of
producing right first time and every time
 waste reduction and on improving the
productivity
 defect prevention not on defect rectification

 competition on pricing as well reduction in lead

time
 there should not be any tolerance on defects or
defectives or delays

13
HISTORY
 The history of metal casting reaches back almost
5,000 years BC. A brief development of metal
casting technology is given below:
 3200 B.C. A frog made from copper metal, the
oldest known casting in existence, was cast in
 Mesopotamia.

 233 B.C. Cast iron plowshares are poured in

China.
 500 A.D. Cast crucible steel was first produced in
India
14
 1455 The cast iron pipe to transport the water
was used in Dillenburg Castle in Germany.
 1480 The Vannoccio Biringuccio "father of the
foundry industry," in Italy is the first man to
 document the foundry process.

 1709 The first foundry flask for sand and loam

molding was created by Englishman Abraham
Darby.

15
 1809 A. G. Eckhardt of Soho, England developed
the Centrifugal casting process.
 1896 American Foundrymen's Association (Now
American Foundrymen's Society) was formed.
 1897 B.F. Philbrook of Iowa rediscovered the
Investment casting process. Though the roots of
 investment casting process can be traced when
bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro
 around 3000 BC .

16
 1947 The Shell process was invented by J.
Croning of Germany during WWII.
 1958 H.F. Shroyer was granted a patent for the
full mold process.
 1968 The Coldbox process was introduced by L.
Toriello and J. Robins for high production core
making.
 1971 The Japanese developed V-Process molding.
This method uses unbounded sand and the sand
was bind by vacuum.
 1971 Rheocasting was developed at
17
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ADVANTAGES
 The metal casting process is extensively used in
manufacturing because of its many advantages.
1. Very thin sections, because of the flowability of the liquid
metal, can be cast by the metal casting process, which
otherwise are difficult to produced by other shaping
processes.
2. Intricate and complex shapes can be made by this
process.
3. Any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous can be cast.
4. The tooling required for casting molds are very simple
and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot,
it is the ideal process.
5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that
can only be processed this way.
6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the
casting process.
7. Metal casting is a process highly adaptable to the
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requirements of mass production.
LIMITATIONS
 Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the
castings made by casting processes are a
limitation to this technique. Many new casting
processes have been developed which can take
into consideration the aspects of dimensional
accuracy and surface finish. Some of these
processes are die casting process, investment
casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process,
and shell molding process.
 The metal casting process is a labor intensive
process
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CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDRY
1. Type of Metal used
1. Ferrous
2. Non Ferrous
2. Nature of Production
1. Jobbing (Normally Produces small number of castings
of given type for different customers)
2. Production (Is highly mechanised and can produces
castings economically on a large scale)
3. Semi Production (It is a combination of Jobbing and
Production Foundry)
4. Captive ( It is an integral part of some manufacturing
organization, it makes casting for the same)
3. Casting Process
1. Centrifugal,
2. Die Casting,
3. Investment Casting etc 20
FOUNDRY FLOW CHART AND SECTIONS

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MATERIALS USED IN CASTINGS
 Casting is broadly defined as the process of forming a
substance into a specific shape using a mold. Metal casting
employs a variety of metals to create the molded end
product and dates back thousands of years.

Some of the metal casting processes and materials used in

ancient times are still in use today. There are numerous
reliable and effective metal casting materials that are used
for industrial purposes. The most commonly used resources
are:
 Metal and Non- Metals • Refractories,
• Gray iron • Fuel,
• Ductile iron • Fluxes
• Aluminum
• Steel
• Copper 23
• Zinc
GRAY IRON CASTING

 Gray iron is one of the most frequently used

casting materials in industrial manufacturing.
Accounting for a large portion of casting supply
markets, it is a strong, versatile substance. Gray
iron can be machined easily, tested for quality
without using destructive methods, formulated to
meet specific application requirements, and is
cost-effective at high volumes. It is suited to a
variety of applications, including those that
require:

• Damping or vibration control

• High strength to weight ratios
24
• Dimensional stability
DUCTILE IRON CASTING
 For processes requiring greater strength than that
provided by gray iron casting, ductile iron casting
may be a useful alternative. Ductile iron shares
similar traits with gray iron, and thus has many of
the same advantages. However, ductile iron differs
from gray iron casting in the following ways:

