1

Introduction

1.1. MANUFACTURING PROCÊSSES

1. Manulacturing procosses -shape metals, machine them, and
join them to produce different componcnt parts.
2. The buse metal stock which is operated upon by different
manufacturing proccsses (so as to produce component parts) is in the
form of an ingot casting obtaincd by Reducing or Refining the metal ores.
Ingots of various sizes and shapes can be cast for further processings. Fig.
1.1. shows acast ingot (killed-big end up with hot-top).
-Pipe

Pig 1.1. Cast Ingot

3. Manufacturing Processes may be CLASSIFIED under the fol

lowing heads.
(a) Metal Shaping Processes
) Casting
Sand Casing
Shell Mold Casting
Plaster Mold Casting
Investment Casting
Permanent Mold Casting
Die Casting
(ü) Forging
Drop Forging
Press Forging
Upset Forging
2 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY 3
INTRODUCTION
(üi) Extrusion (iv) Drawing in
(i) Piercing (ii) The manufacture and use of castings can be traced both
(1) Squeezing ancient and medieval history.
(i) Swaging (vii) Bending
(i) Shearing () Spinning (iii) The earliest axeheads of copper were cast in open (stone )
() Stretch Forming (xii) Roll Forming moulds about 5000 years ago.
(ri) Electroforming (xiv) Torch Cutting etc. (iv) Earlier castings were probably made out of Gold, Copper, Silver,
bronze etc.
(b) Metal Machining (Metal Removal) Processes
(v) Onc existing life-sized portrait head of cast Bronze from Meso
(i) Turning (ii) Drilling potamia antedates about 2250 B.C.
(üi) Boring (iv) Reaming (vi)) Decorated bronze castings could be seen in the European
(v) Shaping (i) Planing church and domestic life by the end of the medieval period.
(viil) Milling (vii) Hobbing (vii) Perhaps the earlier castings of cast Iron were those of cannon
(ir) Grinding () Broaching etc. shot and grave slabs.
(c) Metal Joining Processes (ii) The first foundry center came into existence in the days of the
Shang dynasty (1766-1122 B.C.) in China.
() Conventional Welding Processes
(ii) Newer Welding Processes (ix) Greek and Roman History reveals the use of decorated orna
ments and metal bells.
(iüi) Brazing
(iv) Soldering (x) In about 1540, Biringuccio wrote on metal Founding. Earlier to
(v) Riveting that founding was an Art and a craft with all its secrets confined to certain
families.
(vi) Bolt and Screw Fastening
(vii) Pressing (i) Reaumur (1683-1757) worked on cast Iron founding, produced
(vüi) Adhesive bonding Malleable Iron and studied the various factors influencing the production
of White, Gray and Mottled irons.
(a) Surface Finishing Processes (xii) In 1709, Abraham Darby got succeeded in smelting in the coke
) Grínding ii) Lapping blast furnace and this opened a route for the massive use of cast Iron in
construction,
(iii) Honing (iv) Polishing
(v) Supcrfinishing (vi) Metal Spraying (ziii) A number of foundries using cast Iron as a structural material
(vii) Anodizing, etc. came into being after the Industrial Revolution (in Britain).
(xiv) The collapse of the Tay Bridge in 1879, forced people to go
(e) Powder Metallurgy-(Die pressing and sintering of metal powders) beyond the rudimentary judgement of the then moulders and to study the
An engineering component part may make use of several manu founding variables and their effects on the properties of the structures.
facturíng processes (as listed above) before it gets converted from raw (rv) The middle part of the twentieth century saw marked develop
material to the finished produd. ments in founding. Newer techniques came into existence, the casting
Of all the manufacturing processes; perhaps Casting is the oldest and phenomenon could be understood better; more and more young men took
it is as important loday as it was in prímitive days. interest and got trained in this field and eventually many Engineering
Institutes started teaching metal casting as an independent subject.
1.2. FOUNDING OR CASTING 1.2.2. Principles of
1.2.1. History (i) Founding has been shaping metals since
() Founding or Casting is onc of the oldest manufacturing pro the earliest
civilization. A wide varicty of sizes and shapes of simple days of
cesses which dates back toapproximalely 4000B.C. nature can and intricate
be produccd in different metals.
 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
4
com
process of producing metal/alloy
(ii) Founding or casting is the
by pouring the molten metal/alloy
into a (ix) Castings can be designed for equal distribution of loads (on all
ponent parts of desired shapes then allowing the metal/alloy to
cool members of a product) and for minimum stress concentration in order to
prepared mould (of that shape) andmetal/alloy is known as CASTING. achieve more strength and increased service life.
and solidify. The solidified piece of (r) Casting process can be mechanised and usefully employed for
L.2.3. Steps Involved in Making
a Casting mass production of components.
Metal or Plastic.
(i) Make the Pattern outof wood, 1.2.5. Applications of Metal Casting
ii) In case of Sand Casting, select, test and prepare the necessary The growing demand of high precision castings and of intricate designs
sand mixtures for mould and core making. at lower costs has helped considerably in the development of Foundry
(ii) With the help of patterns prepare the Mould and necessary Industry. Hardly there is any product, today, which does not have one or
Cores. more cast components. A few applications of founding or casting are
Mould is acontainer (of sand or metal, etc.) having a cavity of the
A mentioned below:
shape to be cast.
(i) Transportation vehicles. Cast metal parts account for more than
ACore is abody (of sand etc.)which is employed to produce a cavity 90% of an automobile engine and for more than 50% of the total weight of
in the casting. a tractor (Cast Iron).
(iv) Melt the metal/alloy to be cast.
(v) Pour the molten metal/alloy into the mould and remove the (ii) Machine tool structures e.g. Planner beds (Cast Iron).
(iii) Turbine vanes.
casting from the mould after the metal solidifies.
(iv) Power generators.
(v) Clean and finish the casting. (v) Mill housings (Cast steel).
(vii) Test and Inspect the casting.
(viii) Remove thc defects, if any.
(vi) Railway crossings (Mn Steel Cast Section).
(ix) Relieve the casting stresses by Heat Treatment. (vii) Super charger casing (Mg-alloy).
(viii) Pump filter and valve (Mg-alloy).
(r) Again inspect the casting. (ix) Paper mill stock breaker parts (Steel-Castings).
(wi) The casting is ready for shipping. () Aircraft jet engine blades.
The above-mentioned dillerent phases of Metal Casting will be dis (xi) Agricultural parts.
cuSsed in detail in the remaining part of the book. (xii) Sanitary fitting (Cast Iron).
1.2.4. Advantages of Metal Casting (xiii) Communication, Construction and Atomnic Energy applications.
() Castingisone of the most versatile manufacturing processes. 1.3. FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
(ii) Casting provides the greatest Ireedom of design in terms of
shapc, size and thc product quantity. 1.3.1. Introduction
(ii) Casting imparts uniform directional properties and better ) Foundry Industry bases itself on the founding or casting prin
vibration damping capacity to the cast parts. ciples.J
(iv) Casting produces machinable parts. i) Casting is one of the basic tools of shaping metals and alloys.
(v) Shapes difficult and uncconomic to obtain otherwise may be (iüi) The basic simplicity of the founding process proved to be a boon
achieved through casting process. for the growth of foundry industry and today a wide variety of products (or
(vi) A product may be cast as onc picce, thereby eliminating the need components) from, of domestic use to space vehicles are produced in
of metaljoining proccsses. foundries
(vii) Very heavy and bulky parts (like those of power plants and mill (iv) Foundry may be defined as a commercial set-up for manufac
housings) which are otherwise dilficult to get fabricated may be cast. turing castings.
(vii) Metals (like cast iron) difficult to be shaped by other manu (v) Foundry may also be known as a collection of materials, fuel,
lacturing process may be cast. fluxes and tools (machines) to produce castings.
 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION 7
6
from a few grams to hundrcds
(o) Foundry can shape parts weighing
produced at British Steel Corporation
Foundries may also be classified as:
of tons. One cast steel mill housing Casting for dental implant in () Ferrous foundries
weighed 198 tonnes and an Investmentgrams only. (a) Steel foundry (plain carbon steel, low and high alloy steels)
cobalt-chromium alloy had a weight of 9 (b) Gray Iron foundry.
produces more than
(1) In United States alone the foundry Industry (c) Malleable Iron foundry.
17 million tons of castings every year. (d) Ductile iron foundry.
(u) In United States, the foundry ndustry employs more than () Non-ferous foundries
500,000 people. (a) Aluminium and Magnesium alloy foundry (or light metal
(ix) In United States the total number of (ferrous and non-ferrous) foundry).
foundries are more than 6000. (b) Copper, Brass and bronze foundry.
r) In ndia, there are more than 2000 ferrous and non-ferrous (c) Lead, Tin and zinc-base foundries.
foundries, today. 13.3. Different Sections of a Foundry
(i) Indian ferrous foundries possess a total capacity of more than Fig. 1.2 shows ten different sections of afoundry in sequence in which they
2.50,000 tonnes. are made use of, while making a sand casting.