• Greater strength
• Improved wear resistance
• Stronger toughness
• Superior ductility
• Reduced weight
• Reduced shrinkage 25
• Lower cost
ALUMINUM CASTING
 Aluminum casting is also a widely used method, due in
large part to the superior versatility of the metal. As one of
only a few materials able to undergo most metal casting
processes, aluminum is a relatively adaptable substance to
work with. Aluminum's corrosion resistance, high
thermal/electrical conductivity, good mechanical properties
and strength at high temperatures make it an effective
choice for:
• Die casting
• Permanent mold casting
• Investment casting
• Sand casting
• Lost foam casting
• Squeeze casting
• Hot isotonic pressing

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STEEL CASTING
 Steel is a tough casting material well-suited for
parts that will be subjected to exceptional wear,
shock or heavy loads. It is useful for its corrosion
resistance in aqueous environments and for
applications involving elevated temperatures.
Steel is often mixed with chromium, iron, and
nickel to further improve its corrosion or heat
resistance.

27
COPPER CASTING
 A major advantage of copper as a casting material is
that it offers excellent electrical conductivity. As a
result, the construction industry often uses copper for
electrical components. Other benefits of copper
include:

• Good malleability
• Superior ductility
• Good conduction of heat

However, copper and castings can be subject to

surface cracking, porosity and formation of internal
cavities. Consequently, it is often mixed with other
metals (silicon, nickel, zinc, chromium, tin and silver)
to alleviate these issues. 28
ZINC CASTING
 Zinc's low melting point (425 degrees Celsius)
makes it a suitable material for die-cast
applications. It is a relatively easy alloy to cast
due to its fast fill and fast cooling capabilities. In
terms of cost, zinc may be an economical option
for casting small, high-volume parts.

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INDUSTRIAL CASTING APPLICATIONS
 Casting is used in a large number of manufacturing
processes and plays an important role in construction.
Many industries depend heavily on casting to create
uniform products. Some of the leading markets for
casting materials are:

• Automotive and Light Truck

• Pipe and Fittings
• Construction, Mining and Oilfield Machinery
• Internal Combustion Engines
• Railroad
• Valves
• Farm Equipment
• Municipal Castings
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THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING
CASTING MATERIALS
 Selecting the proper cast and mold materials for
a particular project can be an important concern.
Some of the factors to consider when making a
casting decision include:

• Level of volume required

• Cost-effectiveness
• Melting temperature
• Cooling speed
• Wear resistance
• Weight
• Damping capabilities
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 Zinc is an efficient choice for die cast operations, however,
its low wear resistance and durability may not be ideal for
certain applications, such as those involving a high risk of
corrosion or material strain. For die cast projects that focus
on performance and resilience, aluminum can be a helpful
option. For example, aluminum alloy is a frequently used
casting material for lawnmower housings, dental
equipment, frying skillets, aircraft hardware and marine
hardware.
For structural applications or other tasks that emphasize
strength and durability, gray iron or ductile iron may be
worthwhile considerations. Gray iron can be effective for
projects that require shrinkage-free, intricate castings such
as those found in motor blocks. Ductile cast iron is useful
for parts that stress strength and toughness, such as
critical engine components (crankshafts, truck axles, disk
brake calipers, etc.). 32
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REFRACTROIES
 A refractory material or refractory is a heat-resistant
material: that is, a mineral that is resistant to
decomposition by heat, pressure, or chemical attack, most
commonly applied to a mineral that retains strength and
form at high temperatures.
 ASTM C71 defines refractories as "...non-metallic materials
having those chemical and physical properties that make
them applicable for structures, or as components of
systems, that are exposed to environments above 1,000 °F
(811 K; 538 °C)."
 Refractory materials are used
in furnaces, kilns, incinerators, and reactors.
 Refractories are also used to make crucibles and moulds for
casting glass and metals and for surfacing flame deflector
systems for rocket launch structures. Today, the iron- and
steel-industry and metal casting sectors use approximately
70% of all refractories produced 36
37
FUELS
 A fuel is any material that can be made to react with
other substances so that it releases energy as heat
energy or to be used for work. The concept was
originally applied solely to those materials capable of
releasing chemical energy but has since also been
applied to other sources of heat energy such as
nuclear energy

 Oil
 Coke
 Coal
 Gas
 Electricity 38
FLUXES
 In metallurgy, a flux (derived from
Latin fluxus meaning "flow") is a chemical
cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent.
Fluxes may have more than one function at a
time. They are used in both extractive metallurgy
and metal joining.
 Limestone is used as a flux in cupola furnace.