(xii) Big foundries in India are with: METAL SAND
(a) Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, Asansol.
(b) Durgapur, Bhilai and Rourkela Steel plants. 2. SAND ADDIIIVES
(c) Heavy Electricals Ltd., Bhopal. 5. MELTING 2 SAND MIXING &
(d) Hindustan Machine Tools, Bangalore. PREPARATION
-1 PATTERN MAKING
5. HANDLING 4. MOULDING
132 Types MOLTEN META
Foundries are typified according to the nature of work they undertäke and 3, CORE MAKING AND BAKING
the framework of their organisations. Foundries may be categorised as 4. MOULD ASSEMBLY
follows: AND HANDLING
(i) Captive Foundry 6. POURING
(i) Jobbing Foundry
7. SHAKING OUT
(iii) Production Foundry
(iv) Semi-production Foundry |
8. FETTLING AND FINISHING
manu
(i) ACAPTIVE FOUNDRY is an integral part of some
only and all the 9. HEAT TREATMENT
facluring organisation; it makes castings for the same
castings made in a captive foundry are consumed
mainly in the products 10. INSPECTION AND TESTING
being manufactured by that organization. Fig, L.2. Sections of foundry
small number of
(ii) A JOBBING FOUNDRY normally produces foundries, some
customers. Such
castings of a given type for different 13.4. Foundry Layout
times, also have facilities for mass production. Fig, 1.3. shows the layout of a manual foundry and Fig. 1.4. and Fig. 13.1.
mechanised and can
(iii) APRODUCTION FOUNDRY is highly (a) give the layout of mechanised foundry.
produce castings economically on mass scale. In a mechanised foundry, sand is prepared in a separate unit from
FOUNDRY is acombination of Job where it reaches the hopper just above the moulding machine. Empty
(iv) A SEMI-PRODUCTION
bing and a Production foundry as regards
its nature of work is concerned. " moulding boxs are transported (on roller conveyor) to the moulding
accepts both production and machines where they are rammed, assembled and (on roller conveyor)
In other words, a semi-production foundry
job work.
 INTRODUCTION
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Sand distribution hoppers
Foundry
store
(Raw materi
als & patterns)
Cupola
sänd:::

Smaixndg &
preation Moulding machines
Core
making
Roller conveyor
for moulds etc
Pit furnaces Station for
putting on jackets
Grind er & weights
Moulds ready for pouring
CU
PO
Bench moulding Sand muller
smRatoaerwial LAS
Core Station for
making removing jackets
&weights
Cooling zone
Inspectíon bench Shake out
station
Fig 1.3. Layout of a Manual foundry
Temporary casting store
bench
cupolas in Fig. 1.4). After the molten
moved to pouring station (marked inspection
through cooling zone and ultimately Fettling. finishing. heat- treat ment and
metal has solidified, the moulds pass
out of the moulds. Castings go for
at shake out station castings are taken
cooled moulding boxes are roller
fettling and finishing whereas empty
casting cycle begins.
conveyed to the moulding machines and the new Fig. 1.4. Layout of a
Mechanised foundry
 FOUNDPY MATEÍAIS
2. Cast Iron 11
(i) White irn,
2 (iú) Malleable iron
(ii) Gray cast iron, (ferritis. pearitic, and mzrtemtic fnns).
plain,
Foundry Materials (iv) Dutile
graphite (SG) íron,
cast iron, also knom dular iren and spherndal
2.1. INTRODUCTION
() Compated yaphite (CCi) iron,
(i) Alloy cast iron.
- Rzw materials for foundry (B) Non-Ferrous
(a) Meas and aloys are.
(b) Fuek (for mclting (), Alurniniun bae,
lc) Flues metals) (ii) Copper bae, (bresses and
bromzes).
(d) Refractories (iq) Lead base,
(iv) Magnesium brat,
(2 Metzls and Allgs Commonly used in () Nickel base.
Mzls ris in the
Foundries (vi) Tin base,
crust of the carth as metal oides, sulphides
tnes in the form of ore. The ore and (vii) Zinc base,
is
purpet
innpartets purer form in hichsrnelted to ohtein metals and
they can be used for casting
(ii) Titanium ba,
(iq), (ii), ()and (viü) are heavy metals 2nd (i), (iv) and (viii) are
SELECTINGA METAL orameal alloy for a light metals.
ppn depenás on many faaors other specific casting 23. CAST STEELS
than ost of metal and
bily. The mahod of
metal scesin pins because casting for cxample, may imit
it has a profound effed on cast The most commun types of stecls used in casting, are carton steels, which
itg quay. produain volume, nd delivery by design contain ony carton as the principal alloying clement. (other
be udry commitments, Avail clements are prescnt in small quantitics, including thOSE added ior deoxi
equipnent and casting expetise are important.
The finzl s t z asting always is in the center dation. Slicon and manganese in cast carbon stecs typically range from
s e giirns. Alng with the st of the ring in foundry/ 0.25 to about 0% Si and0.50 to about 10% Mn. Carbon stcels are
Undei pttern r die uS, Osting produaionmetal, however, must be classificd by their carbon content ín three distinct groups: 1. Low cabon
b tremet, frihing, testing and insptin, costs, and
and the costs of
even shipping, Metal
stecj-Cs0.20%,2. Medium carbon stecl--C=020-9.50%, and 3. High
ziaay frr gjen zsting desigp end cating carbon stcel-C20.5)%.
cers well z mechaialand phycal properties,
method affeas metal By definition, low alloy steels contain alloying clemcnts upto 8%
foundry l n d razls can be cdasifed as ferrous (iron-base) or total, in addition to carbon. Cast alloy stecls containing more than the
following arnounts of a síngle alloying cement, but less than 8% total, are
classified as a low alloy type: 1. Manganese100%. 2. Silicon
22. CIASSICATION (O OUNDRY METALS AND 00%. 3. Nickel-0.50%. 4. Copper-0.50%. 5.Chromíum 0.25%.
ALIOYS 6. Molybdenum-0.10%. 7. Vanadium -0.05%, 8. Tungsten-0.05%.
(A) terrts (Srn Bae High ailoy steels contain more than 8% total alloying clements.
Technically, tool steels and stainless steels arc hígh allow stecs.
Stainless steels are grouped into three classes: mantensitic, feritic,
(u) Lw ly l, and austenitic.They are more resástant to corrosion than plain carbon and
lower allow steel, and they contain cither chromíum or chromium and
1 FOUNDRY MATIRIALS
FOUNDRY IECHHNOLOGY 13
mickel Cast stainless steel grades are designated in general as cither heat Table 2.l. Minimum mechanical properties of Cast
Low-Alloy sleels
restant or omosion rsistant.
Stainless steel castings should be speciied by ACI designations. ASTMClassiication
which were originalh established by the Alloy Casting Institute. Thev have AI52 A217 Al48 A148 Al48 Al48 A48 Al48
been adopted br ASTM and are pretcrred for cast allovs.
The Cseries of ACl grades designates corrosion-resistant Grade
H seris designates heat-resistant stecls that steels: the
are suitable for service
temperatures in tbc 1.00-2.00F range. Typical casting applications for
LCI
NT
WC4 80-50 90-60 105 85 l15-95 150-135 180-145
C-series grades are valves pumps, and fittings.
NT NT NT QT QT QT QT
for furnace parts turbine components, and H-series grades are used
Ttqurements.
other high-temperature Yield strength
(10° psi) 35 40 S0 60 95 135 145
Hardenability of cast steels does not vary significantlv from that of Tensile strength 65 70 90 108 115 150 160
WTOnght steels of similar composition. (10 psi)
The one principal diference betseen Impact strength. 60 S5 48 40 58 45 30 24
efet of the casting surface. It may contain wTOught and cast steels is the
scale
Charpy (ft-Ib)
be chemically or structurally equivalent to the and oxides and may not
base metal. The iitial
Fatigue endurance
machining cut on a steel casting limit. polished spe
therefore should be deep enough to pene cimen (10 psi) 20 23 25 31 37 44 48
Irate below the skin. In addition cutting speed should be reduced by 50% Elongation in 2
to compensate for the deeper initial cut. in. (%) 24 20 22 20 17 6
Microstructure has a profound effect on machinability of cast steels. Hardness Bhn l63 18 217 248 311 363
Machining characteristics can be improved significantly by normalizing or
by normalizing and tempering for the medium to high-carbon grades. NT-Normalized and Tempered.
QT-Quenched and Tempered.
Annealing also may be used to improe machinability. As a rule, in the
absence of data on machinability of specific types of steel castings, the (A) Plain Carbon steel (cast)
charts that apply to wrOught materials can be used reasonably well to plan (i) A plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and it is
machining operations. malleable.
The severe quenching effect produced when a small welding rod is
used toweld a large section, as in repair welding, results in the formation
of martensite. even when carbon content is low, that may cause cracking.
Csually, cast steels with a maximum of 0.20% C and 0.50% Mn are less
susceptible toproblems from this source.
Seeral carbon equivalent formulas are used to determine the need
for prchcating and post-hcating to prevent cracking. One widely used
formula for carbon equivalent (CE) is the following:
Mo 4 Cu
CE = C+ + +
6 15 5 5 5 15
As the CE approaches and exceeds 0.50, it becomes increasingly
imporant to prcheat the casting and to stress relicve by healing it to at
lcast 315 to 37C (60 to 70rF) after welding. In multiple-pass welding.
it also is good practice to control the interpass temperature. Fig. 2.1. Plain carbon steel (0.20% C) showing ferite grains and grain boundaries
 14 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY FOUNDRY MATERIALS 15
(ii) Carbon steels are different from (cast) irons as regards the (5) Columns in high-rise buildings.
percentage of carbon. (6) Parts of ore boats.
(iü) Carbon steels contain from 0.10 to 1.5% carbon whereas (cast) (7) Parts of small tankers, barges etc.
irons possess from 1.8 to 4.2% carbon. (8) Lighting poles and pole-line hardware.
(iv) Carbon stecls can be classified as Low Carbon Steel (or Mild (9) Coal bunkers.
steel), Medium carbon steel and High carbon steel.
(v) Low carbon steel contains 0.1 to 0.25% C, and 0.6-1% Mn. (10) Agricultural and earth moving machinery parts, etc.
Medium carbon and High carbon steels have 0.2 to 0.5% and 0.5 to 1.5%
(C) Cast Heat Resistant Steels
carbon respectively.
(vi) Carbon steel castings are tough and ductile. They are casily (i) Heat resistant or high temperature steel is meant for service at
weldable also. temperatures above 1200ºF.
(vii) LOw carbon steels, medium carbon steels and high carbon steels (ii) As comparedto plain carbon steel, high resistant steel gets cor
possess solidification range 2730-2615, 2695-2590 and 2670-2160°F res roded at very slow rates.
pectively. (iiil) Heat resistant steels possess sufficient high temperature
(viii) Carbon steels have shrinkage of V8 - V4 inch/foot (1 to 2 mm/ strength.
100 mm). (iv) Heat resistant alloys can be of two types-cast and wrought and
Uses they possess different chemical compositions.
(1) Automotive industries -frames, gears, . engine housings, (v) The selection of a heat resistant alloy for a particular application
cylinder blocks and heads, etc. depends upon:
(2) Ingot and pig moulds. (a) The rcquired component part-life.
(3) Electrical manufacturing industries-base, housings, rotors, (6) Frequency and range of temperature cycle.
frames, etc. (c) Nature of casting design.
(4) Rolling mill rolls. (a) The contaminating constitutents in the atmosphere.
(5) Blast furnace ingot buggies. (e) Fabrication of the casting, if further, required.
(6) Marine works--rudders, anchor chain, etc. (vi) Heat resistant steels can be cast in thicknesses from 4.5 mm up,
(7) Transportation -drawbars, brake shoes, couplings etc. satisfactorily. Uniform changes in sections should be designed. A machin
ing allowance of 3 mm or so may be provided.
(B) Alloy steels (vii) Heat resistant castings can undergo most of the machining
operations. The rubbing or scraping action of the cutting tool on the
(i) An alloy steel contains more than V½% Mn and 2% Si. casting should be avoided so that the surface being cut is not work
(i) Alloy steels possess high yield point and high strength. hardened.
(iii) They are more stronger, tougher and fatigue resistant than
carbon steel. Rigid machines,slow feeds and deep cuts give better results. Tool
(iv) They possess sufficient formability, ductility and weldability. should be mounted properly and the tool mounting should be stiff. For
() They are sufficiently corrosion and abrasion resistant. machining heat resistant stcels, both carbide tipped and high speed steel
(vi) They may contain Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, Si, etc., as alloying elements. tools can be employed. Cutting fluid should flood over the tool and the job.
Uses Water soluble cutting fluids may be employed as coolants with carbide
tools and with high speed steel cutting tools, sulfo-chlorinated petroleum
(1) Structural applications. oil having sulphur and approximately &-10% fatty oil may be used.
(2) Railroad passenger and freight cars. High speed steel turning tools used for machining have an end relief
(3) Transmission towers.
angle of 4to 10°, cnd cutting edge angle of &to 159, side cutting cdge angle
(4) Long span bridges. of 10150 and a nose radius of V32 to V& inch (0.25 to 1 mm).
16
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY 17
FOUNIDRY MATERIALS
(viii) Heat resistant steels can be
grouped into three categories:
Category-1: Iron chromium alloys containing 8 to 30% chro
(6) Velocity of the fluid.
mium, less than 7% nickel and having (c) Contaminants in the solution, etc.
possess very good resistance to oxidationferritic structure. These alloys
and to the atmosphere con (ii) Any cast stainless steel can be used
under mild corrosive
taining sulphur. conditions such as those of ordinary water, air atmosphere, food products
Category-2: Iron, chromium and Nickel alloys containing 19 to 32% etc.
chromium and 8to 22% nickel and having austenitic structure. These (iv) Fcrritic chromium-nickel alloys are preferred when temperature
oxidising
alloys possess greater high temperature strength and ductility as com and concentralion of the corroding agent increase under strongly
pared to alloys of category-1 and can be used in either reducing Conditions.
oxidizing atmospheres. (v) Molybdenum containing alloys or high chromium grades nor
phosphoric acids.
Category-3: Iron, Nickel and chromium alloys mally find applications in handling sulphuric, acetic and
nickel and 10 to 23% chromium and containing 23 to 68% (vi) Cast stainless stecls can be machined without any major diffi
having stable austenitic structure. culty; however the culting tool should not work-harden the surface of the
These alloys have very good hot strength and withstand rapid heating
cooling cycles. They can be used up to 2100°F. Their use in high sulphur and casling by rubbing against it.
bearing atmospheres in however, not recommended. Different alloying (vii) Rigid machines, slow feeds, deep cuts, firm tool and work-piece
mounting, givc better results.
elements have the following effects: (viii) Carbide tipped and high speed steel tools can be employed for
Nickel content in the alloy increases resistance to thermal shock and machining thc castings.
carburization. Resistance to corrosion and oxidation increases with chro (ix) Flood Iubrication and cooling action serve the best.
mium whereas hot strength increases as the carbon content increases. w) Waler soluble cutting fluids may be employed as coolants with
Silicon adds toresistance to carburization but reduces hot strength. carbide tools and with high speed steel cutting tools, sulfochlorinated
Uses petroleum oil having sulphur and approximately &-10% fatty oil may be
used.
(1) Industrial processing equipments operating up to 2200 F. (xi) High speed steel turning tools employed for the purpose may
(2) Components of heat treating furnaces e.g. trays, rails, radiant have end relief of 7 to 10°, side and back rake angles of 4 to 10°, side relief
tubes, etc.
(3) Furnaces for oil refining and glass making. angle of 4 to 7º, endcutting cdge angle of 8 to 15°, side cutting edge angle
(4) Cement kilns. 10 to 15° and nose radius of the order of V32 to V& inch (0.25 to 1 mm per
100 mm).
(5) Gas turbines, jetengines and missiles parts.
(6) Power-plant superheaters. Cast stainless steels can be categorized as Iron-chromium alloys and
(7) Stcel-mill economizers.
Iron-Chromium-Nickel alloys.
(xii) Iron-Chronniunalloys:
(D) Cast Stainless Steels (Corrosion resistant alloys) (a) They are highly resistant to oxidising solutions.
Characteristics nitric acid.
(6) They are used in chemical plants processing nitrates and
(i) Iron-chromium and Iron-Nickel-Chromium alloys having a mini (c) These alloys are of two types; one, virtually non- hardenable
mun of 8% alloy content arc known as Cust Stainless Steels. These alloys and the other which can be hardened by suitable heat treat ment.
fnd applications in corrosive environments at temperatures less than (d) AII the alloys resist erosion.
1200F. (e) These alloys contain from 11.5 to 30% Cr and up to 4% Ni.
(ii) The seletion of an alloy for aparticular application depends (xii) Iron-chromium-nickel alloys:
(a) They contain from 15 to 30% Cr, 3 to 30% Ni, and up to
upon, 0.2% carbon. In addition these alloys may have Cu 2 to 3.259% and
(u) Temperat urc, pressure and oncentration of the corrosive Mo 2to
cnvíronments.
3.25%.
18 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY 19
FOUNDRY MATERIALS
chemistry, and austenizing
formation is a function of cooling rate and
temperature affects strength.
Microalloyed Steel Castings
microalloyed steels are high yield
Among the advantages claimed for
temperatures, excellent weldability
strength and toughness even at low comparable to that of plain
resistance to thermal shock, machinability
Typical compositions
carbon steels, and good high-temperature strength.
carbon-manganese-molybdenum steel with addition
of vana
consist of a
than about 0.1%. Carbon
dium o niobium (columbium) at levels less
normally is kept low-under 0.15% and manganese is raised to 1.2-2%
(AtPont-à-Mousson, where the fontemince process
in the foreign gTades.