 Sodium Carbonate

 Nitrogen, Helium and chlorine are used as

gaseous fluxes.
 Fluxes used for melting magnesiusm are KCL,
39
MgO, MgCl2, CaF2
 FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
CASTING
1. Overview of Casting Technology
2. Heating and Pouring
3. Solidification and Cooling

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 SOLIDIFICATION PROCESSES
Starting work material is either a liquid or is in a
highly plastic condition, and a part is created
through solidification of the material
 Solidification processes can be classified
according to engineering material processed:
 Metals
 Ceramics, specifically glasses
 Polymers and polymer matrix composites
(PMCs)

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 -
Classification of solidification processes.
 PARTS MADE BY CASTING
 Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big
statues, pump housings
 Small parts

 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying

pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous

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 OVERVIEW OF CASTING TECHNOLOGY
 Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry = factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal, performing
the casting process, and cleaning the finished
casting
 Workers who perform casting are called
foundrymen

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 THE MOLD IN CASTING
 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part
shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be
slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal during solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal

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 OPEN MOLDS AND CLOSED MOLDS

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the

shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the
mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating
system (passageway) leading into the cavity.

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 TWO CATEGORIES OF CASTING PROCESSES
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an
expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent
mold which can be used over and over to
produce many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material

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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 More intricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes
 Part shapes in permanent mold processes are
limited by the need to open the mold
 Permanent mold processes are more economic in
high production operations

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 SAND CASTING MOLD

Sand casting mold.

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 SAND CASTING MOLD TERMS
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask

 The two halves separate at the parting line

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 FORMING THE MOLD CAVITY
 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, which has the shape of the part
 When the pattern is removed, the remaining
cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of
cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
 Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder
to maintain its shape

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 USE OF A CORE IN THE MOLD CAVITY
 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of
the cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold
cavity to define the interior geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand

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 GATING SYSTEM
Channel through which molten metal flows into
cavity from outside of mold
 Consists of a downsprue, through which metal
enters a runner leading to the main cavity
 At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often
used to minimize splash and turbulence as the
metal flows into downsprue

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 RISER
Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid
metal to compensate for shrinkage of the part
during solidification
 The riser must be designed to freeze after the
main casting in order to satisfy its function

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 HEATING THE METAL
 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to
molten temperature sufficient for casting
 The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
3. Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring

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 POURING THE MOLTEN METAL
 For this step to be successful, metal must flow
into all regions of the mold, most importantly the
main cavity, before solidifying
 Factors that determine success

 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence

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 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
Transformation of molten metal back into solid
state
 Solidification differs depending on whether the
metal is
 A pure element or
 An alloy

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 COOLING CURVE FOR A PURE METAL
 A pure metal solidifies at a constant
temperature equal to its freezing point (same
as melting point)

Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting.

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 SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METALS
 Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of
solid metal is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
 Skin thickness increases to form a shell around
the molten metal as solidification progresses
 Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into
mold, as well as thermal properties of the metal

-
 -
Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal, showing
randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold wall, and large
columnar grains oriented toward the center of the casting.
 SOLIDIFICATION OF ALLOYS
 Most alloys freeze over a temperature range
rather than at a single temperature

Figure 10.6 (a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system

and (b) associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu
composition during casting.

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 -
Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting.
 SHRINKAGE IN SOLIDIFICATION AND
COOLING

Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and

cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction
during cooling (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for
clarity).