0.08% and silicon below
is used increasingly, carbon content is below
Fe 2213%Coen ssaless seel (C028%) quenched from 950°C(martensite). 0.3%.) heat
There is evidence in the foreign literature that intercritical
U.S.A., Daniel
Uses of Stainless Steels treatment can be beneficial to micro-alloved steels. In
(1) Industrial process equipments operating at temperatures from Dutcher, KO Steel Castings Inc. made the following findings:
450to L1200F. 1. Microalloved vanadium or vanadium-niobium steel castings can
(2) Pumps raks fitings and mixers. be a low-cost alternative to conventional low-allov gades.
(3) Chemical indnstries. 2. Heat treatment control of micro-alloyed steels is more critical
(4) Pulp and paper industry (digesters, filters and pumps) parts. than with conventional low-alloy steels. particularly with respect to austen
5) Soap making industry. izing and tempering temperatures.
(6) Parts for bleaching and dyeing operations in the textile industry. 3. Intercritical heat treatment enhances impact resistance of micro
(7) Pumps and valves used in petroleum refining. alloyed steels, but may be accompanied by a loss in yield strength.
(8) Components for making synthetic textile fibres. 4. Tensile properties of Nb-v steels are primarily a function of
hardness.
(9) Cryogenic appications.
(10) Food and beerage processing plants. 2.4. CAST IRON
(11) Pars in the manuf2cture of explosives and atomic energy proces The term cast iron, like the term steel, encompasses a family of
ses
ferrous alloys: gray iron, alloy iron, white iron, malleable iron,
Cast Duplex Stainless Steels ductile iron, and compacted graphite iron. Wide variations in
properties can be achieved by varying the balance between car
Iaterest is being renewed in cast duplex stainless steels because the 50% bon and silicon, by alloying, and by applying various types of heat
zustenitic mezllographic structure of these grades makes them extremely treatment.
resistant to Sress corrosion cracking In addition, they have twice the yield The machinability of most gray irons is superior to that of virtually all
strength of austenitic grades and may cost less. A number of cast pro other cast ferrous allovs. The dispersion of graphite flakes acts as lubricant
prictary duplex alloys have become commercially available over the last in the melal that breaks the chips. Acceptable machining depends, how
several years. ever, on the microstructure and hardness.
Altbough the basic properties of cast duplex alloys are determined A. Gray Cast Iron (Fig. 2.3)
primarily by the 5050 miure of ferrite and austenite, the metallurgy can
be complex because of the numerous carbides, nitrides, and intermetallic Characteristics
phases or compOunds (sgma, chi, and alpha prime) that can form. Ferrite (i) Gray Iron basically is an alloy of carbon and silicon with iron.
 OUNDRY RCUNOLOY OUNDRY MALRIALS
(w) (ylnder blocks and hcads lor LC. EngieN.
(") Tunnel segment.
(v) Frames for eloctrie motors.
(vù) Ingot oulds.
(vii) Sanitary wares,
(i) Piston rings.
() Rolling milland general machincry parts.
(v) Houschold appliances cte
B. Mulleable Cust Iron (Fig. 24)
(harenntics
(i) Malleable cast iron is one which ean be hammerecd and rolled to
obtain new shapcs.
Fig. 23 Grr iron showing graphite lakes (black) and ferrite (white portion) (iù) Malleable cast iron is obtaincd trom hard and britle white iron
through a controlled heat conversion process. (reler chapter 25)
( ) It is readily cast into a desired shape in a sand mould. (ç) (a) Alerritic malleable cast iron has FERRITE matrix.
(iZi) It contains 25-3.S%C, 1.1 - 2:8o Si, 0.4- 1.0% Mn, 0.15% P (b) Apearlitic malleable cast iron has PEARLITE matrix.
and 0.10 S. (c) Analloy malleable cast iron conttins chromium and nickel
(iv) It is marked by the presence of flakes of graphite in a matrix of and possesses high strength and corrosion resistance.
ferrite (Fig. 23) pearlite or austenite. (iv) Malleable cast iron possesses high vield strength.
(1) Graphite flakes occupv about 10% of the metal volume. () It has high young's modulus and low coctieient of hermal
(17) Length of flakes mav varv from 0.0S mm to 0.1 mm. expansion.
(i) When fractured, a bar of Gray Cast Iron gives gray appearance. (v) I possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping capa
(zil) Gray-Iron possesses lowest melting point of the ferrous alloys. city.
(ir) Gray Cast Iron possesses high fluidity and hence it can be cast
intocomplex shapes and thin sections.
) It possesses machinability better than steel.
( ) It has high resistance to wear (including sliding wear).
(i) It possesses high vibration damping capacity.
criii) Of course, gray iron has low ductility and low impact strength as
compared with steel.
Civ) Gray cast iron has a solidification range of 2400 - 2000°F.
C) It has shrinkage of Vs inch/foot (1 mm/100 mm).
(v) It associates low cost combincd with hardness and rigidity.
nii) Gray cast iron possesses high compressive strength.
nii) Gray cast iron possesses excellent casting qualities for producing
simple and complex shapes.
Applications
() Machine tool structures.
() Gas or water pipes for underground purposes. Fig. 2.4. Ferrite mallcable iron showing ferrite matrix
and temper carbon (dark particles)
(iüt) Manhole covers.
22 23
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY OUNDRY MATERIALS
climínate
(vii) t can be used from -60 to 1200°F. clements when added to melt
spheroidizing charac
(viii) It has a solidification range of 2550 (ii) Thc which change
solidification
20650F. (from the melt), nodulizatíon.
(ix) It has shrinkage of 6inch per foot (1.5 mm/100 mm) sulphur and oxygen
account for the
(u) It has low to moderate tcristics and possibly machinability.
cost. possesses very good very
(xi) Malleable cast iron contains 2 - 3% C. 0.6- 1.3% Si, 0.2 (iii) Ductile cast iron
grades of Nodular cast
iron can be turned at
Mn, 0.15% Pand 0.10% S. 0.6% (iv) Soft annealed
metal
Uses
high fecds and speeds. Nodular CastIron depend upon the
(v) The properties of
(1) Automotive industry. composition and the cooling rate. contains 3.2 - 4.2% C,
1.1 -3.5%
Ductile Cast Iron
(2) Rail road. (vi) Nodular or
0.089% P and 0.02% S. cast iron
(3) Agriculural implements. Si, 0.3 -0.8% Mn, capacity
damping
intermediate between
(4) Electrical linc hardware. (vii) It possesses
and stcel. resistance.
(5) Conveyor chain links. castability and wear
(6) Gear case. (viii)It possesses excellent
(7) Universal joint yoke. Uses
(8) Rear axle banjo housing. machinery.
(1) Paper industries
(9) Truck tandem axle assembly parts. (2) Internalcombustion engines.
(10) Automotive crankshaft. (3) Power transmission equipment.
(11) Crankshaft sprocket etc. (4) Farm implements and tractors.
(5) Earth moving machinery.
C. Nodular Cast Iron (Fig. 2.5.) (6) Valves and fittings.
Characteristics
(7) Steel millrolls and mill equipment.
(8) Pipes.
(i) Unlike long flakes as in gray cast iron, graphite appears as (9) Pumps and compressors.
Iron.
rounded particles, or nodules or spheroids in Nodular Cast (10) Construction machinery.
D. White Cast Iron (Mottled Iron)
Characteristics
freshly
(i) White cast iron derives its name from the fact that its
broken surface shows a bright white fracture.
(ii) Unlike gray iron, white cast iron has almost all its carbon, chemi
cally bonded with the iron- as iron carbide, FeC. Iron carbide is a very
hard and brittle constituent.
(ii) Thus white iron possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.
(iv) White iron under normal circumstances is brittle and not
machinable.
() By using a fairly lowsilicon content, cast iron may be made to
solidify as white iron.
(vi) White iron castings can be made in sand moulds.
Nodular Cast Iron showing graphite nodules surrounded by ferrite (white). The
Fig..2..55. matrix is pearlite
 25
24 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY FOUNDRY MATERIALS
transverse strengths for
some grades of
Typical tensile strengths and is an effort made to
Table 2.3. There rarely
gray iron are given in essentially the same as
determine yicld strength in
gray iron because it is essentially is nil.
tensile st rength. Furthermore,
for gray iron, elongation For example, a
two-digit designation.
Gray iron is specified by a the material must exhibit a minimum
specifies that
Class 20 gray iron
psi. Other classes are 25,
30, 35, 40, 45, 50 and 60.
tensile strength of 20,000 gray iron is highly
that tensile strength of
It is important to know dimensions. The smaller the cross section,
dependent on cross-sectional tensile strength. Gray
that produces a higher
the faster is the cooling rate critical cross sections.
specified by the strength of
iron therefore must be match or be related to critical
strength areas
Test bar cross sections should
in cach casting.
Fig- 2.6. White cast iron showing massive carbide areas (white) in fine pearlite (dark) carbon steel. That point applies
Gray iron is less weldable than low large
matrix.
grades, which contain relatively
particularly to the higher strength
Gray iron has higher carbon and
(1ii) White iron can also be made on the surface of agray iron casting amounts of carbon in the combined state. welded is
therefore is less ductile and when
proided the material is of special composition. silicon contents than steel. It
subject to more metallurgicalcomplications
in both the weld metal and the
(1iiü) If iron of proper composition is cooled rapidly, the free carbon
will goin the combined form and give rise to white iron casting. heat-affected zone.
normally is about three to four
(x) The white iron contains 1.8 3.6% C, 0.5 -2.0% Si, 0.2- 0.8% Thecompressive strength of gray iron strength, est
Mn, 0.18% P, and 0.10% S. times its tensile strength. For determining compressive are used. It is
(x) The solidification range of white iron is 2550- 2065 °F. specimens with a length-to-diameter ratio of 2 to 1usually
will be 10
(i) Shrinkage is Vs inch per foot (1 mm/100 mm). essential to speify the ratio because with an LD = 1, readings
(xii) White iron (of a particular chemical composition) is the first step to 12% higher than with L/D = 2.
in the production of malleable iron castings. The modulus of elasticity can be evaluated by studying typical stress
Uses
strain curves for three classes of gray iron in tension.
To be ductile (or nodular) iron, the metal must contain trace
(1) For producing malleable iron castings. amounts of magnesium that, by altering the surface-tension mechanism,
(2) For manufacturing those component parts which require a hard, precipitate the carbon out in the form of smnall spheres. That micro
and abrasion resistant material.
structural change improves the stiffness, strength, and shock resistance
Table 2.2. Hardness ranges for Gray Irons properties of ductile iron, compared to those of gray iron. Because the
Malrix Microslruclure Brinell
modulus of elasticity in ductile iron is higher, however, its damping
Types of Gray Iron around Flake Graphite Hardness
capacity and thermal conductivity properties are lower than those of gray
iron.
Soft-Annealed AJlferrite 110-140 Ductile iron is specified by a three-part numbering system. The
Ordinary Pearlite and ferrite 140-200 designation of a typical alloy -60-40-18 for examnple specifies a mini
Higher Strength Finc pearlite 200-270 mum tensile strength of 60,000 psi, a minimum yield strength of 40,000 psi,
Bainite
Alloyed-Acicular
Austenite
260-350
and 18% elongation in 2 in. Other typical designations are 80-55-06,
Austenitic (Ni-Resist) 140-160 100-70-03, and 120-90-02.
Heat Treat Hardened Martensite 480-550 White iron is produced by chilling" selected areas of a casting in the
Hardened and Tempered Tempercd martensite 250450 mold to prevent graphitic carbon from precipitating out. Gray and ductile
Chilled (white iron) Pearlite and carbides 400 - S00
 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY 27
FOUNDRY MATERIALS
iron can be chilled to produce a surface laver of white iron. In castings that differs from other cast irons in
converted iron is mallcable. Malleable iron
are designed to be white iron throughout, however, the iron composition graphite, which exists as temper
terms of the shape of the contained
should be selected in relation to part size to assure that the amount of graphite flakes in gray iron or the true
carbon nodules, in contrast with the
metal inovved can be chilled rapidly enough to produce a white-iron carbon spheroids in ductile iron.
structure. ferriticand pearlitic. Ferritic
Two basic types of malleable iron are are
Compacted graphite (CG) iron which also is known as vermicular ductile, whercas the pearlitic grades
grades are more machinable and malleable iron is martensitic, which is
iron, falls between gray and ductile iron in its mechanical characteristics. stronger and harder. A third type
of
transformed into
With better process control capabilities available today in melting opera has been heat treated and
a pearlitic or ferritic grade that malleable iron castings can be surface
tions, particularly in keeping alloy additions within very tight limits, CG a martensite structure. Pearlitic hardening controlled by rate of heat
iron is finding many suitable areas for application. hardened selectively, with depth of
inputand time at temperature. malleable
produced for conversion to
Table 2.3. Typical tensile and lransverse properlies of some grades of gray iron The requirement that any iron limitations
places definite section thickness
iron must solidify as white iron
Corrected Transverse Breaking Load sections can be produced by appropriate
on casting designs. Thick metal routinely produce castings as
A
bar) B barl) Cbarl) metallurgical manipulation. Some foundries
Approximale thick as 4 in. (about 100 mm). because the material has
selected
Tensile Strength, Malleable iron castings often are
ASTM
class MPa ksi kg lb kg kg excellent machinability and excellent ductility. In other applications, mal
toughness
chosen because it combines castability with good
leable iron is
2,720 6,000 is the best choice because of
and machinability. Frequently malleable iron
20 138 20 408 900 816 1.800
907 2,000 3,080 6,800
25 172 25 465 1.025 shock resistance alone.
522 1,150 998 2.200 3,450 7,600
30 207 30
1,089 2,400 3,760 8.300
35 241 35 578 1.275
9.100
Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI)
635 1.400 1,179 2,600 4,130
40 276 40
4.400 9.700 Withnearly twice the strength of conventional ductile iron, austempered
1.270 2,800
45 699 1540 crankshalts, and other
irons are used increasingly for automotive gears,
45 310
3.000 4.900 10,300
1,675 1.361 stated that "aus
highly stressed components. Some metallurgists have
345 50 760
1,925 1,542 3,400 5,670 12.500
forging.
tempered ductile iron can replace any part now made as a steel
60 414 60 873
specimens produced in accordance with ASTM
A48 or Thermal treatments for increasing strength of metals and alloys
(a) Data are for separately cast test
QQ-1-652, or with any other specification that usually decrease ductility, but the austempering process improves strength
A 287. with ASME SA278. with IFED struc
designates ASTM A438 as the test method.
Included in specification only by agreement significantly and reduces ductility only slightly. The uniqueamatrix
is truly distinct and
betwcen produccr and purchaser (b) 0.88
in. (22.4 nnm) diam. 12 in. (30S mm)
between
ture of ADI sets it apart from other cast irons: it
supports (c) 1.20 in (30.5 mm) diam: 18 in
(457 mm) between supports. (d) 2.00 in. separale engineering material of construction.
(S0.8 mm)dam: 24 in. (610mm) betwecn supports. The heat treatment that produces high strength in austempered
austenitized in the
characteristics, and its ductile iron is a two-stage operation. Castings are first
1,500-1,700°F range and held at temperature to convert the
matrix
CG iron offers high thermal conductiity
damping capacity approaches that of gray
iron. CG iron fatigue resistance structure completely. Austempering then consists of quenching
to 450
and ducitiliy properlies are similar to
those of ductile iron. Machinability 750°F and holding isothermally in a salt or oil bath to allow the
austenite to
and casting yields are bigh transform to bainitic ferrite and some retained austenite. Quenching must
of CGiron is supcrior to thal of ductile iron,
because shrinkage and feeding characteristics are
similar tothose of gray be rapid enough to avoid austenite transformation to either ferrite or
pearlite. Close control over temperture and times of both austenitizing
iron.
Malleable iron is white iron that has been converted by
a two-slage
and brittle like white iron, the
beal reatment. Instcad ol being hard
 FOUNDRYTECHNOLOGY FOUNDRY MATERIALS 35
but
34
alloyed rcadily
with aluminum,
dispersion uniformity-are particularly important. Aluminum-based
Most metallic
clements can be
among them
copper, lithium MMCs normally contain 15 to 45 volume % SiC reinforcement, and
ony a few are
commercially
imporlant
Many other
clements serve as special coatings have been developed to improve the chemical compat
mangancsc, silicon, and zinC. and metallurgical ibility of the reinforcement with the matrix, thereby improving composite
magnesium, properties
additions toimprove performance.
supplementaryalloying
characteristics.
produced by virtually all conmmercial Castable aluminum-bascd metal matrix alloys have recently been
are
Aluminum alloy castings a wide variety of useful developed in the U.S. These are standard foundry alloys, such as A356,
compositions possessing reinforcement is
processcs in a range of A357, and A332, that contain at least 7% silicon. The
engineering properties.
alloys have poor castability
(201, A 206. provided by finely powdered, commercial grade SiC particulate in quan
All of the aluminium-copper containing large quantities of silicon. titics of 10%, 15%, or 20% by volume.
alloys ready for
224. and 249) compared with premium-quality These composites are available as foundry pig and are
properties and are used for changes
They have very high tensile melting and casting with only minor equipment and procedural imp
acrospace parts. corrosion resistance, from standard practice needed. These composites show dramatic
Aluminum-magnesium alloys offer excellent and mechanical
appearance when anodized. Care rovements in stiffness, wear resistance, thermal stability,
good machinability, and an attractive properties over most conventional aluminum alloys.
fulgating and risering are required. high corro The mechanisms operating within the composite microstructure are
Binary aluminum-silicon alloys exhibit good weldability controlled by a complex interdependence of several variables that
col
Aluminum-zincalloys have good
sion resistance, and low specific gravity. to moderately lectively enhance strength, elastic modulus, dimensional stability, and
machinability characteristics and age at room temperature
time without solution heat response to cnvironmental effects.
high strengths in a relatively short period of Prevailing models suggest that optimum performance results from
A356
strong interfacial bonds. From the microstructures developed in
treatment.