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 SHRINKAGE IN SOLIDIFICATION AND
COOLING

reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused

by solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and
diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid
metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
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 SOLIDIFICATION SHRINKAGE
 Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid phase
 Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume
per unit weight of metal
 Exception: cast iron with high C content

 Graphitization during final stages of freezing

causes expansion that counteracts volumetric
decrease associated with phase change

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 SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

 Patternmakers account for solidification

shrinkage and thermal contraction by making
mold cavity oversized
 Amount by which mold is made larger relative
to final casting size is called pattern shrinkage
allowance
 Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly

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 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
 To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable for regions of the casting most distant
from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and
for solidification to progress from these remote
regions toward the riser(s)
 Thus, molten metal is continually available
from risers to prevent shrinkage voids
 The term directional solidification describes
this aspect of freezing and methods by which it
is controlled

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 ACHIEVING DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
 Desired directional solidification is achieved
using Chvorinov's Rule to design the casting
itself, its orientation in the mold, and the riser
system that feeds it
 Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A
ratios away from riser, so freezing occurs first in
these regions, and the liquid metal supply for the
rest of the casting remains open
 Chills - internal or external heat sinks that cause
rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting

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 EXTERNAL CHILLS

External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten

metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the likely
result if the external chill were not used.

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 RISER DESIGN
 Riser is waste metal that is separated from the
casting and remelted to make more castings
 To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is
desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to
be a minimum
 Since the geometry of the riser is normally
selected to maximize the V/A ratio, this allows
riser volume to be reduced to the minimum
possible value

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 PATTERN:
 A Pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be
cast.
 Except for the various allowances a pattern exactly
resembles the casting to be made (slightly larger).
 Patterns may be in two or three pieces, where as
casting are in a single piece.
 A pattern is required even if one object has to be cast.

 The quality of casting and the final product will be

effected to a great extent by the planning of pattern.
 FUNCTIONS OF PATTERNS:
 A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose
of making a casting.
 A Pattern may contain projections known as core
prints if the casting requires a core and need to be
made hollow.
 Risers, runners and gates may form a part of the
pattern.
 Patterns properly made and having finished and
smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
 Properly constructed patterns minimize overall
cost of the casting.
SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIALS:
The following factors assist in selecting
proper pattern material:
No. of castings to be produced.
Metal to be cast.
Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
Shape, complexity and size of casting.
Casting design parameters.
Type of molding materials.
The chance of repeat orders.
Nature of molding process.
Position of core print.
The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions.
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations
in temperature and humidity.
7. Available at low cost.
MATERIALS FOR MAKING PATTERNS:
a. Wood
b. Metal
c. Plastic
d. Plaster
e. Wax.
1. WOOD PATTERNS:
These are used where the no. of castings to be produced is small and pattern size is
large.
Advantages:
 Inexpensive
 Easily available in large quantities
 Easy to fabricate
 Light in weight
 They can be repaired easily
 Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations:

 Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling

 Possess poor wear resistance
 Abraded easily by sand action
 Absorb moisture, consequently get warped
 Cannot withstand rough handling
 Life is very short

Commonly used woods for making patterns:

a. Teak
b. Pine
c. Mahogony
d. Deodar
e. Shisham
f. Kail etc..
 2. METAL PATTERNS:
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from
same patterns.
Advantages:
 Do not absorb moisture
 More stronger

 Possess much longer life

 Do not warp, retain their shape

 Greater resistance to abrasion

 Accurate and smooth surface finish

 Good machinability
Limitations:
 Expensive
 Require a lot of machining for accuracy

 Not easily repaired

 Ferrous patterns get rusted

 Heavy weight , thus difficult to handle

Commonly used metals for making

patterns:
i. Cast iron
ii. Aluminium and its alloys
iii. Steel
iv. White metal
v. Brass etc..
3. PLASTIC PATTERNS:
Advantages:
 Durable
 Provides a smooth surface
 Moisture resistant
 Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape
 Light weight
 Good strength
 Wear and corrosion resistance
 Easy to make
 Abrasion resistance
 Good resistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
 Plastic patterns are Fragile
 These are may not work well when subject to conditions of
severe shock as in machine molding (jolting).
4. PLASTER PATTERNS:
Advantages:
 It can be easily worked by using wood working tools.

 Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.

 It has high compressive strength.

 Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum

cement.
 Plaster mixture is poured into a mould made by a sweep
pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to obtain a
Plaster pattern.
5. WAX PATTERNS:
Advantages:
 Provide very good surface finish.
 Impart high accuracy to castings.
 After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out
of the mould like other patterns;
 rather the mould is inverted and heated; the molten
wax comes out and/or is evaporated.
 Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity getting
damaged while removing the pattern.

 Wax patterns find applications in

Investment casting process.
Types of patterns depend upon the following factors:
i. The shape and size of casting
ii. No. of castings required
iii. Method of moulding employed

iv. Anticipated difficulty of moulding operation

TYPES OF PATTERNS:
1. Single piece pattern.
2. Split piece pattern.
3. Loose piece pattern.
4. Match plate pattern.
5. Sweep pattern.
6. Gated pattern.
7. Skeleton pattern
8. Follow board pattern.
9. Cope and Drag pattern.
1. SINGLE PIECE (SOLID) PATTERN:
 Made from one piece and does not contain loose
pieces or joints.
 Inexpensive.

 Used for large size simple castings.

 Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in

the drag.
Examples:
1. Bodies of regular shapes.
2. stuffing box of steam engine.
FIG: SINGLE PIECE PATTERN
 2. SPLIT PIECE PATTERN:
 Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be
made in one piece because of the inherent
difficulties associated with the molding operations
(e.g. withdrawing pattern from mould).
 The upper and the lower parts of the split piece
patterns are accommodated in the cope and drag
portions of the mold respectively.
 Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of
the mould.
 Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment
between the two parts of the pattern.
 Examples:
1. Hollow cylinder
2. Taps and water
• stop cocks etc.,
3.LOOSE PIECE PATTERN:

 Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are

embedded in the molding sand. Such patterns are
usually made with one or more loose pieces for
facilitating removal from the molding box and are
known as loose piece patterns.
 Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main
body of the pattern, with the help of dowel pins.
 The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the
molding box and thereafter as soon as the loose parts
are removed, the result is the mold cavity.
4. MATCH PLATE PATTERN:

 It consists of a match plate, on either side of which

each half of split patterns is fastened.
 A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be
mounted on one match plate.
 The match plate with the help of locator holes can be
clamped with the drag.
 After the cope and drag have been rammed with the
molding sand, the match plate pattern is removed
from in between the cope and drag.
 Match plate patterns are normally used in machine
molding.
 By using this we can eliminate mismatch of cope and
drag cavities.
FIG: MATCH PLATE PATTERN
5. SWEEP PATTERN:
A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden
board which sweeps the shape of the casting into
the sand all around the circumference. The sweep
pattern rotates about the post.
 Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the
post can be removed.
 Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a
full, large circular and costly three-dimensional
pattern.
 Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and
labour as compared to making a full pattern.
 A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large
casting of circular sections and symmetrical
shapes.
6. GATED PATTERN:
 The sections connecting different patterns serve as
runner and gates.
 This facilitates filling of the mould with molten
metal in a better manner and at the same time
eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed
in cutting runners and gates.
 A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at
one time and thus it is used in mass production
systems.
 Gated patterns are employed for producing small
castings.
CASTINGS

Gating system
 :::SKELETON PATTERN:::
 A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape
which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something
else. The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base.
 The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is thus a
wooden work.
 The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is
rammed.
 A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to
the sand and removes extra sand.
 Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few
large castings.
 A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it
involves less material costs.
8. FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN:
 A follow board is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile
and which may give way and collapse under pressure
when the sand above the pattern is being rammed.
 With the follow board support under the weak
pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the follow
board is with drawn, The rammed drag is inverted,
cope is mounted on it and rammed.
 During this operation pattern remains over the
inverted drag and get support from the rammed sand
of the drag under it.
 Follow boards are also used for casting master
patterns for many applications.
9. COPE AND DRAG PATTERNS:
 A cope and drag pattern is another form of split
pattern.
 Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate
metal/wood plate.
 Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is
molded separately in a separate molding box by
an independent molder or moulders.
 The two moulds of each half of the pattern are
finally assembled and the mould is ready for
pouring.
 Cope and drag patterns are used for producing
big castings which as a whole cannot be
conveniently handled by one moulder alone.
FIG: COPE AND DRAG PATTERN
(A)SPLIT PATTERN
(B) FOLLOW-
BOARD
(C) MATCH PLATE
(D) LOOSE-PIECE
(E) SWEEP
(F) SKELETON
PATTERN
PATTERN ALLOWANCES:
A pattern is larger in size as compared to the
final casting, because it carries certain allowances due
to metallurgical and mechanical reasons for example,
shrinkage allowance is the result of metallurgical
phenomenon where as machining, draft, distortion,
shake and other allowances are provided on the
patterns because of mechanical reasons.
 TYPES OF PATTERN ALLOWANCES:

The various pattern allowances are:

1. Shrinkage or contraction
allowance.
2. Machining or finish allowance.
3. Draft or taper allowances.
4. Distortion or chamber
allowance.
5. Shake or rapping allowance.
 1.SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE:

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically

on cooling.
The metal shrinkage is of two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which
feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the
mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume caused when
metal loses temperature in solid state. To account for
this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
 Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically
after solidification and therefore the pattern to obtain a
particular sized casting is made oversize by an amount
equal to that of shrinkage or contraction.
 Different metals shrink at different rates because
shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy.
 The metal shrinkage depends upon:

1. The cast metal or alloy.

2. Pouring temp. of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions(size).
4. Casting design aspects.
5. Molding conditions(i.e., mould
materials and molding methods
employed)
The contraction of metals/alloys is always volumetric, but the
contraction allowances are always expressed in linear
measures.
2. MACHINING ALLOWANCE:
A Casting is given an allowance for
machining, because:
i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat
treatment; scales etc., thus formed need to be
removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and
other imperfections from the castings.
iii. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
iv. Surface finish is required on the casting.
How much extra metal or how much
machining allowance should be provided,
depends on the factors listed below:
i. Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. The type of machining operations to be
employed for cleaning the casting.
iv. Casting conditions.
v. Molding process employed
MACHINING ALLOWANCES OF VARIOUS METALS:
 3. DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE:
 It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
 Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be easily
removed from the molding material tightly packed around it
with out damaging the mould cavity.
 The amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth
direction in contact with the mould
cavity.
ii. Moulding methods.
iii. Mould materials.
iv. Draft allowance is imparted on internal
as well as external surfaces; of course it
is more on internal surfaces.
The taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of
the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without
tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive
rapping by the molder. Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern having no
draft allowance being removed from the pattern. In this case, till
the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in contact
with the walls of the mold, thus tending to break it.
 Figure 3 (b) is an illustration of a pattern having
proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the pattern
lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well away from
the sand surface. Thus the pattern can be removed
without damaging the mold cavity.
FIG: TAPER IN DESIGN
4. DISTORTION OR CAMBERED ALLOWANCE:
A casting will distort or wrap if :
i. It is of irregular shape,
ii. All it parts do not shrink uniformly i.e.,
some parts shrinks while others are
restricted from during so,
iii. It is u or v-shape,
iv. The arms possess unequal thickness,
v. It has long, rangy arms as those of
propeller strut for the ship,
vi. It is a long flat casting,
vii. One portion of the casting cools at a faster
rate as compared to the other.
5. SHAKE ALLOWANCE:
 A patter is shaken or rapped by striking the
same with a wooden piece from side to side. This
is done so that the pattern a little is loosened in
the mold cavity and can be easily removed.
 In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould
cavity which results in a bigger sized casting.
 Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern
i.e., the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in
order to compensate the enlargement of mould
cavity due to rapping.
 The magnitude of shake allowance can be
reduced by increasing the tapper.
PATTERN LAYOUT:
Steps involved:
 Get the working drawing of the part for which
the pattern is to be made.
 Make two views of the part drawing on a sheet,
using a shrink rule. A shrink rule is modified
form of an ordinary scale which has already
taken care of shrinkage allowance for a
particular metal to be cast.
 Add machining allowances as per the
requirements.
 Depending upon the method of molding, provide
the draft allowance.
 PATTERN CONSTRUCTION:
 Study the pattern layout carefully and establish,
a. Location of parting surface.
b. No. of parts in which the pattern will
be made.
 Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
 Inspect the pattern as regards the alignment of
different portions of the pattern and its dimensional
accuracy.
 Fill wax in all the fillets in order to remove sharp
corners.
 Give a shellac coatings(3 coats) to pattern.
 impart suitable colors to the pattern for identification
purposes and for other informations.
 PATTERN COLORS:
Patterns are imparted certain colors and
shades in order to:
i. Identify quickly the main body of pattern and
different parts of the pattern.
ii. Indicate the type of the metal to be cast.
iii. Identify core prints, loose pieces, etc.,
iv. Visualise the surfaces to be machined, etc.
the patterns are normally painted with contrasting
colors such that the mould maker would be able to
understand the functions clearly.
The color code used is,
1. Red or orange on surface not to be finished and
left as cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for unmachined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for
machined openings
5. Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose
core prints
6. Diagonal black strips with clear varnish on to
strengthen the weak patterns or to shorten a
casting.
CORE BOX
 Cores are compact mass of core sand that when
placed in mould cavity at required location with
proper alignment does not allow the molten metal to
occupy space for solidification in that portion and
hence help to produce hollowness in the casting. The
environment in which the core is placed is much
different from that of the mold.
 In fact the core has to withstand the severe action of
hot metal which completely surrounds it. Cores are
classified according to shape and position in the mold.
There are various types of cores such as horizontal
core, vertical core, balanced core, drop coreand
hanging core.
133
134
THERE ARE VARIOUS FUNCTIONS OF CORES
WHICH ARE GIVEN BELOW