Aluminum-tin alloys were developed for bearings and
bushings with
intercellular
resistance is composites, it was reasoned that SiC particles are located in
high load-carrying capacity and fatiguc strength. Corrosion regions being pushed ahead of the meniscus to be ge ometrically trapped
superior., but there is a susceptibility to hot cracking.
Aluminum-lithium alloys are of recent commercial significance by converging solidification fronts.
The distribution of the SiC particles is influenced by the cooling rate.
because of their good mechanical properties. They are believed to have
Slowly cooled castings tend to show a coarse distribution, while high
many potential aerospace applications, and alloy development is wide pressure diecastings show a very uniform distribution. The properties
sprcad.
Iron content is restricted to 0.8 or 1.0% max in most commercial of the composites show only minor differences, however, caused by the
different solidification rates.
sand and permancnt mold casting alloys. Higher contents impair feeding
and properties. Tensile properties of permanent mold A356 -SiC composite
Table 2.8.
[Typieal and (Minimum) Values]
Metal Matrix Composites
Ultimate Yicld
Metal matrix composites (MMC) represent an important and relatively Volune
Strength Elongation Modulus
Percent Strength
new technology. They can provide stronger, lighter componcnts, parti SiC (ksi) (ksi) (%) Msi
cularly at higher temperatures; improved wear resistance; and the ability
to adjust the coefficient of thermal expansion lo meet varying require 44 (41) 41(40) 0.6 11.7
ments. More than ten different inorganic filaments, along with a similar 0.3 13.0
number of whiskers and particulates, are used as reinforcements in the
15 4S (45) 47 (44)
MMCs. 20 S1 (48) 48 (46) 0.4 14.0
The specific properties of the reinforcement -particle morphology Mininmum values represent 99% confidence interval
and size distribution, particle surface chemistry, fractional content, and
 37
FOUNDRY MATERIALS
36 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
malleable.
(c) Easy to work, it is ductile and
Table 2.9. Typical physical properties of A356-SiC composites (d) Moderatc to high hardness and strength.
Property 0% SiC 15% SiC (e) High thermal and electrical conductivity.possesses apleasing
() It can be casily polished, plated and
20%% SiC.
Density (Ib/in) 0.0970 0.0986 0.0996 appearance.
Electrical Conductivity (% IACS) and corrosion.
(g) Resistance to fatigue, abrasionwelded.
at 72°F; F Temper 37.5 27.6 20.8 (h) It can be soldered, brazed or
Thermal Conducitivity (Btu/ft-hr°F); T6 Temper ()) Very good machinability.
72°F 87.0 100.5 "104.4 elements like Zn, Sn, Al,
300°F 106.9 111.0
G) Ease of forming alloys with other
400°F 109.2
Pb, Si, Ni, etc.
113.4 which they have been
S00°F 115.6 120.1 (iii) Cast Copper alloys are used as the shape in
however they can be
Average Coefficicnt of Thermal Expansion cast. The cast alloys cannot be worked easily:
(10°°F), T6 Temper machined and brazed.
120-212°F
(iv) Intricate shapes can be cast with copper base alloys. Cores can
11.9 9.9 9.1
120-570°F 10.9
120-930°F 11.3
be used for producing hollow castings.
(v) Copper base alloys can be, sand cast, die cast, shell moulded or
Calculated values based on 15% SiC results manufactured as investment and centrifugal castings.
2.6. COPPER ALLOYS
(vi) Some of the cast copper base allovs along with their uses are given
below.
Characteristics (a) Tin bronze: It contains 8 to 10% Sn and 2 to 4% Zn and
remainder copper.
(i) The main grades of raw copper used for cast copper base alloys It is a general utility structural bronze and is used for manufacturing
are: pressure castings, bushings and bearings.
(a) Higk Conductivity Copper (electrolytic) having not less than 99.9% (b) Leaded Tin bronze: It contains 6 to 8.5% Sn, 0.5 to 1.5% Pb, about
Cu. The oxygen content may be of the order 0.04%, Pb and Fe less than 4% Zn, and remaining copper.
0.005% each, Ag 0.002% and Bi less than 0.001%. Electrolytic copper is It can be used up to S50° F and finds applications as steam pressure
used for clectrical purposes. castings, bushings, electrical castings, gears, pumps etc.
(b) Deaxidized Copper having not less than 99.85% Cu, less than (c) High leaded Tin bronze: It contains 5 to 10% Sn, and 7 to 15% Pb.
0.05% As, 0.03% Fe, and 0.003% Bi. Other elements may be of the order However, it may contain l to 3% Zn also.
of 0.05% P, 0.01% Pb, 0.10% Ni, 0.003 and 0.005% Ag and Sb res It is used for making bearings operating under high pressures and
high speeds corrosion resistant pumps etc.
pectively. (d) Aluminum bronze: It contains from l to 4% Fe, 9 to 11% Al, and
(c) Arsenical deoxidized copper having 0.4% As, 0.04% P and remaining copper. Aluminium bronze sometimes may have a nickel
remaining copper. It is used for welded vessels and tanks. content (of 4%) also.
(a) Arsenical touglh pitch copper containing 0.4% As, 0.065% OxYgen, Aluminium bronze is used for heavy duty parts, marine equipments,
0.02% Pb, 0.15% Ni, 0.006% Ag, 0.01% Sb and less than 0.005% Bi, less gears, be arings, bushings, valve seats, guides, stems, acid
than 0.020% Fe and remaining copper. resisting pumps,
parts resisting corrosion andoxidation and components requiring
(e) Oxygen free copper contains 0.005% Pb, 0.001% Ni, 0.001% Ag at elevated temperatures. strength
and less than 0.0005% and 0.001% Fe and Birespectively. It is melted and (e) Leaded Nickel bronze: It contains Sn 4 to
59%, Pb 1.5 to 4%, Zn 2
cast in non-oxidising atmosphere. to 8%, Ni 20-25%, and remaining
(ii) Copper possesses following propertics: It is used for marine castings,copper.
hardware, valve, dairy equipments etc.
(a) Excellent resistance to corrosion.
(b) Non-magnetic properties.
38
|OUNDRY TI:CUNOL0Gy oUNDRY MATWRALS
contains Sn 1% , Pb Jio 3h,Zn 2A t)
(4) Leuded yellow Brass: I1
nay have ).3% Al also.
36,0% nd remaining copper. I and fit -
applicalíon, a, hardware, valves
Lcaded yllow brass finds
lings, ornamenlal castings clc. the
Zn, 35 to 4% Si, ).5%, Ph and
(/) Silicon braNN Contains L.4%
remainder copper.
parts and small years.
IL is usel lor die cast parts, structural5 to J0% Sn, 2 to 5%, Zn
and
(i) Gun metal: Gun metal contaíns
tensile st rcngth and resistanus o
remaining copper. It po55es5eS yood
corrosion. marinc castiny,
Gun metal is usedfor bearings, stcam pipc fittings,
hydraulicvalves and gcars.
Copper Casting Alloys
ompositíon by these ycneral
Copper alloys are groupcd accor diny to brasses, lcaded brass
catcgorics: pure copper, high-copper alloys, alloy5, and
bronzes, luminum bronzes, silion bronzcs, Lopper nickcl
Copper-nickel-zinc alloy, known a) 'nickcl dvers." The
UNS (Unificd
Numbering System for Melals and Allkuys) designations for upper bax
castíng alloys yo from CH00O0 through CM0 In brasc, nC n
Fig 2.%. Cennnfugally cas (10% )bronze
he principal alloying clement, For Cst brasb, thcrc arc Copper/inc im
() Leaded Red hrass: Itcontains, Sn 4 lo 5%, Pb 5 to 6h, Zn 5 to 7% alloys (red, scmircd, and yellow bravses), lcadcd and unlcadcd nanganCM
and remaining copper. bronze alloys (high-slrength ycllow brayse), and oppr/i ilii
I is used for resisting orrosion and finds applications as pipeand alloys.
tube fittings, plumbing goods, hardwarc, small gears, pump impellers cte. Tin is the principal alloyiny clement in cast bronze allkoys, which
consist of Sour families: tin bronzes, lcadcd and hiph-lcaded tin bron/Es,
nickel-in bronzes, and aluminum bronzes.
Table 2, 1 0. Chescal coppossthhs ( ) ofZA alloye
My
husgot(STM
ZA-27 255 2, ) )072
Cutug (ASTM
)075
G975 0,3
ZA21 00120020 0,075 ),006, 0,003
Fie 2.9:; ast )/4) brass (u igt, dark)
 UUNDRY TECHNOLOGy
company introduced WE43, a new magncsium
Vaive casting process called differential casting alloy, and an inno. FOUNDRY MATERIALS
43
The new alloy contains 3.75-4.25%presure sand casting.
yttrium and is said to have cxcel. (i) Onc Zinc base diccasting alloy containing 0.1% Cu,
lent mechanical 3.5-4.3% Al
property retention at tempcratures up to about and remainder zinc, has
(300°C) and desirable corrosion resistance 575°F 1.,Solidification tempcrature of about 720°F.
process is said toconsistently provide characteristics. The casting 2. Shrinkage 5/32 in./ft.(1.3 mm/100mm)
With improved high-integrity, thin-walled castings (iv) Otther Zinc base dic casting alloys are:
properties. For example, tensile strength was reported at
242 MPa with elongation of 10%. No oxide inclusions were detected in SAE Cu' Mg Pb ca' Fe'
samples. 903 0.25 3.5-4.3 0.02-0.0S 0.005 0.004
Sn
0.003 0.1
Zn
Remainder
The tables 2.12 & 2.13 show 0.25 3.5-4.3 0.005-0.02 0.003 0.002
propcrties of castings made by the weight reductions and physical 0.001 0.075 Remainder
Section thicknesses ranged from 2 new process and with the new alloy. + Ni 0.005 - 0.02%
to 50 mm, and all castings showed (AIlPercentages) 'maximum
mprovements in properties, particularly elongation, internal soundness, (v) Zn base die casting alloys find applications as wide variely of
and consistency. The alloy and process hardware items, including automobile hardware e.g. carburettor body,
acrospace and other high technology expected to have applications in radiator grill, door handle, etc.
applications. Zinc has a low melting temperature and is rcadily and econo
Table 2.12. WE3 clevated temperature mechanical
properties mically diecast. In recent years, zinc "foundry alloys" containing
Y'oungs Modulus 0.2% Proof Stress
Tensile Strength
8,12, and 27% Al have been developed and are finding appli
GPa Elongalion cations as gravity-cast sand and permanent mold castings.
MPa MPa %
at 150 C | - Zinc alloys can be cast in thin sections and with good dimensional
47
at 200 C
170-180 240-250 4-8 accuracy. The principal alloys used for diecastings contain low
39
at 250 C
160-180 240-260 8-14 percentages of magnesium, 3.9 to 4.3% Al, and small, controlled
36
at 300 C
1S0-170 210-230 15-20 quantities of impurities such as tin, lead, and cadmium. Copper
36 110-130 150-170 30-50 and nickel are significant alloying additions.
Properties from specimens taken from sand-cast 25 mm 2.9. NICKEL ALLOYS
plate.
Nickel alloys possess high corrosion resistance and strong resistance to
Table 2.13. Casting applications high temperature, creep and oxidation. The two common cast nickel alloys
are:
Conventionally DPSCPoured Finished (i) 70% Ni and 30% Cu alloy which has solidification range of
Poured Weight Weight Reduction
Casting kg
Weight 2500-2400°F and shrinkage of 1/4 inch per foot (2 mm/100 mm).
kg Kg (üi) 30% Cu, 3 to 5% Si and remaining Ni. This alloy has
Cireular Cover 3.72 2.18 41 1.50 solidification range of 2400-2300°F and shrinkage of 1/4 inch per foot
Alternator lHousing 14.01 8.98 39 4.26 (2 mm/100mm).
Triangular Cover 9.07 4.58 S0 1.68 Nickel alloys may be used for gas turbine blades and pump and valve
Rectangular Cover 2.09 1.41 33 componentsfor chemical plants.
1.09
Gearbox Housing 18.15 8.89 S1 4.76
2.10. TITANIUM CASTINGS
2.8. ZINC ALLOYS Applications for titanium castings are broadening. Titanium is particularly
suitable for withstanding corrosive environments or applications that need
(i) The most oltenly uscd process for casting zinc alloys is DIE its light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, and non-magnetic proper
CASTING ties. Long applied in military aircralt, titanium alloys are now solving
a Zincdiecastings range Irom a few gms to 20 kgs. problems in nonmilitary equipment. Titanium castings are being used in
 FoUNDRY THCIINOLDGY
44 roUNDRY MAIERIALS 4
marinc and
chemical
cquipment
in hardware for
surgical implants and 45) (MP)
and valve bodics. and graphite-mold
14. Tin
such as compressors produced by investment 335) (MP)
Titanium castings are titanium in the 15. Chromium
rcactive naturc of 4750 (MP)
Becausc of the highly vacuum furnacc.
16. Molybdcnum
casting mcthods. be donc ín a 621 (MP)
oxygen, casting must
17. Lcad
prescnce of
18. Silver 1761 (MP)
2.11. SUPERALIOYS
gencrally uscd at 19. Antimony 1167 (MP)
and cobalt-basc alloys
Superalloys arc nickcl, iron nickcl (1,000°F). Iron, cobalt, and nickel are 20. Arscníc 147 (MP)
54rC S20 (MP)
temperal ures above about in thc periodic 21, Bismuth
consccutivc positions (Fe, Co, Ni) 3326 (MP)
transition mctals with 22. Zirconium
found in the carth's crust.
tablc of the clemcnts and arc of slainless stccl 23. Thorium 3348 (MP)
arc an cxtension
The iron-nickcl-base supcralloys whercas cobalt-base and nickel METALS
tcchnology and gencrally arc wrought, 2.13. FUELS FOR MELTING
basc superalloys can be wrought or cast. normally are processcd as 1. Coal
The morc highly alloycd compositions welding or brazing, but
castings. Fabricatcd strudures can be built up by Characteristics
amount of hardening
many highly alloyed compositions containing a high adjustments in
(i) Bituminous coal of long lame typc.
phasc arc ifficult to weld. Properties can be controlled by (ii) Powcred, anthracite lump or in the form
of briquettes.
Composition and by prOCessing including heat treatment. Metal to be Melted: Cast Iron
Funuce Used: Cupola, Air furnance and Rotary furnace
2.12. MELTING POINTS OF VARIOUS CASTING ALLOYS AND (pulverizcd cual).
THE ALLOYING ELEMENTS
2. Coke
M.P/Solidification Range "F Characteristics
corcs.
1. Gray cast iron 2400-2000 (i) Inferior type is uscd for healing moulds and Blast furnaces and
uscd in
2. Mallcable cast iron : 2550-2065 (ii) Hardcoke which is a superior brand is
3. Dudile cast iron : 2050-2150 Cupolas. It should contain less than 1% S, and
less than 10% of ash.
moisture). It should have
4. Whitc cast iro 2550-206,5 Coke should be dry (with less than 0.2%
5. Plain carbon stecls : LowC 2730-2615, Med. C 2695-2590 above 90% fixcd carbon.
transportation
High C 260-2160 It should not shatter owing to rough handling during cupola charge
6. Low alloy steels 273)-228)
or while it is burning in a cupola under a lot of weight
of
Copper 1980 (MP) (i.e, pig iron, luxes etc.).
7. Copper &alloys Brass should havc size less than
1750-1825 Not more than 5% of the hard coke
Bronze 1700-1900 50 mm.
B. Aluminium & alloys Aluminium 1215 (MP) Metallurgical coke is coke produccd from coals,
and carbon raisers
Al, alloys Y0-125S unwanted portion
usually are derived from the fines (coke brecse)-the
9, Magncsium alloys Maynesium 1200-1206 (MP)
of lump coke. Ash contents can be high,
and purity often is low. A heat
10. Nickel
My alloys 860-1200
treated type of anthracite (clectrically calcincd)
has been produced as a
247(MP)
11, Zinc 787 (MP) carbon raiser, but is not widely used.
Employed
12, Silicon 26M)5 (MP) Metals to be melted and the Fumaces to be
13. Mangancse 2273 (MP) (i) Hard coke is used for melting cast Iron in Cupola. in cruciblc
metals
(ii) Hard coke is used for melting non-ferrous
furnaces.
 47
46 FOUNDRY TLIINOLOGY sOUNDRY MATLRIALS
3. Gas depend
or sink,
ctC., which may float
on the surlace of molten aluminium
(i) Coal gas is uscd for mclting non-ferrous melals in crucibl. ing upon thcir spccific gravity. dross.
furnaces. Fluxcs scparatc molten mctal and
Besides gascous fluxCS, solid fluxes
of some compositions of chlo
(ii) Raw producer gas is uscd for mclting stecl in opcn hearth also cmployed to separate metal
and
furnace. rides of aluminium and zinc arc
comparcd to gaseous ones.
dross. Solid fMuxes arc casy to usc as Mg0,
4. Oil Magnesium alloys consist of KCI,
(iv) Flux uscd for mclting
(i) Oil is used for melting non-ferrous metals in crucible furnaces. MgCl,, CaF, BaCl, and MnC,. prevent the burning of magnesium
(i) 0il is uscd for melting iron, stccl in open hcarth furnace. Besides other functions, fluxcs molten
be bubhbled slowly through thc
(ii) 0il is used in Rotary furnaces. alloys. Nitrogcn (zascous flux) may
magnesium for removing hydrogen. the
5. Electricity practice, charcoal is used to prevent
(v) Incopper-alloy foundry and some commercially available
fluxcs
(i) It is cxpensive as compared to other fucls. molten mctal from bcing oxidized,
i.e., to separate it from dross.