 1. Core is used to produce hollowness in castings

in form of internal cavities.
 2. It may form a part of green sand mold

 3. It may be deployed to improve mold surface.

 4. It may provide external under cut features in

casting.
 5. It may be used to strengthen the mold.

 6. It may be used to form gating system of large

size mold
 7. It may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in
the casting 135
CORE BOXES

136
137
 The following are the various types of core boxes
commonly used in core making:
 1. Half Core Box
 2. Dump Core Box
 3. Split Core Box
 4. Strickle Core Box
 5. Left and Right Hand Core Box
 6. Loose Piece Core Box
 7. Gang core Box.

138
 Type # 1. Half Core Box:
 A half core box is most common type of core box. It is
used for making the two identical halves of a
symmetrical core. These two half portions are pasted
together after backing, thus makes a complete core.
The half core box is shown in Fig. 3.13. (a)
 Type # 2. Dump Core Box:
 A dump core box is similar to half core box in
construction but produces a full core at a time. This
box is commonly used for making rectangular,
square, slab, triangular and trapezoidal cores. Dump
core box sometimes is also known as slab core box
and is shown in Fig. 3.13. (b). 139
 Type # 3. Split Core Box:
 A split core box consists of two parts, joined together with
the help of dowel pins and holes. A complete core is
produced in single operation.
 In its operation, the two boxes are properly aligned and the
core sand is rammed from one side. After ramming, the
surplus sand is strickled off. The clamps are opened and
the core-boxes are withdrawn carefully leaving the core.
The split-core box is shown in Fig. 3.13. (c).
 Type # 4. Strickle Core Box:
 A strickle core box is used when the core is required to
have an irregular shape. It consists of a strickle wooden
board and a core box. The sand is dumped in a core box and
rammed. The top surface of the core in the core box is given
the desired shape with the help of strickle board. The
strickle board is made to a desired shape and moved over
top of the rammed sand. The strickle core box is shown in
Fig. 3.13 (d). 140
 Type # 5. Left and Right Hand Core Box:
 The left and right hand core boxes are used when the
cores are symmetrical about left and right of a centre
line. The core is made in two half’s. The left and right
hand core is shown in Fig. 3.13. (e).
 Type # 6. Loose Piece Core Box:
 A loose piece core box is used for making cores when
provision for bosses, hubs etc., is needed. Both halves of the
left and right core can be made from a single core box with
the help of loose pieces.
 Different shapes may be obtained by inserting loose wooden
pieces in the core box thus changing the symmetry of core
box. A loose piece core box is shown in Fig. 3.13 (f).
141
 Type # 7. Gang Core Box:
 A gang core box is employed when a large number of
small sized cores are required in a single operation.
The gang core box is shown in Fig. 3.13 (g).

142