(ii) The usc of clectricity keeps furnace neat and clean. may be cmploycd to clcanse the metal
(ii) Elcctric furnaces normaly can operalc up to 1700°C. 2.15. REFRACTORIES
(1) Elccaric-Induction type furnaces can melt almost all foundry Introduction
materials.
metals.
(i) Relractorics arc heat resistant
(v) Elcdric-Resistance heating furnaces are used for melting non temperatures without being fused.
(ii) They can withstand high bottoms containing molten
ferrous mctals. (iii) Crucibles and furnacc sides and
(ui) Elcctric-Dircct Arc furnaces opcrating upon one, two or three melal are made up of relractorics.
pouring metal into the mould.
phascs are uscd for mclting cast Iron and stecl. (iv) Refractories areused as ladles forwalls and roof and thus mini
(vii) Elcctric-Indircct Arc furnaces are cmploycd for melting cast (v) Relractories Constitute furnace
Iron and non-ferrous foundry mctals and thcir alloys. mize heat losses.
refractorics arc Mg0, SiO,
(vi) The main constitucnts of foundry
2.14. FOUNDRY FLUXES Al,0, and their mixtures.
magncsia and rirconia.
Definition and Concept (vii) The ncwer relractory materials are
(i) A Slux is a low mclting point material. Properties
abrasion resistant.
(ú) When hcatcd up, it mclts and combines with ash, viscous
slags, (i) Refractories should be hcat, corrosion and
sand, mctallic oxides clc, and makes a fluid and easy flowing slag. molten (ii) They should possess high fusion temperaturcs. expansion.
(ii) This slag being lighter comes on to the surfacc of
the (iii) They should possess low thermal coefficient of molten mctal
mctal from wherc it can be casily skimmcd, tapped or
removed before (iv) They should not have chemícal affinity with the
they hold.
pouring thc mctal into the mould. and
(iv) Slag protccts nolten metal from furnacc atmosphere. (") They should be able to withstand high temperatures
pressures (duc to the weight of the molten charge).
Types of Fluxes (vi) They should possess heat and clectric insulating propcrtics.
(i) Limcstone is uscd as flux in Cupola when melting cast Iron. Classification
in cupola
(ii) Sodium carbonate when uscd with limestonc as a flux Reíractories may be grouped into following three categories.
cast Iron.
gives rise to a slag which can rcmove sulphur Irom 1. Acid Rcfractories.
gascous fluXeS in
(iii) Nitrogen, Hclium and Chlorinc arc used as the entrapped 2. Basic Refractories.
aluminium foundry for removing dissolvcd hydrogen and 3. Neutral Refractories.
silicon, copper
dross. Dro5s Consis!s ofoxides of aluminium, magnesium,
 49
FOUNDRY MATERIALS
4 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
1.Acid Refractories. Thcy arc
Approx. fusion
6 2 m m
Type 2 2 5 m m
Temperature ("C)
(i) Silica 1700 112mm
(in) Aluminium silica (46% Al,O, + 54% SiO) 1780
(ii) Alumina (Al,0,) 2050
(iv) Silimanite (63% Al,0, + 37% Si0,) 1900
2. Busic Refructories. They arc
(i) Magncsia 2800°C
Bauxitc and dolomitc are also basic refractories. Key
Straight
Neutral Refractories
(i) Chromite 2180°C
(ii) Graphitc 3000°C
Refractory Materials
() Refractories arc obtaincd from ores of Silica or those of Silica
and Alumina.
(ii) After mining or chemical production and calcining, refractory
materials arc crushed, ground and prepared to size. They are then mixed
with other materials and shaped as bricks (Fig. 2.10). Bricks are used for Wedge Side skew Arch
lining-melting and other furnaces. Bricks of acid, basic and neutral rcfrac
tories and of different shapes are available for furnace construction.
(iii) Brícks during construction work are bonded and cushioned with
the help of amortar consisting of chrome,. silicon carbide, silica and
alumina. Mortar may be specified by the brick manufacturer.
(iv) Brick work may bccoated with thin mortar for further protecting
the sarme during furnace operation.
Tables 2.14 and 2.15 give the Compositions of refractory bricks, End skew Soap Circle
Table 2.16 cxplaíns theirproperties and Table 2.17 gives the applications of
different reíractorics.
Tabse 2.14. Compositions of silica and basic bricks
Silica Alumina Lime Magnesia Iron Chromíc Other
Type of
Brick Gxide oxide oxides
(Si02) (AJ0) (Ca0) (Mgo) (FezO) (Cr03)
0.2-1.2 1235 0.30.9
1 Silica 0.05-03
2 Basic 15-33 14-19
Jamb
i) Chrome 11-17 45 1-2
(u) Magcsite 34 04-21) 1-5 0549 0.5-10
(u) Forsterte 33-39 47-55 9-11 34
Fig 2.10. A few standard shapes of refractory bricks
 50
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
Table 2IS Compositions of fireclays and high alumina FOUNDRY MATERIALS 51
bricks
Iype of Brick Siica Alumina Titania Other Table 2 16 lcomtdL
(SO) (A-0:) (TiO:) Gxides 3 Iron oode. f absoted. causEs dameging
(A) Fireclas crpanson
i) Super duty 49-53
4. Chrome bricks possess thermal onductvity
40 44 20-25 34 loner than that of magnesite brick but higher
(E) SemiShca 72-80 18-24 1-15 15-25 than that of fireclay brick
(m) Medium duty S7-70 25-36 13-2.1 Etremey high refractoriness and hig thermal
4-7 (i) Magresite Fired 1.
() Lo duty 670 21-32 1-20 conductvity.
B) High AJumina 2 Poor resistance to slags containing high per
(i) 6 Aluminz -chemicalky bonded meta! centage of Silica
31-37 57.5625 2-3.3 34 3 Great resistance to corrosion by basác slags
encased.
11-15 775-82 S 34 34 4. Chemicaly bonded and metal encased bricks have
(iut) Alumina
89-91 O4 08 1-2 marked resistance to spaling
() Aluminz 05-10 1. Ecelent to good resistance to spalling
Trace 6 (vii) Chrome Fired magnesite
Chemically 2. High resistance to corrosion by basic slags.
bonded 3. Mechanical strength and stability of votume at
Table 216. Properties of refractory bricks high temperatures.
(vii) Forsterite Fred 1 Ecellent strengrh at high temperature.
Type Class
Properties 2. High refractoriness.
3. Attacked by acid slag
(i) Hig SI Aumínz 1. Hign refractoriness-increasing with Alumina 4. Fair resistance to m0st basic slags
Aluminz to Ye Alumin Content. 5. Marked resistance to cOrTOSIOn by alkalh
2. High mechanical strength at hígh temperatures. compounds.
3. Excellent to fair resistance to spallíng
4. Greater resistance to corrosion than fireclay
brícks. Table 2.17. Applications of different refraciories
(ü) Fireciay Low. medium and 1. Goodspailing resistance and thermal ínsulation
high duty value. Type of Refractory Name of the furnace used for mnetíng
2. Fair resistance to fluzes and acid slags. ferrous melalsalloys.
3. Lwer resistance to basíc slagsand fluxes.
(i) Fire Brick 1 Bottom of Induction furnace.
(ii) Firerley Semi-Slica 1. Rigidity under load at hígh temperatures. 2. Sub-hearth of O.H. fumace.
2. Resistance to structural spallíng. 3. Doors of O.H furnace.
3. Volume stabílity.
4. Spout of 0.H furnace
4. Resistance to penetration and attack by volatile
5. Spout of Direct arc furnace (acid).
alkalies or fumes. (ü) Silica Brick 1. Side walls and roof of direct arc furnace.
(i) Silica Superduty 1. High refractoriness and resistance to abrasion. 2. Roof of O.H. furnace.
Comventíona! 2. High mechanical strength at high (iii) Magnesite chrome brick
3. Greater thermal temperatures. 1 Meiting zone of basic Cupola.
conductívity as compared to that 2. Direct arc furmace roof (for Ni and Cu melting)
of high duty fireclay brick, at high (iv) Dolomite 1. Backing of O.H. furmace.
4. High resistance tocorrosion by temperatures. 2. Side walls of direct arc furmace (basic).
acid slags.
5. Pair resistance to attack by oxídes of (') Chrome magnesite brick 1. Side walls of direct arc furnace (basic).
lime,
rnagnesia and iron. 2. Side walls ofO.H. furnance.
6. Readily attaczed by basic slags and fluorinc. 3. Blocks and Ends of O.H. furnace.
7. Poor resistance to (vi) High Alumina fireclay 1. Ladle refractories-as lining nozle, stopper etc.
spalling at
1. High resistance to corrosion low lemperatures.
(1) Chrome Fired by basic and (rii) Magnesite 1. Hearth and side walls of direct are furnaces for
moderately acid slags and fluxes. melting nickel and copper.
2. Basic slays do not adhere to 2. Sub-hearth of direct arc furnace for melting steel
Chrome bricks.
(basic).
(connd.)